Chapter 11: Social Development

Daniel Deleon Emtanis Shoukry Karina Padron Samantha Cardet

The Path to Attachment

The Path To Attachment

Earliest steps of social development form with first human bond (infants and primary caregiver)
Lays foundations for all later relationships.

Face-to-Face Interaction
First half year of life:
Mostly one-on-one contact with an adult
Face-to-face play. Being held. Being carried.

Infants like looking at faces, have a built in predisposition to look.

Prefer moving faces. Imitate faces.

Social Partners
Around 3-4 months of age, infants begin to understand some facts about emotional expression.
Responding more positively when their mothers facial expression matches the tone of the voice.

Learn that caretakers are a source of relief.

By 6 months, start to calm down as soon as they hear footsteps of an adult.

Social Contact
Infants are interested in other people. Social contact is not just watching from either side. Infant enjoys give-and-take Develops expectations.
Receiving help in times of need.

Locomotion
Now a mobile baby, it is almost guaranteed that it will end up in a dangerous or inappropriate situation.
Ex: In a construction area.

Caretaker needs to stop this, parental prohibitions are more common.

Use of the word NO.

Social Referencing
As babies wander into different situations, they start to rely on social partners for guidance about their responses. Social Referencing: Relying on the facial expression of their caregiver as a source of information. Reveals childs ability to establish intersubjectivity. Intersubjectivity: Mutual understanding that people share during communication.

Attachment

Attachment
In very early age (6-8 months old) children learn how to behave/ about the social world. They simultaneously begin to form social attachments (a strong enduring emotional bond).
They also begin to show separation anxiety (becoming very upset when caregiver leaves room)

Contact comfort
Attachment stems from psychological comfort (NOT from necessary comfort.)
In Harlows experiment with Rhesus monkey infants the infants more often cling to a terry cloth figure than a wired one that yielded milk.

Bowlbys Theory of Attachment

Developed theory that comfort was keen for attachment because the adult provides a secure base (a place the child feels protected)
This allows them to explore because if things get bad they have a place to run home to).

These theories derived from the theory of imprinting (that a specimen will follow and seek whatever it first develops from).
The difference is that humans do not form this immediate attachment to the first thing they see (unlike with ducks)

All species do form an attachment to a caregiver for nourishment, but primarily comfort.

The Differences Among Children

Differences in Temperament
Babies behave differently from each other of course.
Differences in activity levels in the uterus and after birth.

Different categories such as:

Easy babies. Difficult babies. Slow to warm up babies.

Temperament Cont.
A different organization scheme is
How active the baby is. If the baby is cheerful or not. If the baby seems to have good control over itself.

Influenced heavily by genetics.

Differences in Experience
Draw from their interactions with others beliefs and expectations. Depends on temperament, how the child behaves with others. Depends also on adults behavior towards the infant, which depends on the infants temperament.

Caregivers
Caregivers differ from each other
How attentive they are. How anxious. How responsive to infant.

Differences in Attachment
To assess attachment, the Strange Situation is used. Securely Attached- Will explore, play with toys, make gestures towards the stranger; all with mother present. When she leaves, they show distress, and greet her with enthusiasm as she returns.

Strange Situation
Anxious/Resistant- Do not explore (even with mother there), get upset when she leaves. When she comes back, they cry and run to her to be picked up, but struggle to get back down. Anxious/Avoidant- Distant when mother is present, sometimes search when absent, ignore her when she returns.

Strange Situation (cont.)

Disorganized- Dont show any organized way for dealing with the stress they experience. Sometimes confused, show inconsistent behavior.
Crying loudly trying to get into mothers lap Distressed by mothers absence, but move away when returns.

Stability of Attachment
Is the Strange Situation test accurate, and measuring what its supposed to? This brings the question of whether the child is tested on another occasion if the results would be the same. Depends on childs life circumstances.

Attachment and Later Adjustment

Childs attachment status shapes social world for them. This idea comes from the idea of a secure base. Also, the attachment relationship provides the child with an internal working model of the social world.

Is all this true?

Many studies say yes, its true.
Children who are securely attached at age 1 tend to show more positive, fewer negative, emotions. Other kids like them better than those who are insecurely attached. Better understanding, show more compassion, less aggression (securely attached) More likely to be leaders at age 3 if secure at 15 months.

Many advantages of being secure.

Attachment to the Father

Childs initial attachment to the mother, they spend a majority of time with them too. Using the Strange Situation study, similar data is collected with both parents, confirming infants develop strong attachments to both. Both can provide secure base.

Differences
Fathers more likely to play with children, more physical and rough. Mothers are more gentle, reading, hugging, etc. Children respond to this
Go to mother for care, father for active play.

Culture and biology relevant to this.

Early Maternal Separation and Child Care

Many kids grow up with both parents working, ending up staying long hours with babysitters, neighbors, etc. This does not harm children in anyway, and high quality childcare seems to enhance social responsiveness. Depends on high/low quality care.

Extent of Effect
Even with low quality care, main predictor is quality of home life. Can cause problems, but much less if mother responds to needs of child.

Disrupted Attachment: Domestic Conflict and Divorce

Children whose parents have divorced are:
At greater risk of depression. Low self-esteem. Less competent socially.

Adolescents whose parents have divorced are:

More likely to drop out of school. More likely to have unwanted early pregnancies.

The Good Part

Most children do not experience these effects. Divorced parents increase the risk of these effects, but the risk is still small. Outcome is worse if children are younger at the time of divorce. Secure children deal with it better.

No Attachment At All
Children need more than just food and shelter, they need social contact. Experiment on monkeys done, results were devastating.

Bad Treatment
Modern standards of this animal treatment is prohibited, but kids dont have the same protection. Humans are a resilient species, and children may recover from horrific events without symptoms, but may not recover from simply social isolation.

Culture, Biology, and Attachment

Do these results (everything mentioned was specified to the U.S/Europe) apply to all cultures? The Strange Situation test has different results in different cultures. Separation is routine for some infants, but a shock for some others.

Culture, Biology, and Attachment Cont.

Researchers disagree about interpretation of data.
Process leading to attachment is same in all cultures. Nature of attachment varies from one culture to next.

Parenting

Parenting
Children learn from relationship w/ caregivers
What a relationship involves How to interpret actions/feelings

Caregivers seek to encourage certain beliefs/behaviors and discourage others.

Looking at WHAT they teach and HOW they achieve this teaching

Socialization
Socialization: the process through which someone learns how to be a member of a social group
Ways of acting with different people Ways of interpreting social world Certain beliefs (religious/political views)

For child: major agents of socialization are the parents

Source of direct instruction, administer rewards and punishment, and teach via example

Socialization (cont.)
No matter if African bushman or urban American: child must learn to
Control bodily functions Live w/ others whose desires take precedence

Social/Economic factors = diff. in how boys and girls are raised

Girls should be nurturing and docile, prepared to be homemakers and mothers Boys encouraged to be assertive and ambitious, preparation for role as wageearners

Socialization (cont.)
Both culture and individual benefit is each person is prepared for future roles
Cautious hunter/risk-taking farmer?

On the other hand, such patterns harmful if they limit a persons options
Forcing people into specific life path/keeping certain social groups in their place

BALANCE is the challenge for parents

Prepare, but dont limit

Parenting Styles
Parents differ in what they teach their children, and how.
Some parents are strict, anxious, explanatory, assertive of authority

Parenting styles can be largely described in two dimensions

How accepting they are to children How responsive to their needs/actions

Parenting Styles (cont.)

Parenting thus divided into four broad types:
Authoritarian: many rules and demands, few explanations and little sensitivity to childs perspective Permissive: Few rules and demands, children are allowed much freedom by indulgent parents Authoritative: reasonable demands, consistently enforced, with sensitivity to/acceptance of the child Uninvolved: few rules and demands, parents are uninvolved and inattentive/insensitive to childs needs

Parenting Styles (cont.)

Do these styles make a difference?
Children of authoritative parents: more cheerful, responsive, and cooperative w/ adults and peers
Adolescents more confident/socially skilled Associated w/ better grades/SAT scores, and social adjustment

It is possible for good parenting to produce sullen, defiant children Also possible for sullen and defiant children to produce authoritarian parenting as a remedy

Parenting Styles (cont.)

Parents of independent/responsible children likely to develop peer-like, reciprocal relations early-on w/ children Powerful advantages toward authoritative parenting, but cause and effect relationships ambiguous
Success of child in life does not entirely depend upon style of parenting

The Childs Effect on the Parents

The question: why parents choose one style over another
Partially bc. of cultural setting (gives parents ideas of how children are supposed to be raised) Partially bc. of social/economic status
Stresses on parents may lead to one extreme or the other

The Childs Effect on the Parents (cont.)

Characteristics of child also very crucial
Disobedient/aggressive children make reasoning difficult Stubborn/impulsive children call for more coersion

Diff. among children remind that children shape parents too

The Childs Effect on the Parents (cont.)

Some children mature faster than others, will be treated differently Children who understand and respect logical reasoning treated differently from children who do not Parenting strategy is not a simple choice represents joint product of many variables inside the home and out.

Peer Relationships

Peer Relationships
Research shows that peer relationships are more influential than parents Peer relations shape the child in crucial ways especially through friendship

Social circles broaden as child develops

Friendships
By age 2 children seek out certain children and avoid others
More likely to imitate and cooperate with friends that w/ nonfriends More positive emotions shown when w/ friends than with others

Friendships
Relationships and perspectives on friendship change over time
Around age 6 or 7: Friendships based on what they can gain This gradually changes to relationships based on mutual liking, closeness, and loyalty.
Friends then seek to take care of one another, help each other, and share feelings

Friendships (cont.)
Friendship is important to child development
Friends provide
Support Positive Experiences Information Opportunities for social development (conflict resolution, etc.)

Friendships (cont.)
Friends provide models for behavior
Children learn how to act and in turn observe consequences for those actions Children tend to imitate friend out of a want to be accepted this tugs the child toward conformity

Friendships (cont.)
Friendships also provide an insight to minds of others
Teach empathy Teach child to interpret thoughts and emotions of others
Friends discuss thoughts and feelings more intimately than nonfriends
Important source of insight

The Effects of Friendship

Having friends is essentially GOOD.
Social success = lower risk for mental illness, leads to greater self-worth, etc. Adapt to changes better, lower risk for depression

Sociometric Data: Data that describe group interactions

The Effects of Friendship (cont.)

Children that are rejected by peers are lonelier
At greater risk for developing antisocial behaviors and adjustment difficulties

The Effects of Friendship (cont.)

Why are some children more popular than others?
Has to do with attachment status, parenting styles, temperament, facial/body appearance, maturation rate
Secure, attractive children w/ authoritative parents more likely to be out-going and popular Inhibited, unattractive, withdrawn children likely to be rejected/unpopular Boys who mature early = popular, opposite is true for girls

The Effects of Friendship (cont.)

Social status IS important! Rejected children likely to have more social-development issues in long-term
Aggressive rejected children: hostile/uncooperative likely to become chronically hostile in adolescence/adulthood Withdrawn-rejected children: anxious and likely to be depressed

The Effects of Friendship (cont.)

Peers can influence friends in less positive ways
Aggressive/disruptive friends can teach a child to behave as such Adolescents often led into bad habits by peers
i.e. substance abuse, alcoholism, etc.

THE POINT IS:

Peers contribute powerfully to child developmental processes
Hallmark of adolescence: shift away from family toward peer-dependent social existence Peers being not only the individuals an adolescent identifies as friends also clique and broader group child is identified with

Emotional Development

Emotional Development
How children learn about emotions including
How to express emotions How to deal with them

Understanding Others Feelings

Infants display emotions through crying and facial expressions
Interest, distress, disgust, contentment Other emotions appear later

1 month: smiles 2-3 months: smiles directed toward people 6-7 months: fear emerges

Understanding Others Feelings (cont.)

Children must be able to not only feel/display emotions also interpret and understand others emotions
Understand why people are acting the way they are

By 1 year, infants are beginning emotional communication

Notice incongruency btwn. mothers expression/tone of voice they see how emotions are expressed

Understanding Others Feelings (cont.)

Experiment on child use of emotional information
Toddlers offer experimenters preferred food rather than their own
Shows use of emotional expressions as info, and using it to guide actions

Understanding Others Feelings (cont.)

Emotion greatly linked to acquisition of language
Ability to talk about feelings Helps children to understand cause/consequence of emotion More w/ daughters than sons Helps children to understand what events can trigger emotion, and how the same events can trigger diff. emotions in other people.

Understanding Others Feelings (cont.)

Understanding of emotion in child contributes to developing theory of mind and understanding that includes specification of feelings and beliefs, and their link to actions
False Belief Test More likely to pass if mothers continually ask children to reflect on others feelings

Children who talk about emotions w/ parents = richer/more accurate understanding of others feelings.

Emotion Regulation
Children must learn to handle emotions
How/when to express/control them

Expression of emotion governed by display rules specific to each culture

Americans: expressive, Japanese: withdrawn, British: taught to keep a stiff upper lip/not reveal distress

Emotion Regulation (cont.)

Children begin to express emotions in a socially acceptable way at an early age
American infants more expressive than Chinese, etc. Limited self-control clear adherence to display rules not evident until 3 years old or so Learn early the value of managing ones expressions
Whether to protect, gain a desired response, or to deceive

Emotion Regulation (cont.)

Early capacity for emotion regulation ability to control, diminish, or change feelings
6-month-old likely to turn from unpleasant stimuli 4-5 years: understand to diminish fear by fleeing from/removing scary object; diminish sadness w/ adults aid or reassuring talks

Emotion Regulation (cont.)

Conversational experiences important in these abilities
Largely based on examples and instructions they have received Convey a range of strategies and motives
Distraction Compensation Reinterpretation

Clear assertions: when emotions should/should not be expressed; consequences of doing so

Emotion Regulation (cont.)

Emotional development depends on complex mix of elements
Child must:
Gain new knowledge (strategies for emotion regulation) Gain new skills (reading people, etc.) Socialize (learning through instruction/modeling)

Pattern of experience
Tells child which expressions get the desired result/which do not

Biological maturation
Helps child form independent emotional responses

Moral Development

Moral Development
Morality: The sense of right and wrong Moral Judgment
Kohlberg: Through examining children put together the 6 stages of moral reasoning
Pre Conventional Reasoning Conventional Morality Post Conventional Morality

Testing Method
The man with the dying wife and the miracle drug (Story+Question)

Stages of Moral Reasoning

Pre Conventional Reasoning
Level 1:Avoiding punishment Level 2:Receiving corresponding rewards
If you let your wife die youll get in trouble

Conventional Reasoning
Level 3:Looks for approval and avoids disapproval Level 4:Subject defined by codes of Law and Order
If you let your wife die your family will think youre bad.

Stages of Moral Reasoning (Cont.)

Post Conventional Reasoning
Level 5:Is defined by a social contract generally agreed upon for the public good Level 6:Is determined by abstract ethical principles that determine ones own moral code
Its wrong to let someone die

Sources of Moral Reasoning

Carol Gilligan posited gender specific sources for morality
Masculine: Morality comes from the concept of justice
The abstract thought that people must be treated equally

Feminine: Morality comes from compassion

Human relationships and the special responsibilities to those one has intimate connections with

Cultural Differences in Morality

A less developed culture will score lower on the Kohlberg scale
NOT because technology grants god like morality It is more likely said cultures live in communities
In a place where all know each other and have for decades, levels 3 and 4 will be very prominent

Learning to be Moral
Conscience: The desire to act in a moral manner, and a feeling of guilt when one does not act morally. Reward and Punishment
Loss of privileges Looks of disapproval Corporeal punishment

Learning to be Moral (cont.)

Child learns to be moral by imitating parent behavior
Seeks to avoid disapproval Copies parents behaviors to gain approval and strengthen connection

Conscience and morality rely on relationship with parent

Other Sources of Moral Learning

Patterns around the child teach how things usually are
This is what a birthday party looks like and SHOULD look like

Conversations with parents where rules are pronounced Conversations about feelings
Help develop empathy and a conscience

Prosocial Behaviors and Empathy

Prosocial Behavior: Behavior that seeks to help and comfort others Two sources (one) of behavior:
Self Interest: Gains approval of elders from prosocial behavior and strengthens peer relations Empathy: Drives one to help others through goodwill
Babies crying for each other but not for loud noise

Prosocial Behaviors and Empathy (cont.)

Strength of empathy and prosocial behavior connected
A more empathic child is more likely to help another Does not mean they will be able to Empathy can only help solve a problem once child has developed ability to determine cause of distress and other POV

Prosocial Behaviors and Empathy (cont.)

e.g. Mother is hurt, child is distressed at mothers pain, brings teddy bear to comfort her

Prerequisites to aid others meaningfully

Empathy and understanding why (POVs) How to help

Empathy is why children engage in prosocial behavior and do not go on anti moral sprees

Individual Differences in Prosocial Behavior

Children predisposed toward positive emotion more likely to experience empathy As are children who experience emotion but do not become overwhelmed The above often experience empathy and are prosocial

Individual Differences in Prosocial Behavior (cont.)

Environment also influences ability to empathize and occurrence of prosocial behavior
Children tend to imitate adults around them Esp. if they have a strong positive relationship

Supportive parents foster prosocial behavior Many factors to prosocial behaviors and empathy

Sexual Development

Sexual Development
When we learn differentiation we begin to learn about our own sex.
When it comes to sex there are 5 main factors that shape our sexual development
Genetic Sex: Chromosomes, XX [girl] ; XY [boy] Morphological Sex: what genitalia we posses. Gender Roles: the type of behavior deemed appropriate for each sex. Gender Identity: inner sense that tells us male or female. Sexual Orientation: inclination toward which sexual partner (heterosexual/ homosexual, etc.)

Gender Roles
From birth society pushes each sex in different directions, by parents and expectations [women should act feminine, men should act masculine].
As babys and children, adults and their peers reflect these attitudes onto us with treatment and toys.
Girls are allowed more leeway (can be tomboy) while boys are condemned for feminine behavior.

Sources of Gender Roles and Differences

What is expected of boys and girls differs from culture to culture. Biology (anatomical and physiological) effect us too. (For instance girls mature faster.
An exception or difference is androgenized females. They posses male hormones from a condition known as CAH, which gives them external genitals and male tendencies.

Gender Differences and Ability

Two things: These are average differences (cannot be used to characterize the individual) and the differences are minor. Overall neither sex is more intelligent than the other.
Men for instance do better in math (in certain fields) supposedly from biological roots. Testosterone aids math abilities in special reasoning (supporting the biological claims).
This is reinforced through social expectations (stereotypes) [Math: Men better, women worse]

Women better in some fields and visa versa. Little biological support on either front.

Gender Identity
At three, children can differentiate sexes, but not till five are they able to maintain gender constancy (being female or male is irrevocable. At this point they are to do what is expected of them and their sexes, however there can be problems.
Women with androgen can wish to be male. Boys with cloacal exstrophy whos genitals are abnormal, can be raised as girls. boys trapped

Sexual Orientation
Heterosexual/ homosexual/ bisexual. The majority of the population says to be heterosexual, however its not rare to be another sexual orientation. Around the world homosexuality is condemned both socially and lawfully. Still homosexuality persists. However homosexuality, by 2/3s of the world is considered acceptable. In historical periods (like Greece) was considered a

Origins of Homosexuality
The Question: Why people become sexual beings of any sort. Sexual experimentation (masturbation) begins as children, but sexual attraction begins at the age of ten or so. Puberty blossoms sexuality with hormones that produce sexual feelings (this does not direct to one certain sex though).
Studies show that testosterone injected into gay men just amped up erotic desires but did not

Homosexuality (cont.)
Genetic similarities between gay and not gay individuals increases their likelihood to be one orientation (identical twins with gay siblings are more likely to be gay [chance drops with fraternal twins]) Prenatal hormones effect genetic make-up for instance androgen.
Those women with excess amounts tended to be lesbian or bisexual.

Homosexuality (cont.)
Some anatomical and physiological differences that connect to homosexuality.
Gay connections: Left handed, and hypothalamus size the same as heterosexual women.

NOTE these are correlational, so genetics are not the only influence so they can be cause or effect of homosexuality. There have been theories, like upbringing of fathers, but all have proven to be plainly wrong.
What is known is that sexual attraction begins at youth. Ive been this way all my life

To Summarize
In sum: there is not a clear explanation of what provides for the basis of sexual orientation. Genes have some influence but that is not it. IMPORTANT REMINDER: certain sexual orientation is in NO WAY a defect. We are all the same no matter what orientation.

Development After Childhood

Development After Childhood

Development continues after childhood
We do not stop learning at some arbitrary point

Problems faced by middle aged people different than youth and young adults Main study of this idea heavily influenced by Erik Erikson

Erik Eriksons Eight Stages of Man

See handout Gives a clear developmental track Posits that as one grows there are 8 clear psychological crises one must confront and overcome Laid the foundation for adult development

Adolescence
Adolescence: Period of transition between childhood and adulthood Period of great distress (Usually unremarkable)
Break away from parental control Seek to make own choices about lifestyle Shift focus from the familial world to peers

Conflict with adult world

Seeks to continue control

Adolescence (cont.)
Reckless behavior most likely at this stage
Pregnancy, reckless driving, drug use, etc.

Such behavior has a number of causes

Danger not taken seriously Sensation Seeking: Motivated to find new and exciting experiences despite danger associated Brain not fully developed to understand danger and control impulses

Adolescence (cont.)
Identity Crisis: In Eriksons Eight Stages of Man this is the cause for the reckless behavior
The adolescent will try on many roles to discover which fits best, i.e. who they are The adolescent will try and distinguish themselves from their parents

Adolescence (cont.)
Behavior is also influenced by peers
The desire to be accepted grows Group identity

Peers do not necessarily propagate bad behaviors

Peers more likely to discourage bad behaviors Seek to be different from previous gen.
Fads

Adulthood
Start of adulthood not clearly marked
Liberties given in intervals

Adults develop when facing new problems

Love, marriage, children, elders, death

Midlife Transition (Midlife Crisis)

Individuals reevaluate life and their choices Note physical signs that youth has left them
How long have I lived?How long do I have left?

Adulthood (cont.)
Challenges facing adults vary by society
Constants are gaining privileges, mating, growing old, and dying Everything in between can easily change
Elderly in U.S. now compared to a century ago

Ways to cope with difficulty changes from person to person