DR Krein 2006

Digital Control Generations -- digital controls for power electronics through the third generation
P. T. Krein Distinguished Lecturer, IEEE Power Electronics Society

Director, Grainger Center for Electric Machinery and Electromechanics Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA
2005, 2006 Philip T. Krein. All rights reserved.
The generations
First-generation digital control: outside the loop Second-generation: inside the loop
Third-generation: the digital switch

Grainger Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Define and discuss these generations.

My definitions. Perhaps useful for you. This talk does not address intellectual property. Some ideas are new, some are in production, some have been patented. Digital control in power electronics is old and commonplace. Vendor question: How can I add value, and does digital control give me a way to do it? Broader question: How can I deliver a valuable end product that is innovative and imaginative?
But power is analog

Power electronics: large-signal nonlinear circuits with an analog function. We are not free to come up with arbitrary digital representations of energy. A contrast with communications. No matter how much digital is in place, it is managing an analog operation.
Grainger Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
First gen digital is not obsolete!

The three generations represent a time evolution, but new generations do not render older ones obsolete. As new generations arrive, costs drop for older ones.
www.ifcadvisory.com
Many maybe most conversion applications are well-served by 1st gen controls.
First-generation digital control: outside the loop Typical: Use a digital process to manage a power electronic process. Communication, programming, and protection are typical. Very active development. Much discussion of various communication protocols. Basis of many present and new mixed-mode chips.
Outside the loop. Why? Examples?

Two crucial advantages:
Managing event-driven action Numerical settings
Real-time performance demands are avoided in digital part of the system. More advantages
Communications interfaces Memory for permanent programming Add feature sets as blocks Product families from a single base design
Event-driven examples
Mode switching
Sleep modes for low power Switch between control modes
Fault reaction
Comparators can override system operation when a fault occurs
Access to internal logic

Undervoltage lockouts Gate signal blanking
Signaling from the load

Some special 1st gen ideas

Variable-gain tuning. Set gains that depend on actual line or load. Other automated tuning: tune to (or away from) resonances, manage active power factor correction. etc. On-line calibration and trimming. Use of FFTs, nonlinear filters, and other signal processing for operational analysis.
Second generation: inside the loop

In 2nd gen, digital plays a real time role in the direct loop control process. The boundary between 1st and 2nd gen is wide and nebulous, though. Digital pulse-width modulation (PWM) is on the boundary.
Fast counter sets up switch action at duty ratio values. May or may not involve any loop control. Common in emerging motor-drive DSPs.
10
Digital PWM shows the challenges

A digital PWM counter needs an extremely fast clock to get good time resolution at modern switching speeds. Example: 250 kHz switching for dc-dc, 0.1% PWM pulse-width resolution. Counter needs a 250 MHz clock minimum. Harder: 500 kHz switching with 16-bit pulse-width resolution demands 31 ps time resolution. This needs a 33 GHz clock.
Tiscali.nl Grainger Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
11
Classic 2nd gen designs

2nd gen design:
A/D converter Computational blocks for loop control (e.g. proportional-integral-differential controls, nonlinear controls, or others) Loop designs based on z-transform methods D/A or digital PWM to deliver the output
Speeds support these operations in real time, although slower switching rates than analog. Sampling issues are relevant often linked to switching rates.
12
Performance limits are critical

In 2nd gen designs, real-time digital control pushes the limits. Concerns:
Conversion speed for A/D and D/A. Computation time. Need for noise immune sample and hold devices. Choice of sampling times for best noise performance. Bit depth and resolution, and time resolution.
13
Limit cycles and hunting can arise

How can we tell whether the output has reached the desired value and should enter steady state? Digital controls can oscillate between fine levels in steady state. Avoid this by sensing at a greater bit depth than the PWM can deliver. Can sense lowest bin operation. Consider sampling challenges.
14
Is Nyquist a problem?
Nyquist says any signal can be exactly reconstructed from samples obtained at least twice per period. But some power electronics waveforms cannot be measured properly with sampling. Square waves are bad, and commutation details are worse. Why? Nyquist applies to band limited signals. Square waves do not have band limits.
15
Integral sampling can fix this.
16
It works, with care

The triangle is not band limited, and cannot be reconstructed from samples spaced at the period. Extra knowledge: waveform is piecewise linear. Four samples, chosen to give two samples per segment, allow precise reconstruction. The underlying square wave can also be reconstructed from these samples compute the edges.
17
Today: debate is 2nd gen

1st gen is a done deal. Almost every vendor will have communications-capable power controllers, programmable controllers, etc. 2nd gen move to real-time digital process is continuing. Cost-performance advantage may be long term, as flexibility speeds development cycles.
18
Third generation: the digital switch

Direct digital interface to the switch itself; direct control of switch timing. Control the switch, not a duty ratio or a process. Identify new methods and applications that digital enables. Are there methods that cannot be done in analog?
19
Fundamentals
In any power electronic circuit or system, control can be expressed in terms of the times at which switches operate. The fundamental challenge is to find switching times for each device in real time and use this for direct control. Example:
For each switch in a converter, find switching times that best address a set of constraints. This is an optimal control problem of a sort. Might represent this with a switching function q(t).
20
Fundamentals
The general problem is daunting, so in the past we simplify and address switch timing indirectly.
Averaging (address duty ratio rather than q) PWM (use d as the actuation, not just the control)
Can a more direct approach offer benefits? Challenge: need more computation, but have less time for it. We can argue that digital processes for SCR rectifiers and cycloconverters approach 3rd gen.
21
Small-signal response example

Take a dc-dc converter, with a well-designed feedback control. Explore its response. In this case, a known sinusoidal disturbance is applied at the line input. Its frequency is 5% of the switching rate. Its magnitude is 10%. The controller is adjusted to cancel line variation completely the duty ratio tracks and cancels the disturbance based on smallsignal analysis.
22
Buck converter
In this example, feedforward compensation is used to eliminate changes caused by line variation. Could be analog or 2nd gen digital. iIN #1 L IOUT + + RLOAD VIN vOUT V OUT #2 ( ( V o ltag e V ) , cu rren t A )
i ( t)
v ( t)
tm e i
23
Example dc-dc converter response

10% disturbance around 80% reference value. Frequency is 1/20 of switching (e.g. 5 kHz on 100 kHz).
1.2
trip ( j k) s3lev( j k m) ref ( j m)
1.1 0 j 2048
24
Compensated PWM output

Filter time constant about 1/10 of switching.
0.5
Cu r r e n t
0.5
500
1000
1500
2000
25
Result?
Is the disturbance rejected or not?
Yes and no.
Does this controller achieve the requested bandwidth?

In fact, the controller is completely eliminating linear aspects of the disturbance. But the output ripple has features that may not be preferred.
26
Quick performance check

Hysteresis control instead, 150 kHz disturbance.
12 10
Line input
Voltage
10
20
30 Time (us)
40
50
27
Hysteresis method bandwidth?

The disturbance has no noticeable influence on the output. This is true even though the disturbance is faster than the switching frequency! Does this mean the converter has a bandwidth greater than its switching frequency?
28
Comments
Frequency response and bandwidth imply certain converter models. Physical limits are more fundamental:
When should the active switch operate to provide the best response? How soon can the next operation take place? How fast can the converter slew to make a change?
Hysteresis controls respond rapidly. This is an issue of timing flexibility more than of switching frequency.
29
The Ultimate Formulation

A converter with ten switches. When to switch?
Find time sequences t1,j through t10,j to meet specific requirements.

30

This is too generic -- there must be constraints and objectives. Example: for a dc-dc converter with one active switch, find the sequence of times ti that yields an output voltage close to a desired reference value.
t1
t2 t3
t4 t5
t6
t7
t8
t9
t10 t11
t12 t13
31

Example: boost dc-dc converter.
L C R +
VIN
-
VOUT
Find the best time sequence to correct a step load change with fixed output voltage. Still too generic no unique solution.
32

More practical: Given an objective that takes into account power loss, output steady-state accuracy, dynamic accuracy, response times, and other desired factors, find a sequence of times that yield an optimum result. That is, find a set of times tk that gives the best result.
For steady-state analysis, this must yield familiar results.
33
Geometric Control Examples

Dc-dc buck converter, 12 V to 5 V nominal. L = 200 i uH, C = 10 uF, 100L kHz Iswitching.
i n ou t
+ V in_
+ #1 #2 v ou t _ R
l ad o
+ v ou t _
v ou t ( t) V
in
V o ltag e
v ou t ti e m 0 T 2T
0
34
Fixed Duty Ratio

Steady state, fixed duty ratio. This shows the inductor current and ten times the normalized capacitor voltage. The best solution given fixed 100 kHz switching.
1.1 1.05
i L (t)
0.95
v out (t) expanded

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0.9
35
Result in State Space

Same data plotted in state space.
1.1
1.05
Inductor current
Steady state
0.95
0.9 4.99
4.995
5 Capacitor voltage
5.005
36
Hysteresis Control
Alternative: simply switch based on whether the output is above or below 5 V. No frequency constraint.
1.1
Hysteresis control on output voltage.

1.05 1 0.95 0.9
20
40
60
80
100
120
37
Hysteresis Control
Same result, in state space. These controls need timing constraints to prevent chattering.
1.1
State space.
1.05
0.95
0.9 4.99
4.995
5 Y2
5.005
38
Response to Step Line Input

Line step from 12 V to 15 V at 42 us. Duty ratio adjusts instantly to the right values. But a transient in voltage occurs.
1.1
0.9
50
100
150
200
Time (us)
250
300
350
400
39
State Space
State space plot shows how much the behavior deviates.
1.1
State space
1.05
iL i
0.95
0.9 4.98
4.99
5.01 vc i
5.02
5.03
40
Same Step Different Control

This is a current hysteresis control, with the switch set to turn off at a defined peak and on at a defined valley. Same line step.
1.1 1.05 1 0.95 0.9
20
40
Tim (us) e
60
80
100
41
State Space
The step is cancelled perfectly essentially in zero time.
1.1
State space
1.05
iL i
0.95
0.9 4.99
4.995
5 vc i
5.005
42
Boost Converter A Harder Test

What about a boost converter step? Example converter: L = 200 uH, C = 20 uF, 5 V input, 12 V output, 100 kHz switching
IIN + L iOUT + iC ILOAD + R
VIN
vL
vin
VOUT
-
43
Steady State Behavior

2.5 2
i L (t) v out (t) expanded
1.5
0.5
5
2.5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
2.5
2.45
1.5
I ndu cto r cur r en t
2.4
State space
2.35
0.5
5
2.3 11.85
10
11.9
15
11.95
20
12 12.05 Capac itor voltage
25
12.1
30
12.15
35
40
44
Step Change Behavior

Step input from 5 V to 6 V at 42 us. Very slow transient even though the duty ratio values are set to cancel the change.
3
Current
1
Voltage
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
3 Grainger Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics
45
State Space
Suggests a faster transition is possible.
State space
2.4
2.2
1.8
1.6 11.4
11.6
11.8
12
12.2
12.4
12.6
12.8
13
13.2
Capac itor voltage
46
Cancel out transients

Research on 3rd generation digital control showed that some types of disturbances can be cancelled -- no effect at the output. Here: extensions to step disturbances (with no limits on slew rates) on line and load. Circumvent slew rate limits in converters. A killer ap for digital control: disturbancefree power supplies.
47
Change energy really fast

Internal slew rates limit the performance of a power converter: energy in an inductor or capacitor can only change so fast. Change stored energy as quickly as possible. Do it without disturbing the output: Stay within specified ripple band. To change an inductor current, we must apply negative voltage, but constrained to internal converter voltages. Energy removal: the only consumption element is the load.
48
Constraints to be imposed
Change very fast. Stay within ripple bands. Allowed to add switches and devices. No continuous losses, as in post regulators or continuous active filters. No cheating with extra voltage levels. No cheating with the topology. Solution: augmented converter.
49
Energy increase augmentation

Make sure load is served while energy is being raised. Requires an alternative energy path. Buck: this is allowed from the source. Boost: not allowed, topology violation.
Augmented buck: Rs supplies load during energy increase, Rd burns off excess energy for decrease. Could use energy recovery.
50
Energy increase augmentation

Augmented boost: Caug In a boost converter, one supplies load during energy approach is a 2nd phase to increase, Rd burns off support energy needs excess energy for decrease.
during change. Maintains topology. 2nd phase has momentary ratings, high ESR.
51
Example: buck, line increase

Average energy does not change, but ripple does. Avoid ripple error do not excite a 2nd order transient.
Normailized current and voltage
1.15 1.1 1.05 1 0.95 0.9 0.85 0.8 120 Disturbance at 152 us 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180
Time (microseconds)
52
Go directly to final limit cycle

Easier to understand in phase space.
Starting limit cycle Ending limit cycle Reach the right voltage and current to get directly to ending limit cycle.
In the cycle of the disturbance (or the next one if it is too late), compute the exact switching timing to achieve the right V and I at the start of the next period. Use approximations (linear and quadratic ripple) to make the computation quick.
53
Phase space view

Smaller cycle, start. Larger cycle, end. Notice the transition: switch when new cycle is reached. 60
Inductor current (A)
55 50 45 40 4.992
Easy so far. This is 3rd gen digital control.
4.996
4.999
5.003
5.006
Capacitor (V)
54
Buck converter load decrease

Must remove energy from inductor. Strategy:
Turn off active switch as soon as transient is detected. Turn on augment switch immediately to start dissipating energy. Compute switching time needed to draw down energy. Compute switching time needed to reach final limit cycle.
Combines event-driven process with timing computation and operation.

55
An approximate computation yields null response No special trouble even if it takes a few cycles to slew the energy.
1.2
Normalized current and voltage
More precision possible by modulating the augmentation.

60
Inductor current (A)
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 50
50 40 30 20 10 4.985 4.99 4.995 5 5.005
60
70
80
90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Time (microseconds)
Capacitor voltage (V)

56
How fast is this response?

The disturbance did not occur at the output, even though there was no limit on load slew. Is it really this good? One limit is our ability to detect the disturbance and start the process. And disturbances must not be too frequent. If detection takes 50 ns, the converters effective bandwidth is 20 MHz with 100 kHz switching. Several s available for computation.
57
Harder stuff: buck, 100% load increase

Compute a resistance that delivers to load while the inductor energy is being raised. Might have to modulate the input-side switch to get it just right.
2.2
Normalized current and voltage
120
Inductor current
1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 50 60 70 80 90
100 80 60 40 4.99
5.01
5.02
5.03
100 110 120 130 140 150
Capacitor voltage
Start University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Time (microseconds)
58
OK, lets do something impossible instead.

Boost converter slews really cannot be done because the inductor must be decoupled from the load to slew energy. First case: line step increase (Rd in action)
1.05
N o rm a liz e d c u rre n t a n d v o lta g e
2.6
1
In d u c to r cu rre n t
2.4 2.2 2 1.8 11.85 11.9 11.95
0.95
0.9
0.85
12
12.05 12.1 12.15
0.8 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Capacitor voltage
Time (microseconds)
59
Line step decrease

Sequence: turn on active switch, connect 2nd phase slew current until the correct values is reached Time the action for correct current at minimum voltage
1.05
2.6
Induc tor curre nt
2.4 2.2 2 1.8 11.8
0.95
0.9
0.85
11.9
12
12.1
0.8 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Capacitor voltage
End
Time (microseconds)
60
Step load increase

Increase energy (switch in 2nd phase with active switch on)
2.2
2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0 50 100 150 200 250
Induc tor curre nt
2 11.6
11.8
12
12.2
Capacitor voltage
Time (microseconds)
61
Discussion
These examples show an energy-based process for responding to fast transients. The response is effectively null. Circumvents internal slew limits by providing short-term energy paths. Makes use of real-time computation to adjust specific switch timing. A digital control killer application: the disturbance-immune power supply.
62
Research Topics
Find examples of high-performance converter controls, based on a timing control perspective. Develop design methodologies for them. Implement with a digital process in real time. This is 3rd generation digital control for power electronics.
63
Conclusion
We can think about three generations of digital control for power electronics. Todays products in the 1st generation (analog power processes supported by digital management) are an explosive market 2nd generation (digital control loops) is expanding quickly. 3rd generation (the digital switch) is a research effort today.
64
Model-Limited Control
Many control methods used in todays switching power converters are limited by the models of the systems. Model-limited control is an important barrier to improvement of converters.
65
PWM implies switching much faster than system dynamics. Dc-dc converters use controllers designed based on averaging. We often learn that bandwidths are limited to a fraction of the switching rate. We now have tools for more rigor. Switching ratio: 2 adequate, 10 is better.
66
These models are convenient and useful, but do not use the full capability of a conversion circuit. We gave up a factor of 10 on dynamic performance in exchange for precision.
In-band distortion (dB)
0 40
Distortion level
80 120 160 200 5 7 9 11 13 Frequenc y ratio (fswitch/fband) 15
80% depth
67
Ad Hoc Control
Short-term overshoot can be used to dramatically speed the response.
2.5
1.5
0.5
100
200
300
400
500
Tim (us) e
600
700
800
900
1000
68
State Space
Rapid move toward final desired result.
2.4
State space
2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 11.8
12
12.2
12.4
12.6
12.8
13
13.2
Capac itor voltage
69

DR Krein 2006

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Digital Control Generations -- digital controls for power electronics through the third generation

P. T. Krein Distinguished Lecturer, IEEE Power Electronics Society

2005, 2006 Philip T. Krein. All rights reserved.

Third-generation: the digital switch

Define and discuss these generations.

But power is analog

Grainger Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

First gen digital is not obsolete!

Outside the loop. Why? Examples?

Grainger Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics

Access to internal logic

Signaling from the load

Some special 1st gen ideas

Grainger Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Second generation: inside the loop

Digital PWM shows the challenges

Classic 2nd gen designs

Performance limits are critical

Grainger Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Limit cycles and hunting can arise

Grainger Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Integral sampling can fix this.

Grainger Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

It works, with care

Today: debate is 2nd gen

Third generation: the digital switch

Grainger Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Small-signal response example

Grainger Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Example dc-dc converter response

trip ( j k) s3lev( j k m) ref ( j m)

Grainger Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Compensated PWM output

Grainger Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Does this controller achieve the requested bandwidth?

Grainger Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Quick performance check

Grainger Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Hysteresis method bandwidth?

Grainger Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

The Ultimate Formulation

Find time sequences t1,j through t10,j to meet specific requirements.

The Ultimate Formulation

Grainger Center for Electric Machines and Electromechanics

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

The Ultimate Formulation

The Ultimate Formulation

Geometric Control Examples

Fixed Duty Ratio

v out (t) expanded