DNA carries all genetic information.

Double helix structure containing chains of nucleotide bases, A, G, T, C: Adenine Thymine Guanine Cytosine Each living organism is unique and has different genetic message. Sequence of bases are a genetic code and determine the amino acids proteins. Proteins and enzymes control synthesis and biochemistry of cells and organism. Proteins are formed from amino acids. 20 naturally occurring amino acids. They join to make combinations on the surface of the ribosome's. The order they join is due to the genetic code. DNA is a double helix. Triplet code . 4 x 4 x 4 = 64 possible combinations. A sequence of three bases on DNA is transcribed to give the Corresponding base pair of mRNA (messenger RNA) in the nucleus. Part of Protein Synthesis

CONDENSATION REACTION

PHOSPHODIESTER BOND = There will be a spare 5' sugar atom at one end of the chain and a spare 3' atom at the other. The chain thus has a 3' to 5' direction reading up the page. In DNA a second polynucleotide chain forms next to the first, but this runs in the opposite direction. The chains are therefore described as antiparallel.

The process repeats so that a very long chain of nucleotides is made, a polynucleotide

The bases now find themselves opposite one another and bond together with weak hydrogen bonds. When this occurs Adenine always pairs with Thymine (A-T) and Guanine with Cytosine

(G-C). There is a good reason for this complementary pairing.

Adenine and Guanine both have a double ring structure and are classified chemically as Purine bases. Thymine, Uracil and Cytosine all have a single ring structure and are classified as Pyrimidines.

Genetic Code is Non-overlapping and Degenerate

Non-Overlapping An overlapping code would be very economical as relatively short lengths of DNA would be needed to code for many different proteins. However this would be very limiting as the amino acids which where side by side would be limited. For example only leucine would ever be able to follow phenylalanine. Degenerate Code There is a lot of degenerate or redundant code. Often only the first 2 nucleotides code for the amino acid. UUU UUC both code for phenylalanine despite having a different last nucleotide. This is good as if amino acids where caused by just one codon then a mutation would have a huge effect. If a mutation happens on the last base then it will still produce the same amino acid. 64 combinations but some code for the same amino acid:

DNA is in the nucleus. Proteins are made on the ribosome's. The message of DNA has to be copied to form a messenger RNA (mRNA). Break down of hydrogen bonds by RNA polymerase. Only the 5 prime DNA strand is transcribed to give a single strand of mRNA. This is known as template strand as it provides the template for ordering the sequence of nucleotides in an RNA transcript. Transcription also uses DNA polymerase. Enzymes join many nucleotide units together to form mRNA. Each triplet code produces a Complementary Codon on the mRNA. The available region of DNA template is read 3-5 by the RNA polymerase, so the new RNA is synthesised 5 3. Thymine is replaced by Uracil in RNA. The new RNA strand has the same sequence as the Non template strand. This is then known as the sense strand (the same). The template strand as the antisense strand (opposite).

Ribosome structure: Large sub unit Small sub unit Histone Proteins Ribosomal RNA Made in the nucleus then moves out when made.

tRNA structure Made in cytoplasm Unit of 3 bases at one end known as anticodon. mRNA recognition end These pick up amino acids Each amino acid has its own tRNA molecule.

There are three RNA: mRNA, tRNA, ribosomal RNA. Ribosomes surround the mRNA being translated. The sub units hold the mRNA, tRNA and enzymes together controlling the protein synthesis. Each strand has a start codon (AUG) and a stop codon. When the mRNA attaches to the ribosome it starts reading at the start codon. After this AUG stands for an amino acid. Molecules of tRNA carry amino acid to the surface of the ribosome. tRNA lines up its anticodons alongside a complementary codon. Hydrogen bonds bind tRNA in place while enzymes link amino acids in peptide bonds. tRNA then returns to cytoplasm to pick up another amino acid. Ribosome moves along revealing new codons. Until the stop codon.

Actually after unravelling haemoglobin molecule they realised they where made up of many polypeptide chains and different mutations changed different strands. SO One Gene One polypeptide. So each gene is transcribed to give a strand of mRNA which is translated to produce a unique polypeptide sequence.
RNA transcribed from DNA is now referred to as pre-mRNA It contains RNA copied from all the DNA in the gene. Including nonsense sections which dont code for proteins. Introns nonsense sections of DNA/pre-RNA. Exons rest of RNA is a copy of the areas of DNA that do code for the polypeptide. When the mRNA (pre mRNA) is first transcribed it is not yet finished. A number of modifications take place: Capping of the end of the strands so it isn't attacked by enzymes. And THE REMOVAL OF INTRONS The remaining Exons are joined together after the RNA splicing . Spliceosomes are the enzymes that do this. These are all post transcriptional changes which lead to more variety in phenotypes. Some exons are sometimes also removed so RNA is different to DNA and more codes possible: So 25000 genes code for 90000 different proteins.

You can identify organisms and people by their sequences of DNA. DNA profiling Human genome = 20 000 25 000 genes and chromosomes are made up of millions of base pairs. Less than 2% codes for proteins. 90% is introns and repeats. Introns are not yet known for purpose but can be used for profiling.
Within introns there are short sequences of DNA that are repeated many times: Mini-Satellite 20-50 bases repeated 50 to several hundred times. Micro-satellite 2-4 bases repeated 5-15 times. The same mini and micro satellite appears in the same position on each homologous pair of chromosomes. The number of repeats however vary as different repeats are inherited. These repeats are known as SHORT TANDEM REPEATS There are many different introns and a huge variety of repeats so the likely hood of any two individuals having the same pattern of DNA is very unlikely making everyone so unique.

Strands of DNA are chopped into fragments with restriction endonucleases These enzymes cut the DNA at particular points into intron sequences. Each enzyme cuts at different points known as recognition points. Leaving micro and mini satellite sequences.

The fragments are then separated and identified. GEL ELECTROPHORESIS: (chromatography). DNA fragments placed in wells in an agarose gel medium in a buffering solution and known DNA fragments. The Gel Contains a dye which under UV shows DNA bands. The DNA also contains a dye that moves faster than DNA through gel to show when to stop experiment. Electric current is passed through the apparatus and the DNA fragments move towards positive as negative charge on phosphate. Move at different rates depending on mass and charge. Placed under UV DNA fluoresces in bands to be identified.
It shows large DNA fragments containing 50 base pairs (mini satellites).

Southern Blotting: An alkaline buffer solution is added to the gel after electrophoresis and a nylon filter or nitrocellulose paper. Dry absorbent paper is used to draw the solution containing the DNA fragments from the gel to the filter leaving blots. The alkali solution also separates out the fragments so individual bases can be seen.