Animal Physiology

Or how things happen

Class schedule ZOOL2402

DATE 05/03/2012 WEEK 1 LAB a) Lab test ZOOL 2401 b) Gut Histology and gut length 12/03/2012 2 a) Length:Weight, Metabolic rate and size b) Lung volume, gill area 19/03/2012 3 a) Heart rate, BP and exercise. BMI b) Metabolic rate and heat. . 25/03/2012 4 a) Data Interpretation b) Urinalysis 02/04/2012 5 a) Endocrine structures b) NIL Easter 09/04/2012 6 a) NIL Easter b) Lab test Seeing it Sugar sex and nerves Proportions and energy LECTURES How to eat green stuff

How to get oxygen How to move How to be cool Getting rid of stuff

What is Physiology?

Physiology is the analysis of function in living organisms

How to eat Green stuff

Or The problems of Herbivory

Herbivory
Can be defined as the ability of organisms to eat and digest living plant material. Digestion can be defined as the breakdown of complex molecules to simpler ones through the use of mechanical and chemical processes. Generally the chemical processes involve the action of enzymes. Enzymes are chemical catalysts, almost always proteins, that act to lower the activation energy of a chemical reaction, thus minimizing the energy necessary for breakdown of large molecules to occur.

 For the organism the balance of energy is important. It must minimize energy expenditure while maximizing energy generation. Ultimately energy generation occurs through breakdown of glucose in respiration but prior to this process the glucose molecules must be generated to enter into the Krebs cycle or glycolysis. Thus the function of digestion is to produce simple molecules which can be broken down to yield energy. This process however REQUIRES energy, so for the organism, the energy gain must exceed the energy lost through instigating the breakdown process

 This is the basis of energetics-the study of energy balance in an organism. Basic energetics equation: E(In) = E(Out) +E(P). Where E(P)=Energy retained for production or growth. The equation can be expanded to: R=F+U+M+P Where : R = Ingested energy F and U = Energy losses in faeces and excretory products respectively M = Energy lost in metabolism.

 M can be further subdivided into: 1) Energy for bodily functions 2) Energy used for movement 3) Energy used for digestion absorption and processing of food. P can be further subdivided into: 1) Energy used in production of gametes. 2) Energy used for somatic growth The partitioning of energy into the various components can be determined experimentally and constitutes determination of the energy budget for the organism

 Plant cells characteristically have cell walls. These are composed of a variety of substances celluloses ,hemicelluloses, lignin etc. These structural polysaccharides are large molecules composed of sugar units joined by glycosidic links. Number one problem is that most macroorganisms (herbivores) lack the appropriate enzymes to break the bonds in the macromolecule and thus the cell contents are largely resistant to digestion.

Digestive difficulties with Plant material

Plant Structural Compounds

Plant structural Carbohydrates

Main compound in plant cell walls is Cellulose. Insoluble Most abundant organic chemical on Earth Linear Consists of glucopyranose units linked by 1-4 glycosidic linkages. Each molecule has about 3000units Cellulose molecules are aligned in parallel fashion to form microfibrils which are several m in diameter and between 10-20 nm in length. Highly ordered arrangement of molecules is maintained by hydrogen bonding between the chains. This ordered arrangement gives the molecule its property of insolubility and its great strength. Microrganisms secrete cellulases which can break the linkages but the released glucose is fermented in the gut of herbivorous mammals to give short chain fatty acids such as butyric acid which can be absorbed by the animal in the intestine

Hemicelluloses
Three types. Xylans,mannans and glucomannans Many have same 1-4 glycosidic backbone as cellulose but have side chains which prevents close packing. This allows some solubility Xylans found in seed coats

Possible solutions
Plant material decomposes once it dies. Decomposition is carried out by microorganisms which DO possess cellulose digesting enzymes: cellulases. These micro-organisms are mainly fungi and bacteria. Possible Solution 1. Allow material to die and decomposition to begin and then consume decomposing material and decomposers. This solution is seen in detritivores. Very common in fishes. Possible Solution 2. Incorporate decomposers within the digestive system to allow breakdown process to occur within digestive System. Symbiosis. This occurs in most terrestrial herbivores but has evolved in a number of different ways

Possible solution 2:Variants

1)Many chambered stomach-Ruminants and ruminant-like animals. 2)Digestive chamber (caecum) and enlarged gut eg Perissodactlys, Fishes. 3) Digestive chamber (caecum) and refection eg Lagomorphs and rodents. Detail The following are organisms which possess a multichambered stomach which houses microorganisms: Ruminants; cows, sheep, deer, goats etc. Ruminant like organisms; camels, llamas, hippopotamuses pigs, sloths, some marsupials, langur monkey Importance of Ruminants 1) Main herbivores in a number of ecosystems eg antelope in the African savannah. 2)Major domestic animals in agricultural setting eg cows, sheep, goats. Source of wool milk ,meat.

Ruminant digestion
Digestive tract greatly enlarged. Microbial digestion slow process . Fermentation. Needs ability to store large amounts of food. Feeding continuous. Typical capacity of cow 91 litres. Requires large amounts of saliva. Saliva high in bicarbonate content necessary to neutralise acidic pHs generated in the stomach by microbial digestion. Main digestion products organic acids lowers pH. Structure of the rumen 4 chambers: rumen ,reticulum and omasum lined with keratinised squamous epithelium. None of them produces digestive enzymes. Abomasum normal mammalian stomach. house the microbial flora. Microbial flora consists of a wide variety of microorganisms thus equipping the animal with the ability to break down a range of structural compounds. Not Lignin. Chief fermentation end product: organic acids : acetic, proprionic, butyric etc. Little glucose from digestion of cellulose as this is used by microorganisms

 Certain microorganisms responsible for splitting proteins into amino acids. Mainly theses are taken up by the microorganisms themselves. BUT microorganisms are ultimately digested as a source of protein by the ruminant. Ruminant microorganisms are able to utilize urea and ammonia to synthesise protein thus increasing protein content using waste products. Urea produced in the liver is returned to the rumen in the saliva and in the blood by diffusion from the blood. Some is converted to ammonia. Both components are used in protein synthesis by the microorganisms. Microorganisms are also responsible for the synthesis of B vitamins (particularly B12) and vitamin C. Microorganisms synthesise all essential amino acids. Ruminants able to survive irrespective of protein quality Both these abilities allow ruminants to survive on poor quality plant material or during times of drought.

Summary of processes in ruminant stomach

Description of digestive process

1. Food passes into rumen/reticulum where it is churned to a fine consistency. Food is fermented here. 2. Food returned to mouth via contractions of rumen . 3. Chewed again 4. Compression in omasum. Removal of water (up to 70%). 5. Digestion with enzymes and gastric juice in abomasum 6. Food may be returned to mouth for further chewing prior to passing directly to the intestine where absorption occurs.

Energy Budget
Energy Budget : Percentage of original intake Free fatty acids 20 Digested by normal processes 25 Bacteria digested by normal processes 15 Subtotal of utilizable energy 60 Faeces Gas and Heat Subtotal of energy lost 25 15 40

 Fermentation products major source of energy. Approximately 70% of energy needs of a cow met from organic acids. Large quantity of energy lost as methane gas(>10% of daily digested food energy) eg Cow fed 5kg hay produces 191litres of methane

Caecum
Can be defined as a blind ending diverticulum in the digestive tract where microbial digestion/fermentation takes place. Usually found at the junction of the small and large intestines Found in a number of groups: perissodactyls (horses, zebras, rhinoceroses), elephants and hyraxes, lagomorphs and rodents and dugongs are the mammal groups. Also Green turtles, Iguanas, and some birds eg willow ptarmigan feeds on leaves and twigs. Derives 30% of energy from fermentation. Green turtles feed on sea grasses. 90% of cellulose digested by fermentation. Common iguana -fermentation in hind gut. Captive reared individuals need to acquire correct flora from feeding on the faeces of wild individuals

Advantages of ruminants
Location of fermentation chamber at anterior of gut allows digested products to pass through small intestine and be subjected to further digestion. Regurgitation is possible. Finer breakdown of plant material. Compare cow and horse faeces. Recycling of urea allows nitrogen that would be lost to be utilised. Allows ruminants to survive on low-grade food Also seen in macropode marsupials eg kangeroos. Saftey. Anmal is able to continue processing food which is stored in the digestive tract in safety. Less exposure to predators

Sloth Stomach (Bradypus)

Caecum plus refection

With a caecum alone much of the material which is digested by the microorganisms is lost as it is poorly absorbed or is not subject to further digestion. Solution pass material through the digestive system twice. This is effected by lagomorphs and rodents and is known as corophagy or refection. If prevented from this rats develop vitamin deficiency and a 15-25% growth rate deficiency. Similarly in rabbits-poor protein utilization and nitrogen retention. In rabbits reingested faeces not masticated but pass to fundus of stomach and are stored there covered by a membrane . Fermentation may continue. Rodents possibly masticate reingested faeces. Other mammals which practice corophagy: prosimians, shrews, some marsupials. Shrews are insectivorous and use the process to assist in breakdown of chitin which is a nitrogen containing polysaccharide

Rabbit Stomach

Herbivory in Fishes.
Many fishes eat plant material. There are a number of strategies employed: Detritivory. This is particularly common in freshwater fishes which rely on bacteria in the environment to digest the structural carbohydrates. Many such fishes have pyloric caeca which are a site of absorption in detritivorous fishes Long intestine. Generally fishes which digest plant material have a much longer intestine relative to body length than fishes which feed on animal material. Many of these fishes lack a stomach, e.g. Scaridae, (parrot fishes), Cyprinidae (carps). Ratio of intestine length to body length: Carnivores:033-075. Herbivores:2-20. Detritivores > 5.

Pyloric Caeca in Teleost fishes

 Gizzard-like stomach. Some fishes employ a grinding mechanism to mechanically rupture the cell walls of plant material e.g. Mugilidae (grey mullets) which have a muscular gizzard like stomach Caecum The family Kyphosidae which is found in Australia have a caecum like structure with microflora: ciliates and bacteria, which is used for fermentation and produces shortchain fatty acids as a digestion product. Teeth Many fishes have grinding molariform teeth in the mouth but the most common mechanism is the presence of pharyngeal teeth. These are located in the pharynx (surprisingly!) and give a very efficient grinding mechanism to rupture the cell walls of plant material. Seen in Cyprinidae and Cichlidae. This process is known as Trituration

Pharyngeal Teeth of Teleost fish

 Low pH in stomach. Plant cells walls can also be ruptured by exposing them to low pH (approximately 1 or 1.5). This is seen in a variety of plant eating fishes e.g. Cichlidae. This process is known as Lysis. Most herbivorous fishes use a combination of strategies

Humans
Humans are defined as omnivores they however have the ability to digest plant material. This takes place in the caecum by means of fermentation. The constraints in terms of energy yield are the same as for other animals with a caecum. Dietary fibre is the edible parts of plants which are resistant to digestion and absorption in the human intestine with complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine. Physiological benefits: 1) laxation, 2) attenuation of blood glucose and/or cholesterol.

Fibre in the human diet 1

1)

Significantly lower incidence of constipation, diverticulosis and digestive cancer associated with high fibre diets. Mechanism. Bulk due to fibre improves the musculature of the intestinal wall and lessens the time that potential carcinogens are held in the intestine Butyric acid derived from fermentation of cellulose is toxic to tumor cells, inducing apoptosis. Short chain fatty acids promote the growth of bifidobacteria which prevent the establishment of nondesirable intestinal flora

Fibre in the human diet 2

2) glucans are another type of structural polysaccharide which are soluble due to the presence of a 1-4 glycosidic backbone along with 1-3 side chains which confer solubility. Oat porridge. Beneficial as they lower the level of blood cholesterol and reduce the incidence of heart disease.
Mechanism. Viscous nature impedes the resorption of cholesterol and bile acids in the intestine thereby placing a drain on the bodys cholesterol synthesis. In general structural carbohydrates help decrease the glycaemic index of food thus slowing down the uptake of glucose. This has particular benefits for controlling blood glucose levels. Gums (soluble structural carbohydrates)probably bind to bile acids resulting in more of them being passed out in the faeces and thus placing a drain on the synthesis and metabolism of cholesterol

Bile acids and Cholesterol

Absorption of lipids occurs in the small intestine. The process is aided by bile salts. Examples of bile salts are sodium glycholate and taurocholate . These are derived from cholesterol in the liver Bile salts are produced by the liver and pass along the bile duct where they are retained at the sphincter of Oddi. The bile is also concentrated at this point by active transport of Na+ ions Release is stimulated by a variety of factors: presence of fatty acids in the intestine and the gastric hormone CCK Bile salts combine with digested food products to form water soluble micelles which enter the epithelial cells.
.

Recycling of bile salts

The micelles which enter the epithelial cells are resynthesised into triacylglcerols at the ER and these become part of droplets called chylomicrons. The chylomicrons enter the lacteals and eventually the veins. Most are stored as adipose tissue with only small amounts being oxidized for energy at this time Bile salts are resorbed from the intestine and returned to the liver. This occurs by means of the Enterohepatic circulation. Any process that slows resorbtion of bile salts is thought to be beneficial in lowering the levels of cholesterol

Invertebrate digestion of plant structural compounds

Plant material is digested by a number of invertebrates. Obvious examples are : snails and silverfish. Termites live exclusively on wood and rely on Trichomonas in the hind gut to provide cellulases. Trichomonas is a flagellate which exists only in the anaerobic conditions of the hind gut. If the symbiont is removed the termite is unable to survive .Nitrogen fixing bacteria are also present in the hind gut of termites

Plant defences and their physiological effects

Many plants have chemical defence mechanisms to prevent them from being eaten by herbivores. Some examples follow: Alkaloids-affect CNS, opium, morphine, nicotine Glycosides. Breakdown leads to toxic compounds eg cyanide from cassava. Enzyme inhibitors e.g. trypsin inhibitors in soya beans. Low protein utilization of nuts, beans. Heat sensitive.

Plant defences and their physiological effects

Cruciferae eg cabbage. Compounds which suppress thyroid function. May lead to goitre if excess in diet in combination with poor nutrition. Compounds affecting reproduction. Mimics of juvenile hormone in insects-certain trees. Oestrogen mimics particularly abundant in plants of the pea family during arid years thus reducing reproductive success of herbivores. Also soya.