The development of emotions

Outline
I: II: III: IV: Introduction Development of emotion responding Development of emotional appraisal Individual differences

I: Introduction

I: Introduction
Philosophers view emotions skeptically. Plato: emotions are like drugs -- corrupt reason Stoics: emotions need to be moderated Darwin: emotions like fossils -- vestiges of prior adaptations that are no longer useful

Emotions: A modern view

The case of Phineas Gage. Brain injury disrupted his emotions, making a reasoned existence impossible. Emotions now viewed as central to healthy social and cognitive functioning

What is an emotion?
An emotions is an: Automatic, patterned response to an event that includes Behavioural-facial expressions and Conscious appraisal of the eliciting event.

DANGER!!

What is an emotion?
An emotions is an: Automatic, patterned response to an event that includes Behavioural-facial expressions and Conscious appraisal of the eliciting event.

II: Development of emotional responses

Language suggests we experience a variety of distinct emotions. Are there distinct patterns associated with different emotions? If so, are there some innate patterns?

II: Development of emotional responses

Ekman & Izard: Differential Language suggests weTheory experience a variety Emotions of distinct emotions. Are there distinct patterns associated with different emotions? YES If so, are there some innate patterns? YES

II: Development of emotional responses

Ekman & Izard: Differential Emotions Theory

II: Development of emotional responses

Ekman & Izard: Differential Emotions Theory Basic emotions like sadness, surprise, disgust, fear, happiness are innate and universal. Evidence?

II: Development of emotional responses

Ekman & Izard: Differential Emotions Theory Methods

II: Development of emotional responses

Ekman & Izard: Differential Emotions Theory Methods
Facial Affect Coding System

II: Development of emotional responses

Ekman & Izard: Differential Emotions Theory Methods
Facial Affect Coding System

II: Development of emotional responses

Ekman & Izard: Differential Emotions Theory Methods Cross-cultural studies

II: Development of emotional responses

Ekman & Izard: Differential Emotions Theory Methods Cross-cultural studies
Converging judgements about expressed emotion

II: Development of emotional responses

Ekman & Izard: Differential Emotions Theory Methods Developmental studies

II: Development of emotional responses

Ekman & Izard: Differential Emotions Theory Methods Developmental studies Disgust & Happiness

II: Development of emotional responses

Ekman & Izard: Differential Emotions Theory Methods Developmental studies Disgust & Happiness
Disgust: Steiner & Sour liquid

II: Development of emotional responses

Ekman & Izard: Differential Emotions Theory Methods Developmental studies Disgust & Happiness
Disgust: Steiner & Sour liquid
YUCK!!

II: Development of emotional responses

Ekman & Izard: Differential Emotions Theory Methods Developmental studies Disgust & Happiness
Happiness

II: Development of emotional responses

Ekman & Izard: Differential Emotions Theory Methods Developmental studies Disgust & Happiness
Happiness Early organized expression Newborns smile in their sleep

II: Development of emotional responses

Ekman & Izard: Differential Emotions Theory Criticisms: Is emotional expression enough? Saarni & Campos: Need to examine whether emotions are expressed meaningfully in appropriate contexts.

II: Development of emotional responses

Saarni & Campos: Social Context Approach Emphasis on the functional development of emotion Do infants express emotions in functionally appropriate ways? If this more stringent criteria is adopted, newborn dont seem as well-organized.

II: Development of emotional responses

Saarni & Campos: Social Context Approach Hiatt, Campos, and Emde, 1979 10 to 12 month olds placed in contexts thought to elicit 3 different basic emotions. Happiness: playing with an attractive toy. Fear: exposure to a stranger. Surprise: object disappearance/appearance.

2 conditions for discrete emotions

(1) The predicted expression must occur more often than any non-predicted emotion in response to a particular context. (2) The predicted expression must be displayed more often in its appropriate eliciting circumstance than in non-predicted circumstances.

Design & research questions.

Emotion expressed

Happy
C o n t e x t

Fear Surprise

Happy Fear Surprise

Happy Fear Surprise

Findings
For happiness, both conditions were met.

Findings for happiness.

Emotion expressed

Happy
C o n t e x t

Fear 45

Surprise 20

Happy Fear Surprise Totals

80 10 10 100

Findings for fear

Stimuli meant to elicit fear elicited significantly more non-fear emotions

Findings for fear.

Emotion expressed

H appy
C o n t e x t

Fear

Surprise

H appy Fear Surprise Totals 100 100 100 10 25 30

Findings for surprise.

Stimuli thought to elicit surprise did elicit surprise more often than non-predicted emotion. However, surprise elicited as often by fearful and happy contexts.

Findings for surprise

Emotion expressed

Happy
C o n t e x t

Fear

Surprise 20 30

Happy Fear Surprise Totals 10 100 30 100

50 100

Findings summarized.
Emotion expressed

H appy
C o n t e x t

Fear 45 25 30 100

Surprise 20 30 50 100

H appy Fear Surprise T otals

80 10 10 100

Conclusions
Infants may be born with the elements of emotional expression. However, it is only in the course of development that the elements become functionally organized. If the elements of emotion need to be organized, what brings about this organization?

1. Understanding intentions
Izard Externality of causation and emotional response to inoculation. Young infants exhibit sadness and distress. Older infants exhibit anger and distress. Understand that something unpleasant is happening to them rather than just happening.

2. Development of the self

Self-recognition @ 24 months. Leads to selfconscious emotions including pride, guilt, and embarrassment.

3. Emotion Regulation
Emerges in infancy e.g., self-distraction Predicts compliance @ 3yrs Later in development, is associated with social competence Cole, Zahn-Waxler, & Smith, 1994 Induced negative emotion in high, medium, and low-risk boys and girls Experimenter either present or absent

Cole, Zahn-Waxler, & Smith, 1994

35 30
Negative Emotion

25 20 15 10 5 0
Boys Exp Present Boys Exp Absent

High Risk Med Risk Low Risk

Girls Exp Present

Girls Exp Absent

Cole, Zahn-Waxler, & Smith, 1994

35 30
Negative Emotion

25 20 15 10 5 0
Boys Exp Present Boys Exp Absent

High Risk Med Risk Low Risk

Girls Exp Present

Girls Exp Absent

III: Development of emotional appraisal

Infants born capable of some basic appraisal However, much about the emotional significance of things needs to be learned Ambiguity Inborn affective map needs elaboration How does this happen?

Social Referencing
Sorce, Emde, Campos, Klinnert, 1981. Visual-cliff If mothers express fear, infants do not cross When mothers smile, most infants cross Infants internalize caregivers affective map

IV: Individual differences

Temperament Refers to a variety of infant attributes including: Fearfulness Irritability Activity level Concerns the "how" as opposed to the "what" of behaviour.

A biological basis for temperament?

Many argue yes. Evidence? Heritability studies. Cross-temporal stability.

1. Heritability studies
MZ vs. DZ twins. Higher concordance amongst MZ vs. DZ twins for social smiling and fearfulness. Moderate heritability.

2. Temporal stability
Kagan Behavioural inhibition: Fear responses to novel situations and people Children studied longitudinally Measured at 21 months, 4, 6, & 8 years. Evidence of stability

3. Correlated traits
Behavioural and emotional characteristics seem to co-occur Over-active children are often low in fearfulness. Under-active children often moody, resistant to change.

3 categories of child temperament

Thomas & Chess, 1991 Easy temperament (good mood, flexible, regular): 60% of infants. Difficult temperament (active, inflexible, and irritable): 15% of infants Slow-to-warm-up (quiet, moody, passive resistance to change): 23% of infants

Summarizing temperament
Temperament concerns the how rather than the what of behaviour. Biologically derived. Described in terms of both attributes and broader profiles.

Summarizing emotional development

Emotions are complex and multifaceted. Structural and functional considerations. Infants born with some basic emotions. Cognitive, social and language development transforms our emotional nature. Emotions become more differentiated and controlled.

The Development of Social Attachments

Outline
I: Stages of attachment II: Formation of Attachments III: Attachment Theory IV: Attachment and Temperament

I: Stages of attachment (p. 402)

Pre-attachment (0-2 months) Attachment in the making (2-7 months) Clear-cut attachments (7-36 months) Reciprocal partnership (36 months onward)

II: The formation of attachments

I: Formation of Attachment

Psychoanalytic theory: Freud

Psychosexual personality theory For infants, libidinal pleasure orally derived Feeding provides oral stimulation Leads to attachment

I: Formation of Attachment

Social-Learning Theory
Primary and secondary drives Mother associated w. positive reinforcement Satisfaction of primary drives. Eventually, simply the presence of the mother becomes reinforcing Development of a secondary drive.

I: Formation of Attachment

Is feeding important?
Harry Harlow Too much emphasis on feeding. Research on rhesus monkeys. Orphans prefer terrycloth not feeding mother.

III: Attachment Theory

John Bowlby Critical of psychoanalytic and S-L theory Proposed an Ethological Theory Attachment is a "behavioural system that has evolved over millions of years What is a behavioural system?

III: Attachment Theory

A behavioural system is an organized set of behaviours that is goal-directed, activated by particular eliciting circumstances, and turned off when goal attained. Example: Feeding And (according to Bowlby) attachment How?

III: Attachment Attachment is

Theory

Comprised of a set of behaviours (e.g., crying, distress, following, clinging, calling, etc.) Goal-directed (i.e., maintain proximity with caregiver). Turned on by eliciting circumstances (i.e., separation, danger) Turned off when goal attained (i.e., proximity with mother)

The internal working model

Around 12 months, infants begins to form a model of the relationship they have with their care-giver. Timing coincides with developing understanding of object permanence. Includes a concept of the self, the caregiver, and the relationship. Forms a template that guides the establishment of future attachment relationships.

Measuring attachment
Ainsworth: The Strange Situation (p. 405). Assessed the extent to which infants use mother as a secure base. Focus on reunion episodes. How does the infant utilize mother to reestablish a feeling of security?

Four attachment classifications

Secure; 65% Settle quickly upon reunion. Avoidant; 20% Avoids contact with mother upon reunion. Resistant; 10% Fails to settle after reunion. Disorganized; 5% No clear reunion strategy.

These categories describe 2 dimensions

Expressed emotion Little Avoidant A lot Resistant

These categories describe 2 dimensions

Expressed emotion Little Avoidant A lot Resistant

Organized/disorganized

Disorganized

Factors affecting the quality of attachment

Behaviour of principle care-giver (Nurture) Ainsworths care-giving hypothesis. Evidence?

Ainsworths Baltimore study

Ainsworths Baltimore study

(A) sensitive. (B) accepting of their role as mother (C) co-operative (D) emotionally accessible Mothers of secure infants

Ainsworths Baltimore study

(A) misinterpret infant signals (B) inconsistent

Mothers of resistant infants

Ainsworths Baltimore study

(A) impatient with their babies (B) unresponsive (C) do not enjoy close contact (D) express negative feeling about their infants. Mothers of avoidant infants

Sensitivity hypothesis: Further evidence

Meta-analysis: De Wolff & van IJzendoorn, 1997 Question: Is maternal sensitivity associated with infant attachment status? 66 studies reviewed All had examined parental antecedents of security. Association confirmed but weak relationship.

Criticisms
Thompson (1997) Hypothesis not very precise. Parents play many roles in relationships. Sensitivity to what? Why does sensitivity promote secure attachment?

Other maternal predictors

Being affectionate, non-intrusive (Bates et al.) Negativity, tension (Moss et al.) Interactive synchrony (Isabella et al.) Criticism: Unclear how these predictors relate to Bowlbys conception of attachment. Need for greater specificity.

IV: Attachment and temperament.

Attachment theory maintains that strange situation behaviour reflects the quality of the infants caregiving But, might strange situation behaviour simply reflect differences in temperament? Some argue yes. Evidence?

Ainsworths Attachment Classifications Vs. Thomas & Chesss Temperament Profiles

Temperament Percent of profile infants Easy 60 Attachment Percent of 1classification year-olds Secure 65

Difficult

15

Resistant

10

Slow to warm 23 up

Avoidant

20

Ainsworths Attachment Classifications Vs. Thomas & Chesss Temperament Profiles

Temperament Percent of profile infants Easy 60 Attachment Percent of 1classification year-olds Secure 63

Difficult

15

Resistant

Slow to warm 23 up

Avoidant

29

Conclusions
Suggests that strange-situation behaviour indexes biologically-based differences in emotionality, not care-giving.

Criticisms
Temperament is dispositional Cross-situationally and cross-temporally stable. Higher concordance for MZ than DZ twins True of attachment?

Criticisms
Temperament is dispositional Cross-situationally and cross-temporally stable. Higher concordance for MZ than DZ twins True of attachment? Not cross-situationally stable: Father-infant and mother-infant attachments can be different

Criticisms
Temperament is dispositional Cross-situationally and cross-temporally stable. Higher concordance for MZ than DZ twins True of attachment? Not cross-situationally stable: Not cross-temporally stable: Father-infant and mother-infant Mother-infant attachment can attachments can be different change over time

Criticisms
Temperament is dispositional Cross-situationally and cross-temporally stable. Higher concordance for MZ than DZ twins Concordance True of attachment?for attachment Not cross-situationally stable: not higher among MZ thanstable: Not cross-temporally DZ twins Father-infant and mother-infant Mother-infant attachment can attachments can be different change over time

Conclusions
Biological and care-giving factors contribute to the establishment of attachment.

Summary
In the course of the 1st year, infant form their first relationships. Emotions are an important foundation for the formation of attachment.