Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter 3
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.2 (Top left) Linked molecules (organic bases) make up the rungs on DNAs twisted molecular ladder. The order of these molecules serves as a code for genetic information. The code provides a genetic blueprint that is unique for each individual (except identical twins). The drawing shows only a small section of a DNA strand. An entire strand of DNA is composed of billions of smaller molecules. (Bottom left) The nucleus of each cell in the body contains chromosomes made up of tightly wound coils of DNA. (Dont be misled by the drawing: Chromosomes are microscopic in size, and the chemical molecules that make up DNA are even smaller.)
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.3 Gene patterns for children of brown-eyed parents, where each parent has one
brown-eye gene and one blue-eye gene. Because the brown-eye gene is dominant, one child in four will be blue-eyed. Thus, there is a significant chance that two browneyed parents will have a blue-eyed child.
Environment
Environment (Nurture): All external conditions that affect development Sensitive Periods: A period of increased sensitivity to environmental influences; also, a time when certain events must occur for normal development to take place Congenital Problem: A problem or defect that occurs during prenatal development; birth defect; becomes apparent at birth
Environment (cont'd)
Genetic Disorder: Problem caused by inherited characteristics Anything capable of causing birth defects (e.g., narcotics, radiation, cigarette smoke, lead, and cocaine) Deprivation: Lack of normal stimulation, nutrition, comfort, or love Enrichment: When an environment is deliberately made more complex and intellectually stimulating Enriched Environments: Environments deliberately made more novel, complex, and stimulating
Maturation
Physical growth and development of the body, brain, and nervous system Increased muscular control occurs in patterns Cephalocaudal: From head to toe Proximodistal: From center of the body to the extremities
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.6 Motor development. Most infants follow an orderly pattern of motor development. Although the order in which children progress is similar, there are large individual differences in the ages at which each ability appears. The ages listed are averages for American children. It is not unusual for many of the skills to appear 1 or 2 months earlier than average or several months later (Frankenberg & Dodds, 1967; Harris & Liebert, 1991). Parents should not be alarmed if a childs behavior differs some from the average.
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.8 The traditional view of infancy holds that emotions are rapidly differentiated from an initial capacity for excitement.
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.9 Infants display many of the same emotional expressions as adults do. Carroll Izard believes such expressions show that distinct emotions appear within the first months of life. Other theorists argue that specific emotions come into focus more gradually, as an infants nervous system matures. Either way, parents can expect to see a full range of basic emotions by the end of a babys first year.
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.10 In the United States, about two thirds of all children from middle-class families are securely attached. About one child in three is insecurely attached. (Percentages are approximate. From Kaplan, 1998.)
Optimal Caregiving
Maternal Influences: All the effects a mother has on her child Goodness of Fit (Chess & Thomas): Degree to which parents and child have compatible temperaments Paternal Influences: Sum of all effects a father has on his child
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.11 This graph shows the results of a study of child care in homes other than the childs. In most cases, parents paid for this care, although many of the caregivers were unlicensed. As you can see, child care was good in only 9 percent of the homes. In 35 percent of the homes, it was rated as inadequate
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.12 Mother-infant and father-infant interactions. These graphs show what occurred on routine days in a sample of 72 American homes. The graph on the left records the total amount of contact parents had with their babies, including such actions as talking to, touching, hugging, or smiling at the infant. The graph on the right shows the amount of caregiving (diapering, washing, feeding, and so forth) done by each parent. Note that in both cases mother-infant interactions greatly exceed father-infant interactions.
Language Acquisition
Cooing: Repetition of vowel sounds by infants (like oo and ah); starts at about 8 weeks Babbling: Repetition of meaningless language sounds (e.g., babababa); starts at about 7 months Single-Word Stage: The child says one word at a time Telegraphic Speech: Two word sentences that communicate a single idea (e.g., Want yogurt)
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.13 Infant engagement scale. These samples from a 90-point scale show various levels of infant engagement, or attention. Babies participate in prelanguage conversations with parents by giving and withholding attention and by smiling, gazing, or vocalizing.
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.14 This graph shows the development of turn-taking in games played by an infant and his mother. For several months, Richard responded to games such as peek-a-boo and handthe-toy-back only when his mother initiated action. At about 9 months, however, he rapidly began to initiate action in the games. Soon, he was the one to take the lead about half the time. Learning to take turns and to direct actions toward another person underlie basic language skills.
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.16 The panels on the left show a possible event, in which an infant watches as a toy is placed behind the right of two screens. After a delay of 70 seconds, the toy is brought into view from behind the right screen. In the two panels on the right, an impossible event occurs. The toy is placed behind the left screen and retrieved from behind the right. (A duplicate toy was hidden there before testing.) Eight-month-old infants react with surprise when they see the impossible event staged for them. Their reaction implies that they remember where the toy was hidden. Infants appear to have a capacity for memory and thinking that greatly exceeds what Piaget claimed is possible during the sensorimotor period.
Chapter 3
Stage One: Trust versus Mistrust (Birth-1): Children are completely dependent on others Trust: Established when babies given adequate warmth, touching, love, and physical care Mistrust: Caused by inadequate or unpredictable care and by cold, indifferent, and rejecting parents Stage Two: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (1-3) Autonomy: Doing things for themselves Overprotective or ridiculing parents may cause children to doubt abilities and feel shameful about their actions
Chapter 3
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3.17 Dramatic differences in physical size and maturity are found in adolescents of the same age. The girls pictured are all 13, the boys 16. Maturation that occurs earlier or later than average can affect the search for identity.
Chapter 3
Stage Five (Adolescence): Identity versus Role Confusion Identity: For adolescents; problems answering, Who am I? Role Confusion: Occurs when adolescents are unsure of where they are going and who they are Stage Six (Young adulthood): Intimacy versus Isolation Intimacy: Ability to care about others and to share experiences with them Isolation: Feeling alone and uncared for in life
Chapter 3
Stage Seven (Middle adulthood): Generativity versus Stagnation Generativity: Interest in guiding the next generation Stagnation: When one is only concerned with ones own needs and comforts Stage Eight (Late adulthood): Integrity versus Despair Integrity: Self-respect; developed when people have lived richly and responsibly Despair: Occurs when previous life events are viewed with regret; experiences heartache and remorse
Effective Parenting
Have stable rules of conduct (consistency) Show mutual respect, love, encouragement, and shared enjoyment Have effective communication I-Message: Tells children the effect their behavior had on you (Use this) You-Message: Threats, name-calling, accusing, bossing, criticizing, or lecturing (Avoid this)
Consequences
Natural Consequences: Effects that naturally follow a particular behavior; intrinsic effects Logical Consequences: Rational and reasonable effects