FIGURE 9.

Control of temperature by process control.

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FIGURE 9.2

The error detector and controller.

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FIGURE 9.3

Two-position controller action with neutral zone.

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FIGURE 9.4

Figure for Example 9.4.

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FIGURE 9.5

Three-position controller action.

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FIGURE 9.6

Relationship between error and three-position controller action, including the effects of lag.

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FIGURE 9.7 Single-speed floating controller as shown in: (a) single-speed controller action as the output rate of change to input error, and (b) an example of error and controller response.

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FIGURE 9.8

Multiple-speed floating mode control action.

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FIGURE 9.9

Single-speed floating-control action applied to a flow-control system.

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FIGURE 9.10

The rate of controller output change has a strong effect on error recovery in a floating controller.

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FIGURE 9.11

The proportional band of a proportional controller depends on the inverse of the gain.

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FIGURE 9.12

An offset error must occur if a proportional controller requires a new zero-error output following a load change.

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FIGURE 9.13

Level-control system for Example 9.6.

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FIGURE 9.14 Integral mode controller action: (a) The rate of output change depends on error, and (b) an illustration of integral mode output and error.

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FIGURE 9.15

Illustration of integral mode output and error, showing the effect of process and control lag.

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FIGURE 9.16

The error can be zero but the rate of change very large.

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FIGURE 9.17

Derivative mode controller action changes depending on the rate of error.

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FIGURE 9.18

Proportional-integral (PI) action showing the reset action of the integral contribution. This example is for reverse action.

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FIGURE 9.19 Overshoot and cycling often result when PI mode control is used in start-up of batch processes. The dashed lines show the proportional band.

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FIGURE 9.20

Solution for Example 9.8.

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FIGURE 9.21 action.

Proportional-derivative (PD) action showing the offset error from the proportional mode. This example is for reverse

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FIGURE 9.22

Solution for Example 9.9.

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FIGURE 9.23

The three-mode controller action exhibits proportional, integral, and derivative action.

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FIGURE 9.24

Solution for Example 9.10.

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FIGURE 9.25

Figure for Problems 9.7 and 9.18.

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FIGURE 9.26

Figure for Problems 9.12 to 9.15.

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