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Recovery mechanisms
Primary oil recovery
Describes the production of hydrocarbons under the natural driving mechanisms present in the reservoir without supplementary help from injected fluids such as gas or water.
Recovery mechanisms
Secondary oil recovery
Refers to the additional recovery that results from the conventional methods of water injection and immiscible gas injection.
Water flooding is perhaps the most common method of secondary recovery.
Reservoir geometry Fluid properties Reservoir depth Lithology and rock properties Fluid saturations Reservoir uniformity and pay continuity Primary reservoir driving mechanisms
1. Reservoir Geometry
The areal geometry of the reservoir will influence the location of wells and, if offshore, will influence the location and number of platforms required. If a water-drive reservoir is classified as an active water drive, injection may be unnecessary.
2. Fluid Properties
The physical properties of the reservoir fluids have pronounced effects on the suitability of a given reservoir for further development by waterflooding. The oil viscosity has the important effect of determining the mobility ratio that, in turn, controls the sweep efficiency.
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3. Reservoir Depth
Reservoir depth has an important influence on both the technical and economic aspects of a secondary or tertiary recovery project. Maximum injection pressure will increase with depth. The costs of lifting oil from very deep wells will limit the maximum economic wateroil ratios that can be tolerated, thereby reducing the ultimate recovery factor and increasing the total project operating costs. In waterflood operations, there is a critical pressure (approximately 1 psi/ft of depth) that, if exceeded, permits the injecting water to expand openings along fractures or to create fractures
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The clay minerals present in some sands may clog the pores by swelling and deflocculating when waterflooding is used, no exact data are available as to the extent to which this may occur. Tight (low-permeability) reservoirs or reservoirs with thin net thickness possess water-injection problems in terms of the desired water injection rate or pressure.
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5. Fluid Saturations
In determining the suitability of a reservoir for waterflooding, a high oil saturation that provides a sufficient supply of recoverable oil is the primary criterion for successful flooding operations. Note that higher oil saturation at the beginning of flood operations increases the oil mobility that, in turn, gives higher recovery efficiency.
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The primary drive mechanism and anticipated ultimate oil recovery should be considered when reviewing possible waterflood prospects.
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Water-drive reservoirs
Water-drive reservoirs that are classified as strong waterdrive reservoirs are not usually considered to be good candidates for waterflooding because of the natural ongoing water influx. However, in some instances a natural water drive could be supplemented by water injection in order to:
Support a higher withdrawal rate Better distribute the water volume to different areas of the field to achieve more uniform areal coverage
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Gas-cap reservoirs
Gas-cap reservoirs are not normally good waterflood prospects because the primary mechanism may be quite efficient without water injection. In these cases, gas injection may be considered in order to help maintain pressure. Smaller gas-cap drives may be considered as waterflood prospects, but the existence of the gas cap will require greater care to prevent migration of displaced oil into the gas cap. If the vertical communication between the gas cap and the oil zone is considered poor due to low vertical permeability, a waterflood may be appropriate in this case.
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Factors to determine the reservoir pressure (or time) to initiate a secondary recovery project
Reservoir oil viscosity
Water injection should be initiated when the reservoir pressure reaches its bubble-point pressure since the oil viscosity reaches its minimum value at this pressure. The mobility of the oil will increase with decreasing oil viscosity, which in turns improves the sweeping efficiency.
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This selection can be achieved by 1.Converting existing production wells into injectors. 2.drilling infill injection wells.
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Irregular injection patterns Peripheral injection patterns Regular injection patterns Crestal and basal injection patterns
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Where
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RF = overall recovery factor NS = initial oil in place at the start of the flood, STB NP = cumulative oil produced, STB ED = displacement efficiency EA = areal sweep efficiency EV = vertical sweep efficiency
Fluid mobilities Pattern type Areal heterogeneity Total volume of fluid injected
The vertical sweep efficiency EV Is the fraction of the vertical section of the pay zone that is contacted by injected fluids. The vertical sweep efficiency is primarily a function of:
Vertical heterogeneity Degree of gravity segregation Fluid mobilities Total volume injection
Where
Soi = initial oil saturation at start of flood Boi = oil FVF at start of flood, bbl/STB o = average oil saturation in the flood pattern at a particular point during the flood
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where
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fw = fraction of water in the flowing stream, i.e., water cut, bbl/bbl qt = total flow rate, bbl/day qw = water flow rate, bbl/day qo = oil flow rate, bbl/day
fw = fraction of water (water cut), bbl/bbl ko = effective permeability of oil, md kw = effective permeability of water, md = wateroil density differences, g/cm3 kw = effective permeability of water, md qt = total flow rate, bbl/day o = oil viscosity, cp w = water viscosity, cp A = cross-sectional area, ft2
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iw = water injection rate, bbl/day Winj = cumulative water injected, bbl t = time, day (x)Sw = distance from the injection for any given saturation Sw, ft
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Nonstabilized zone
Saturation zone between Swf and (1 Sor), where the velocity of any water saturation is variable.
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tBT = time to breakthrough, day PV = total flood pattern pore volume, bbl L = distance between the injector and producer, ft
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Is the fraction of the vertical section of the pay zone that is contacted by injected fluids. The vertical sweep efficiency is primarily a function of:
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Vertical heterogeneity Degree of gravity segregation Fluid mobilities Total volume injection
Mobility
In general, the mobility of any fluid is defined as the ratio of the effective permeability of the fluid to the fluid viscosity
where o, w, g = mobility of oil, water, and gas, respectively ko, kw, kg = effective permeability to oil, water, and gas, respectively kro, krw = relative permeability to oil, water, and gas, respectively k = absolute permeability
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Mobility ratio
Substituting for :
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Flood Patterns
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Water Flooding