Sexual Reproduction

Production of a new individual resulting from the joining of gametes

Key Points
Involves 2 parents Each parent produces haploid gametes as a result of meiosis Gametes fuse at fertilization forming a diploid zygote Zygote develops into a new individual Increases genetic variation

Parent Individual (2n) meiosis Gametes (n) fertilization Zygote (2n)

Parent Individual (2n) meiosis Gametes (n)

New individual (2n)

Formation of Gametes
Gametes formed by sex organs Sex organs in Flowering Plants: anthers (male) pollen (male gametes) ovaries (female) ovules (female gametes) Sex organs (gonads) in Animals: testes (male) spermatozoa (male gametes) ovaries (female) ova (female gametes)

Meiosis
Reduction division (halves the chromosome number in the gametes) Only occurs during gamete formation Ensures gametes are haploid in chromosome number before fertilization occurs Involves 2 divisions of the nucleus (Meiosis I and Meiosis II)

Gamete-Forming Cell

2n

Meiosis I n Meiosis II n n
Gametes

Significance of Meiosis
Brings about production of gametes Ensures each gamete has haploid number of chromosomes Allows genetic variation to occur

How Genetic Variation is Achieved Through Meiosis

1. Crossing Over Occurs during first division of meiosis Pairs of homologous chromosomes swap part of their genetic material

Crossing Over

2. Independent Assortment During first division of meiosis each chromosome in a homologous pair can line up when chromosomes pair up Results in the gamete cells at end of meiosis have different combinations of chromosomes

Independent Assortment

Gametogenesis
Process by which gametes are formed In animals: Oogenesis formation of ova Spermatogenesis formation of spermatozoa

Spermatogenesis

Sperm Formation - Testis

Structure of a Sperm

Important Features of a Sperm

Feature
Acrosome Nucleus Mitochondria Tail (flagellum)

Importance
Releases enzymes to help sperm penetrate egg Contains males genetic material Provide energy via ATP for swimming Used for swimming

Oogenesis

Ovum Formation - Ovary

Structure of Secondary Oocyte

Sperm and an Egg Compared

Feature
Tail Haploid nucleus Acrosome present Mitochondria present Cytoplasm containing lipid droplets Uses ATP for movement

Sperm

Egg

Fertilization in Humans
Fusion of nucleus of sperm with nucleus of ovum forming a zygote

Events of Fertilization
Inside female reproductive system acrosome of the sperm matures (becomes capable of releasing enzymes) When heads of sperms touch surface of secondary oocyte acrosome reaction triggered Acrosome releases enzymes to digest follicle cells and zona pellucida around oocyte

 Head of one sperm eventually touches surface membrane of oocyte Oocyte now undergoes Meiosis II forming an ovum Head of sperm enters ovum (tail detaches) Inside ovum head swells and releases chromosomes Chromosomes of sperm fuse with chromosomes of ovum forming 2n zygote

Gametogenesis in Flowering Plants

Male gametes 2 male nuclei inside pollen grains Pollen grains formed by anthers Female gamete Egg cell formed inside an embryosac within an ovule

Vertical Section Through a Flower

Pollen Grain Formation

Embryosac Formation

Ovule inside the ovary with a mature embryosac

Fertilization in Flowers
To achieve fertilization flowers must be pollinated (pollen transferred from anthers to stigma) Pollination achieved typically by insects/wind Pollen grains germinate on stigma forming pollen tubes Tube nucleus in pollen grain controls growth of a pollen tube down style to ovule

 Pollen tube carries male gametes (male nuclei) to embryosac inside ovule Tip of pollen tube bursts releasing 2 male nuclei inside embryosac Double fertilization now follows

Double Fertilization
one male nucleus (n) + 2 polar nuclei (2n) one male nucleus (n) + egg cell (n)

triploid endosperm nucleus (3n) food reserve for embryo

zygote (2n) embryo