Managing Engineering Design & Development

What is the first active step in product & technology life cycle? A new product begins as an idea for the solution of a problem or the satisfaction of a need. In research only a few out of many research ideas will be vigorous enough to survive and will reach the right environment to mature into a successful product. Over the period of time, this product would be replaced by newer ideas that satisfy newer needs. This cradle to grave sequence is known as the product life cycle.

Product & Technology Life Cycle

Product life cycle begins with an identification of need or suggestion of a product opportunity. The product must be subjected to a screening process to select from the many ideas available, those that are technically and economically feasible and to propose a program for their successful design and development. Proposed products that appear attractive at this point are approved for the product design function. Products that still appear desirable after the design process then go to the production function. Products, that are complex, will be under a constant process called product evaluation (product use & logistic support.

Steps or Functions and Typical Activities in the Product Life Cycle

Consumer Identification of Wants or desires for products (because obvious deficiencies/problems are made evident through basic research Need
results)

Product Planning function Product research function PRODUC T LIFE CYCLE

Marketing analysis; feasibility study; advanced product planning; planning review; proposal

Basic research; applied research (need oriented); research methods; result of research; evolution from basic research to product design and development

Producer

Product design Design requirements; conceptual design; preliminary system design; detailed design; design support; engineering function
model/prototype development; transition from design to production

Production or Production or construction requirements; industrial engineering and operations analysis; quality control; production operations Construction function Product evaluation function
Evaluation requirements; categories of test and evaluation; test preparation phase(planning, resource requirements,etc);formal test and evaluation; data collection ,analysis, reporting and corrective action; retesting

Steps or Functions and Typical Activities in the Product Life Cycle

Production or Production or construction requirements; industrial engineering and operations analysis; quality control; production operations Construction function Product evaluation function
Evaluation requirements; categories of test and evaluation; test preparation phase(planning, resource requirements,etc);formal test and evaluation; data collection ,analysis, reporting and corrective action; retesting

Producer

PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE

Consumer

Product use and Logistic support function

Product distribution and operational use; elements of logistics and life cycle maintenance support; product evaluation; modifications, product phase-out; material disposal, reclamation, or recycling

Technology Life Cycle

Market volume

Technology development

Application Applications launch growth Time

Mature technology

Technology substitution and obsolescence

Nature of Research & Development

Research, both basic & applied, is a systematic, intensive study directed toward fuller scientific knowledge of the subject studied. Basic Research Research devoted to achieving a fuller knowledge or understanding, rather than a practical application, of the subject under study may be in the fields of present or potential interest to the company. Applied Research Directed toward the practical application of knowledge, which for industry means the discovery of new scientific knowledge that has specific commercial objectives with respect to either products or processes. Development Systematic use of scientific knowledge directed toward the production of useful materials, devices, systems or methods including design and development of prototypes and processes.

Research Strategy and Organization

Deciding the relative investment a company should make in R & D is a part of strategic planning and should be based on the organizations concept of its fundamental mission and objectives. Four alternative new product strategies: First-to-market: Demands major expenditures for research and large marketing efforts to introduce an innovative product. Follow-the-leader: Does not require a massive research effort, but it demands strong development engineering. Me-too: There is no research or development, but emulates designs from others, buys or leases the necessary technology and then concentrates on being the minimum cost producer. Application engineering: Requires no research and little development, but flexibility in production so as to make products, understanding the customers need.

Selecting R & D Projects

Need for Selection Technology based manufacturing firm will have many more ideas for research projects than it has resources to invest in them. This is carried out based on the ratio of raw new product ideas to profitable products. Initial Screening Requires evaluation method that is quick and inexpensive. The proposed product is given a simple judgmental rating for each of a number of characteristics.

Checklist
Technical factors Research direction and balance Timing Stability Position factor Market growth factor Marketability & Compatibility Producibility Financial factor Patentability

Selecting R & D Projects

60 unstated new product ideas are screened for Technical feasibility Financial feasibility Suitability to corporate resource and objectives

to obtain

12 ideas worthy of further evaluation through Preliminary engineering design Market research and cost/benefit analysis

to find

6 potential products worthy of Further design development and analysis resulting in 3 prototypes for physical and market test, 2 products launched, and 1 profitable product

Protection of IDEAS
If ideas can be readily duplicated by others, then there is often insufficient reasons for expending the initial resources for a short term advantage. As the more advanced nations develop, products and services that have high creative value added content, it is vital to the economic well being of the creative organizations that there be some means for protection of ideas in all industrialized nations. There are four legal means to protect an organization's (or individuals) ideas and right to benefit from those ideas. They are patents, copyrights, trade secrets and trademarks & other marks. This area of law is generally referred to as intellectual property law / right.

Patents
A patent is an exclusive property right to an invention There are three classifications: 1. Utility Patent: Obtained for a process, a machine, an article of manufacture, a composition of material, or any improvement. The life span is 20 years from the date of application. To be patentable, the invention must be new or novel, useful or have utility and nonobvious. 2. Design Patent: Granted on new, original and ornamental design of an article of manufacture for a term of 14 years from the date the design patent is granted. This is not concerned with how the article of manufacture was made, but with how it looks. The design must be primarily ornamental rather than primarily function to be valid. 3. Plant Patent: Granted for 20 years from the date of application for plants when asexually reproduced.

Establishing Patent Rights

The invention process includes 1) conception and 2) reduction to practice. If the first to conceive makes a reasonable, diligent effort to reduce the invention to practice, he or she will receive the patent, even if someone else actually reduces it to practice earlier. When someone files a patent application, he or she should be capable of carrying out the invention. A written disclosure of the invention should be made as soon, after conception, as possible. The disclosures primary purpose is to prove the date of conception where there is a question of invention. The disclosure should include sufficient description regarding conception.

Copyrights
Copyright is a bundle of rights to reproduce, derive, distribute, perform and display an original creative work in a tangible form for the life of the author, plus 70 more years thereafter. Copyright owners can sue anyone who infringes their rights to stop illegal reproduction. This can be given for literary works, musical works, dramatic works, pictorial works, architectural works, etc. It protects expressions, not ideas. A potentially patentable idea expressed in a copyright text may be used by others. A copyright notice has three elements: 1. The copyright symbol 2. The year of first publication 3. The name of the copyright owner

 Trade secrets or confidential technological and commercial information are the most important assets of many businesses. The law protects trade secrets as alternatives to patents and copyrights. Trade secrets have no precise definition, but to be protected by the courts, they must be secret, substantial and valuable. The secret can be almost anything as long as it is not generally known in the trade or industry to which it applies. It may be a formula, process, know-how, specifications, pricing information, customer lists, supply sources, merchandising methods or other business information. Unlike patents or copyrights, trade secrets have no time limitations and there is no registration with any government agency. If the trade secret is unlawfully obtained, the court could award the trade secrets owner compensation for damages suffered.

Trade Secrets

Trademarks and Other Marks

Trademark is used by a manufacturer or merchant to identify his goods and distinguish them from those manufactured or sold by others. Service mark is associated with services rather than goods. Certification mark indicates that the marked goods or services meet standards or services established by the marks owner. These marks are registered under the law of federal act and hence protected by the federal statutes.

Creativity
Nature of Creativity
Creativity is the ability to produce new and useful ideas through the combination of known principles and components in novel and nonobvious ways. Playing with imagination and possibilities, leading to new and meaningful connections and outcomes while interacting with ideas, people and the environment. An effective research organization requires the understanding of the creative process, identifying and acquiring creative people and maintaining an environment that supports creativity.

The Creative Process

Preparation: A period of conscious, direct mental effort devoted to the accumulation of information pertinent to the problem. Frustration & Incubation: Failure to solve the problem satisfactorily by the analytical process leads to, frustration. However, the problem, fortified with all the facts gathered about it, incubates in the sub conscious mind. Inspiration & Illumination: A possible solution to the problem may occur as a spontaneous insight, often when the conscious mind is at rest. Verification: Solution revealed in a flash of insight must now be tested and evaluated.

Characteristics of Creative People

Self Confidence & Independence: Creative people seem to be self sufficient, emotionally stable and able to tolerate ambiguity. They are independent in thought & action and tend to reduce, group pressures for conformity, and rules & regulations that do not make sense. Curiosity: They have a drive for knowledge about how or why things work, are good observers with good memories and build a broad knowledge about a wide range of subjects. Approach to problems: They are open minded and uncritical in the early stages of problem solving, generating many ideas. They enjoy abstract thinking, concentrate intensively on problems that interest them and employ precision & exactness in their work. Some personal attributes: They may be more comfortable with things or objects than people. They have broad intellectual interests and are always attracted by complexity.

Creativity & Innovation

Creativity produces only ideas, but they are not useful until they are reduced to practice and use, which is the process of innovation. People required for Technological Innovation: Idea Generator: The creative individual Entrepreneur: The person who carries the ball Gatekeepers: Technical performers who are into research and journal publications Program Managers: Who manage without inhibiting Sponsor or Champion: The person, often in senior management, who provides financial and moral support

Nature of Engineering Design

Design is the process of creating a model, described in terms of drawings and specifications of a system that will meet an identified need of the customer. Engineering design is a process of transforming information. Information provides the input to the process: A statement of the problem to be solved, design standards, design methods and the methods of engineering science. Through Engineering design process, the engineer performs logical sequence of activities, decisions and analysis to develop a solution to the problem. Engineer communicates the solution in the form of drawings, written reports and oral presentations.

Engineering Design Process

Customer Needs

Systems Engineering
The Design of a complex engineered system, from the realization of a need through production to engineering support in use is known as systems engineering or as new product development. Systems Engineering is a robust approach to the Design, Creation & Operation of systems. The approach consists of: Identification and quantification of system goals Creation of alternative system design concepts Verification of design Post implement assessment of meeting the goals

 Requirements Analysis: Analyze customer needs and constraints to determine the functions that must be performed by the system to meet objectives. Functional Analysis / Allocation: Identify lower level functions needed to meet these functional requirements and translate hem into design requirements suitable as design criteria. Synthesis: Define the system concept, configuration item and select the preferred set of product / process solutions. System Analysis and Control: Provide the progress measurement assessment & decision mechanisms required to evaluate design capabilities and document the design and decision data.

Systems Engineering Process - Activities

Phases / Stages in Systems Engineering

Conceptual Stage: The first phase of the product development begins with defining the design problem. Technical Feasibility Stage: The objective of this stage is to confirm the target performance of the new product through experimentation or accepted engineering analysis and to ascertain that there are no technical or economic barriers to implementation that cannot be overcome by development. Development Stage: The objective of this stage is to make the needed improvements in materials, designs & processes and to confirm that the product will perform as specified by constructing & testing engineering prototypes or pilot processes.

 Commercial Validation and Production-Preparation Stage: The objective of this stage is to develop the manufacturing techniques and establish test market of the new product. Full-Scale Production Stage: The final design drawings, specifications, flow charts, procedures, quality control & reliability standards are made ready and manufacturing facilities are constructed & processes are adjusted until a quality product which is economical is being produced. Product Support Stage: Steps are taken to ensure that the product can be used and maintained by consumers manuals, customer service, warranty plans & repairs. Disposal Stage: Getting rid of the waste products without polluting the environment.

Control Systems in Design

o o o o Drawing / Design Release Configuration Management Design Review Conceptual Design Review System Design Review System / Software Design Review Critical Design Review Management Audit of the Design Function

Product Liability and Safety

Product Liability: Effects on how companies make and describe their products; and which requires great care on the part of their engineers and managers. Reducing Liability: To protect against product liability, designers must foresee even unlikely conditions. Example: Failure to warn of a product hazard. This could be possible through: The product meets the users reasonable expectations of safety. The risks are reduced to the greatest extent possible. The product contains adequate warnings. It should reduce the likelihood of any injury.

Designing for Reliability

Reliability: It is the probability that a system will demonstrate specified performance for a stated period of time when operated under specified conditions. Risk: It is defined as the chance (probability) of injury, damage or loss.

Simple reliability models

When designing systems we estimate the reliability of the individual components. Then we combine these known reliabilities to estimate the overall reliability of the system. We use reliability models for this estimation. Simple Series Model (Switch and Lamp) Simple Parallel Model (Lamp and Lamp) Series Parallel Model (Switch - Lamp and Switch - Lamp) Bathtub Curve Model (Inverse of lambda is Mean Time between Failures)

Bathtub Curve Model

Hazard rate

Infant mortality

Useful life

Wear-out

Life
Figure : The bathtub curve

Developing Reliability over the Product life Cycle

Planning and Apportionment Designing for Reliability Flattening the Bathtub Curve Reliability Growth The Reliability Profession

Other Ilities in Design

Maintainability Availability Human factors Standardization Producibility Value Engineering / Analysis