Neural Physiology

Name :- Hakim Asif Haider Course :- Life science 3rd year Moderator:- Parminder Kaur Narang

Outline Of Presentation
Neural Tissue Membrane Potential Synapses Summary

1) Neural Tissue
Structure And Maintenance Of Neurons Functional Classes Of Neurons Glial Cells Neural Growth And Regeneration Summary

A) Structure And Maintenance Of Neuron

Nervous system as far as convenience is concerned has been divided into two parts
Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

CNS Composed of Brain And Spinal Cord PNS consist of nerves that extends between the brains and spinal cord and the bodys muscle , glands and sense organs.

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Basic unit of Nervous system is the individual nerve cell, or neurons.* Neurons occur in a wide variety of sizes and shapes . Long extensions , or processes connect neurons to each other and perform the input and output functions of neurons .

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Most Neurons Contain Four parts:Cell Body. Dendrite. Axon. Axon Terminal.**

Dendrite , Axon and Axon Terminal collectively make up the cell processes.

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The axons of most but not all neurons are covered by Myelin , which consists of 20 to 200 layers of highly modified plasma membrane wrapped around the axon by a nearby supporting cell . In the brain and spinal cord these myelin-forming cells are the Oligodendrocytes (Type of Glial Cell). Each Oligodendrocytes may branch to form myelin on as many as 40 axons.

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In order to maintain the structure and function of the cell axon , various organelle and materials must be moved as much as one meter from the cell body , where they are made , to the axon and its terminal. This movement is termed as Axon Transport

B) Functional Classes of Neurons .

Neurons can be divided into three functional classes:Afferent Neurons Efferent Neurons Inter Neurons

Afferent Neurons
Transmit information into the Central Nervous System (CNS) From receptors at their peripheral endings. Cell Body and the long Peripheral process of the axon are in the peripheral nervous system; only the short central process of the axon enters the Central Nervous System Have no dendrite do not receive inputs from other neurons

Efferent Neurons
Transmit Information out of the central Nervous System (CNS) to effector cells , particularly muscles , glands or other neurons. Cell Body , dendrite and a small segment of the axon are in the Central Nervous System. Most of the Axon are in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

Inter Neurons.***
Function as integrators and signal exchangers. Integrate groups of afferent and efferent neurons in the reflex circuit. Lie entirely within the Central nervous System (CNS). Account for 99% of all neurons.

C) Glial Cells
Glial Cells accounts for about 90% of cells in the Central Nervous System (CNS). These are also known as Neuroglia (glia = glue). These cells help to regulate the extracellular fluid composition, sustain the neurons metabolically , form myelin and the blood brain barrier. Serve as guides for developing neurons and provide immune function

D) Neural Growth And Regeneration

Neurons develop from stem cells , migrate to their final location , and send out processes to their target cells. Cell division to form new neurons is markedly slowed after birth After degeneration of a severed axon , damaged peripheral neurons may regrow the axon to their target organ. In the CNS , there is some regeneration of neurons , but it is not yet known how significant this is for function.

2) Membrane Potential
The Resting Membrane Potential Graded Potential Action Potential

A) Resting Membrane Potential

All cells under resting condition have a potential across their plasma membrane with the inside of the cell negatively charged with respect to the outside. This potential is the resting membrane potential. By Convention , extracellular fluid is assigned a voltage of Zero , and the polarity of the membrane potential is stated in terms of the sign of the excess charge on the inside of the cell.

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Resting Membrane potential exist because there is a tiny excess of negative ions inside the cell and an excess of positive ions outside , whereas the bulk of the intracellular and extracellular fluids are neutral. Concentration of Na* , K* and Chloride ion in the extracellular and intracellular fluid of a typical nerve cell has 10 to 30 fold difference in concentration

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Membrane potential are generated mainly by the diffusion of ions and are determined by
The ionic concentration differences across the membrane The membranes relative permeability's to different ions

Plasma membrane Na*/K*-ATPase pumps maintain low intracellular sodium concentration and high intracellular potassium concentration.

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In almost all resting cells the plasma membrane is much more permeable to potassium than to sodium , so the membrane potential is close to the potassium equilibrium potential i.e. the inside is negative relative to the outside . The Na*/K* ATPase pumps directly contribute a small component of the potential because they are electrogenic

B) Graded Potential
A potential change of variable amplitude and duration that is conducted decrementally. It has no threshold or refractory period. It can be summed and its amplitude varies with condition of the initiating events

It can be depolarisation or a hyperpolarisation

It is initiated by environmental stimulus (receptor ) , by neurotransmitter (synapse), or spontaneously.

Mechanism depends on ligand sensitive channels or other chemical or physical change

C) Action Potential
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Ionic Basis of action Potential Mechanism Of Ion channel Changes Refractory Period Action Potential Propagation. Some Other potential.

Action potential
All or None , once membrane is depolarized to threshold, amplitude is independent of initiating event. It cannot be summed Has a threshold which is usually about 15mV depolarized relative to the resting potential Has a Refractory period Is conducted without decrement; the depolarization is amplified to a constant value at each point along the membrane Is only a depolarization and initiated by graded potential and mechanism depends on voltagegated channels

Ionic Basis of Action Potential

1. In the resting state , the leak channels in the plasma membrane are predominantly those that are permeable to potassium ions. Very few sodium ion channels are open and the resting potential is therefore close to the potassium equilibrium potential. The action potential begins with the depolarization of the membrane in response to a stimulus. The initial depolarization opens voltage gated sodium channels , which increases the permeability to sodium ions several hundred folds and allows more sodium ions to enter the cell , and the cell become more and more depolarized until a threshold .

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2. As the threshold is reached to trigger the action potential , this is called the threshold potential. After the threshold potential has reached , more voltage gated Na* channels open. 3. The membrane potential overshoots , becoming positive on the inside and negative on the outside of membrane. In this phase , the membrane potential approaches but does not quite reach the sodium equilibrium potential (+60mV)

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4. At the peak of the action potential sodium permeability abruptly decreases and voltage gated K* channels open. The membrane potential begins to rapidly repolarise to its resting level.

5. After sodium channels have closed , some of the voltage gated potassium channels are still open and in nerve cells there is generally a small hyperpolarisation of the membrane beyond the resting level called the afterhyperpolarisation.

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6. Once the voltage gated potassium channels close the resting membrane potential is restored . Chloride permeability does not change during the action potential.

Synapse
Definition.
Functional Anatomy Of Synapse. Mechanism Of Neurotransmitter Release

Activation Of The postsynaptic Cell.

Synaptic Integration. Synaptic Strength.

Neurotransmitters And Neuromodulators.

Definition
Anatomically Specialized junction between two neurons where one neuron alters the electrical and chemical activity of the other neuron

Functional Anatomy Of Synapse

A neurotransmitter , which is stored in synaptic vesicles in the pre-synaptic axon terminal , carries the signal from pre to post synaptic neurons

Mechanism Of Neurotransmitter Release

Depolarisation Of The Axon Terminal raises the calcium concentration within the terminal , which causes the release of neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.

The Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors on the post synaptic cell , the activated receptor usually open the ion channels.

Activation Of The Post Synaptic Cell

At an excitatory synapse , the electrical response in the post synaptic cell is called an Excitatory Post Synaptic Potential (EPSP). At an inhibitory synapse , it is an Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potential (IPSP). Usually at an excitatory synapse , channels in the post synaptic cell that are permeable to sodium , potassium and other small positive ions are opened ; in IPSP channels to chloride or K* are opened.

Synaptic Integration
The Post Synaptic cells membrane potential is in response to Temporal and Spatial summation of the IPSP and EPSP at the many excitatory and inhibitory synapses on the cell. Action Potential are generally initiated by the Temporal and Spatial summation of EPSP.

Synaptic Strength
Synaptic effects are influenced by pre and post synaptic events , drugs , and diseases.

2. Neurotransmitters And Neuromodulators

In general , neurotransmitter cause EPSP and IPSP. Neuromodulators cause via second messenger more complex metabolic effects in the post synaptic cell. The actions of neurotransmitters are usually faster than those of Neuromodulators.

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