Sedimentary Rocks

From sediments to rocks

Dr Marcus Matthews

Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks and the rock cycle Sedimentary Environments Facies Diagenesis Classification of Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary Rocks and the Rock Cycle

Sedimentary rocks are the product of several overlapping processes
Weathering parent rocks decomposed and or fragmented Erosion carries particles away Transportation moves particles to new locations Deposition particles settle, minerals are precipitated Burial layers of sediment accumulate Diagenesis physical & chemical changes that transform a sediment into a rock

Weathering and Erosion Yield the Raw Materials

Particles and dissolved substances

Clastic sediments

Chemical deposits Cementing materials

Weathering and Erosion Yield the Raw Materials

Clastic sediments
Transported solid fragments Boulders to clay Often called siliclastic Stable minerals e.g. quartz found unaltered Less stable minerals e.g. feldspar often absent or partially altered New minerals e.g. clay minerals Mineralogy of sediment reflects intensity of weathering as well as length and type of transport Clastic sediments generally accumulate more rapidly than other types of sediments

Weathering and Erosion Yield the Raw Materials

Chemical and Biochemical Sediments
Dissolved products of weathering Chemical sediments are formed at or near place of deposition (e.g. rock salt, limestone) Biochemical sediments contain un-dissolved remains of organisms (e.g. chalk) In practice many chemical and biochemical sediments overlap

Transportation and Deposition

Most particles are transported by currents of water or air (wind). Rivers annually carry a solid and dissolved sediment load of more than 20 billion tonnes. Currents in air move material globally but in much smaller quantities

Transportation and Deposition

Currents sort sediments into different size groups

Clastic rocks

Chemical & biochemical rocks

L.S. Fichter (1993, 2000) http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/sedrx/simpbasclas.html

Transportation and Deposition

Transportation changes the character of the particles. The key factors are time, distance and mode of transport.

Transportation results in reduced particle angularity and size

Transportation and Deposition

Transportation changes the character of the particles. The key factors are time, distance and mode of transport. Example: Clastic particles eroded at the headwaters of the Missouri River in the mountains of western Montana take hundreds of years to travel the 2000 miles to the Gulf of Mexico. These particles may be affected by physical weathering (rounding) as well as intermittent chemical weathering. Transport by glaciers does not result in rounding of particles. The particles are reduced in size. Transport by wind rounds and polishes particles.

Sedimentary Environments
A sedimentary environment is a geographic location characterised by a particular combination of geological processes. Type and amount of water (ocean, lake, river, arid land) Topography (lowland, mountains, coastal plain, shallow ocean, deep ocean) Biological activity (coral reefs, swamps)

Sedimentary Environments

Continental Environments Alluvial Desert Lake Glacial

Shoreline Environments Deltaic Tidal flat Beach Marine Environments Continental shelf Continental slope Organic reefs Deep-sea

Facies
Facies are combinations of sediments or sedimentary rocks characteristic of a particular sedimentary environment. Examples: Alluvial facies and deltaic facies

Sedimentary Facies: Alluvial

The sediments deposited by a meandering river form a sequence where each bed forms in a different part of the channel. As the channel migrates they are deposited in sequence on top of each other. The sequence is cyclic with each cycle ending in over-bank flooding.

Fining upward sequence

Sedimentary Facies: Deltaic

Active delta lobe
The river delta is a complex environment as it involves the combination of river, tides and wave action. Channel switching by river causes delta lobes to be periodically abandoned resulting in a cyclic sequence of sediments.

Abandoned delta lobe

Coal (abandonment) Prograding delta lobe Marine shale

One delta cycle

Coarsening upwards sequence

One delta cycle

Diagenesis
Physical and chemical changes that transform a sediment into a rock Mud (clay) Mudstone & shale

Sand
Gravel

Sandstone
Conglomerate/breccia

Carbonate rich muds

Limestone & marl

Diagenetic Processes: Compaction

Compaction (primarily of muds)
Pressure due to overburden (burial) squeezes water out of pore space. 10-20% water
Particles forced closer together as pore volume reduces

50-60% water

Note Geologists say compaction Geotechnical Engineers say consolidation To a Geotechnical Engineer compaction means removal of air through application of energy

Diagenetic Processes: Cementation

Precipitation of new minerals

Loose sand

Common cements Iron oxide Calcium Carbonate Clay minerals Silica

Cemented sandstone

Diagenetic Processes: ReCrystallisation

New crystal faces precipitated on existing mineral grains

Loose sand =

Cemented sandstone
same mineral

Example: development of a strong quartzite through precipitation of silica on original quartz grains

Diagenetic Processes: Dissolution

Classification of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Grains visible with naked eye (course), with aid of x10 hand Breccia (angular fragments) lens (fine)

Grains visible with naked eye

Grains not visible with aid of x10 hand lens

Conglomerate (rounded fragments)

Sandstone

Mudrocks Claystone Siltstone Shale

Gravel

Sand

Silt

Clay

2mm 60mm Cobbles 60-200mmm, Boulders >200mm

0.6

0.06mm

0.002mm

Classification of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Major types of sandstone based on mineral/rock content
Quartzite Arkose Lithic Sandstone

Greywacke

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Classification of chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks Biochemical
Sediment Sand & mud Siliceous sediment Chalcedony Peat, organic matter Lignite, Coal Organics Carbon compounds Rock Limestone Chert Composition CaCO3 SiO2 Minerals Calcite Opal, Quartz (Coal) (Oil) (Gas)

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Classification of chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks Chemical
Sediment Evaporite Rock Evaporite Composition Sodium chloride Calcium sulphate Minerals Halite Anhydrite Gypsum Hematite Limonite Siderite

Iron oxide sediments Iron formation Iron oxide Iron carbonate

Formed by diagenesis Dolomite Calcium-magnesium Dolomite (Dolostone) carbonate Phosphorite Calcium phosphate Apatite

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Classification of chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks Biochemical
Sediment Sand & mud Siliceous sediment Chalcedony Peat, organic matter Lignite, Coal Organics
o

Rock Limestone Chert

Composition CaCO3 SiO2

Minerals Calcite Opal,

Quartz
Carbon compounds (Coal) (Oil) (Gas)

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Classification of chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks Chemical
Sediment Evaporite Rock Evaporite Composition Sodium chloride Calcium sulphate Minerals Halite Anhydrite Gypsum Hematite Limonite Siderite

Iron oxide sediments Iron formation Iron oxide Iron carbonate

Formed by diagenesis Dolomite Calcium-magnesium Dolomite (Dolostone) carbonate Phosphorite Calcium phosphate Apatite