SPE 3510 Basic Anatomy and Physiology

Roxana Dev Omar Dev

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CONTENTS IN BRIEF FOR SEMESTER

How the body is organized Protection, Support, and Movement Control, Communication and Coordination Transport and Maintenance Reproduction and development

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Chapter 2

The Chemical Basis of Life

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Basic Chemistry
Matter, Mass, and Weight
Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass Mass: the amount of matter in an object Weight: the gravitational force acting on an object of a given mass

Elements and Atoms

Element: the simplest type of matter with unique chemical properties; composed of atoms of only one kind Atom: smallest particle of an element that has chemical characteristics of that element

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Atomic Structure
Atoms: composed of subatomic particles
Neutrons: no electrical charge Protons: one positive charge Electrons: one negative charge

Nucleus: formed by protons and neutrons Most of the volume of an atom occupied by electrons

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Atomic Number and Mass Number

Atomic Number: equal to number of protons in each atom which is equal to the number of electrons Mass Number: number of protons plus number of neutrons

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Isotopes and Atomic Mass

Isotopes: two or more forms of same element with same number of protons and electrons but different neutron number
For example; there are three types of hydrogen Denoted by using symbol of element preceded by mass number as 1H, 2H, 3H

Atomic Mass: average mass of naturally occurring isotopes

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Radioactive Isotopes
Forms of atoms that emit radioactivity such as gamma rays, which can then be measured Used clinically and in research Examples of uses
Tracking hormone uptake Treating cancer Sterilization of materials to be used in surgery
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Electrons and Chemical Bonding

Intramolecular bonding occurs when outermost electrons are either shared with or transferred to another atom Ionic Bonding: atoms exchange electrons Covalent Bonding: two or more atoms share electron pairs Ion: an atom loses or gains electrons and becomes charged Cation: positively charged ion Anion: negatively charged ion In an ionic bond, cations and anions are attracted to each other and remain close to each other

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Covalent Bonding
Atoms share one or more pairs of electrons
Single covalent: two atoms share one pair of electrons Double covalent: Two atoms share 4 electrons Nonpolar covalent: Electrons shared equally because nuclei attract the electrons equally Polar covalent: Electrons not shared equally because one nucleus attracts the electrons more than the other does
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Molecules and Compounds

Molecules: two or more atoms chemically combine to form an independent unit
Example: a hydrogen molecule (H2)

Compounds: a substance composed of two or more different types of atoms chemically combined
Example: water (H2O)

Molecular Mass: determined by adding up atomic masses of its atoms or ions

Example: NaCl (22.99 + 35.45)
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Intermolecular Forces
Forces between molecules Result from weak electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged parts or molecules, or between ions and molecules Weaker than forces producing chemical bonding

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Intermolecular Forces: Hydrogen Bonds

Occur when the positively charged H of one molecule is attracted to the negatively charged O, N or F of another molecule
For example, in water the positively charged hydrogen atoms of one water molecule bond with the negatively charged oxygen atoms of other water molecules Hydrogen bonds play an important role in determining the shape of complex molecules
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Intermolecular Forces:
Solubility and Dissociation
Solubility: ability of one substance to dissolve in another For example, sugar or salt dissolves in water Dissociation or Separation: in ionic compounds, cations are attracted to negative end and anions attracted to positive end of water molecules; the ions separate and each becomes surrounded by water molecules Electrolyte: dissociation of an ionic compound in water
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Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes

Electrolytes: solutions made by the dissociation of cations (+) and anions (-) in water
Have the capacity to conduct an electric current Currents can be detected by electrodes

Nonelectrolytes: solutions made by molecules that dissolve in water, but do not dissociate; do not conduct electricity
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Chemical Reactions
Atoms, ions, molecules or compounds interact to form or break chemical bonds
Reactants: substances that enter into a chemical reaction. Products: substances that result from the reaction

Chemical bonds are made (synthesis; anabolism) and broken (decomposition; catabolism) during chemical reactions Metabolism: collective term used for the sum of all of the anabolic and catabolic reactions in the body
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Synthetic Reactions
Two or more reactants chemically combine to form a new and larger product. Anabolism.
Chemical bonds made; energy stored in the bonds. Responsible for growth, maintenance and repair Hydrolysis: synthetic reaction where water is a product Produce chemicals characteristic of life: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids

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Decomposition Reactions
A large reactant is broken down to form smaller products. Catabolism.
Chemical bonds broken; energy released. Hydrolysis: water is split into two parts that contribute to the formation of the products Example: the breakdown of ATP to form ADP and inorganic phosphate with a concomitant release of free energy

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Reversible Reactions
Chemical reactions in which the reaction can proceed either from reactants to products or from products to reactants. Equilibrium: rate of product formation is equal to rate of reactant formation Example: CO2 and H+ formation in plasma

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Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation: loss of an electron by an atom Reduction: gain of an electron by an atom Oxidation-Reduction Reactions: the complete or partial loss of an electron by one atom is accompanied by the gain of that electron by another atom
Synthetic/decomposition reactions can be oxidative reduction reactions Reactions can be described in more than one way
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Energy: the capacity to do work

Potential Energy: energy stored in chemical bonds; energy that could do work if it were released. Breaking chemical bonds releases energy. Kinetic Energy: does work and moves matter Mechanical Energy: energy resulting from the position or movement of objects Chemical Energy: form of potential energy in the chemical bonds of a substance Heat Energy: energy that flows between objects of different temperatures
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ATP and Potential Energy

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Heat Energy
When a chemical bond is broken and energy is released, only some of that energy is used to manufacture ATP. Energy that is released but not captured is released as heat. The heat used by humans to maintain body temperature.
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Speed of Chemical Reactions

Temperature affects rate of reaction.
Increase in temperature means increase of kinetic energy. Molecules move faster, collide harder and more frequently.

Concentration of reactants.
As concentration of reactants increases, rate of reaction increases. A decrease of O2 in cells can cause death as rate of aerobic chemical reactions decreases.

Catalysts: substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without being permanently changed or depleted
Enzymes: proteinaceous catalysts that increase the rate of chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy necessary for reaction to begin
Activation Energy: minimum energy reactants must have to start a chemical reaction
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Activation Energy and Enzymes

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Chemistry
Inorganic Chemistry: generally, substances that do not contain carbon
Water, oxygen Exceptions: CO, CO2, and HCO3-

Organic Chemistry: study of carboncontaining substances. Those that are biologically active are called biochemicals.
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Water
High specific heat: large amount of heat required to raise temperature of water
Stabilizes body temperature

Protection
Lubricant, cushion

Participates in chemical reactions

Many reactions take place in water Dehydration and hydrolysis

Serves as a mixing medium

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Mixtures, Solutions and Measures of Concentration

Mixture: substances physically but not chemically combined
Suspension: materials separate unless stirred. Sand and water. Colloid: dispersal of tiny particles through a medium. Milk.

Solution: mixture of liquids, gasses, or solids that are uniformly distributed and chemically combined
Solvent: that which dissolves the solute Solute: that which dissolves in the solvent

Concentration: measure of number of particles of solute per volume of solution

Unit used by physiologists is osmolality Concentration of body fluids influences movement of fluid into and out of cells.
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Acids and Bases; Salts and Buffers

Acid: a proton donor or any substance that releases hydrogen ions Base: a proton acceptor or any substance that binds to or accepts hydrogen ions Salt: a compound consisting of a cation other than a hydrogen ion and an anion other than a hydroxide ion. Example: NaCl Buffer: a solution of a conjugate acid-base pair in which acid and base components occur in similar concentrations

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The pH Scale
Refers to the Hydrogen ion concentration in a solution
Neutral: pH of 7 or equal hydrogen and hydroxide ions Acidic: a greater concentration of hydrogen ions Alkaline or basic: a greater concentration of hydroxide ions
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Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide: Important Inorganic Compounds

Oxygen (O2): required in the final step in the series of reactions used to extract energy from food. Carbon dioxide (CO2): produced during the catabolism of organic compounds.
Metabolic waste product. Combines with water in plasma and forms H+ thus affecting acid/base balance
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Organic Chemistry: Biochemicals

Carbohydrates: composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
Divided into monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides Example: glucose Energy sources and structure

Lipids: composed mostly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.

Relatively insoluble in water. Example: anabolic steroids Functions: protection, insulation, physiological regulation, component of cell membranes, energy source

Proteins: composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sometimes iodine.

Example: insulin Functions: regulate processes, aid transport, protection, muscle contraction, structure, energy

Nucleic Acids: composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus.

Examples: ATP, DNA, RNA

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Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides
Simple sugars. Six-carbon sugars like glucose, fructose, and galactose are important in the diet as energy sources. Five-carbon sugars are components of ATP, DNA and RNA
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Carbohydrates: Disaccharides
Two simple sugars bound together by dehydration Examples: sucrose, lactose, maltose

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Carbohydrates: Polysaccharides
Long chains of many monosaccharides. Storage molecules for monosaccharides and form part of cell surface markers Glycogen formed by animals. Starch and cellulose formed by plants
Starch in food is used as a source of monosaccharides Cellulose in food acts as fiber (bulk) in the diet
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Lipids: Fats

Ingested and broken down by hydrolysis

Triglycerides: composed of glycerol and fatty acids Functions: protection, insulation, energy source
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Lipids: Phospholipids
Polar (hydrophilic) at one end; nonpolar (hydrophobic) at the other.
Function: important structural component of cell membranes

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Lipids: Steroids
Cholesterol, bile salts, estrogen, testosterone.
Carbon atoms arranged in four rings Functions: physiological regulators and component of cell membranes
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Lipids: Eicosanoids and Fat-soluble Vitamins

Eicosanoids: Derived from fatty acids.
Function: Important regulatory molecules

Fat-soluble Vitamins: nonpolar molecules essential for normal functioning.

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Proteins
Amino acids: building blocks of protein Peptide bonds: covalent bonds formed between amino acids during protein synthesis

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Protein Structure
Primary: sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain Secondary: folding and bending of chain caused by hydrogen bonding Tertiary: formation of helices or of pleated sheets; caused in part by SS bonds between amino acids Quaternary: two or more proteins associate as a functional unit
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Enzymes: Protein Catalysts

Lower the activation energy necessary for a reaction to occur; bring reactants into close proximity Three-dimensional shape contains an active site where reactants attach. Induced Fit Hypothesis: enzymes change shape to accommodate the shape of specific reactants Enzyme names usually end in ase and often have the same word stem as the reactant; for example a lipid is a reactant for lipase. Cofactors: combine with active site and make nonfunctional enzymes functional Organic cofactors called coenzymes
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Nucleotides
Composed of a five-carbon sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate Include the nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and ATP

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DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid

Genetic material of cells copied from one generation to next Composed of 2 strands of nucleotides
Each nucleotide contains one of the organic bases of adenine or guanine (which are purines) and thymine or cystosine (which are 2-46 pyrimidines).

RNA: Ribonucleic acid

Similar to a single strand of DNA
Four different nucleotides make up organic bases except thymine is replaced with uracil (pyrimidine)

Responsible for interpreting the code within DNA into the primary structure of proteins.

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Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Energy currency of the body Provides energy for other chemical reactions as anabolism or drive cell processes as muscle contraction All energy-requiring chemical reactions stop when there is inadequate ATP
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