An Introduction to Anatomy

Chapter 1

Introduction to Anatomy
Anatomy is a broad field of science in which the body is studied at different levels. Definition of anatomy (to cut up): study of internal and external structures and the physical relationship between body parts Physiology is the study of body function: Structure Determines Function

Anatomy Terminology
Language of Anatomy: Mastery of this language is essential for your success in this class A. Pay attention to Greek and Latin roots (Appendix, p. 822) B. To learn this new language it is recommended to: - create vocabulary flashcards pertaining to each chapter - practice the new vocabulary consistently - recognize that different terms can be used to describe the same structure (Appendix, p. 823)

The Language of Anatomy

Metric System (Appendix, p. 820-821) Length, volume, weight are measured in metric units Length Volume Weight Anatomical Variability Structures presented in books are largely representative of those found in individuals Due to genetic diversity every individual is not structurally identical Neither do sensory organs perceive the environment in exactly the same way.

Study of Anatomy at Different Scales

1nm

10nm

100nm

1m 10m 100m 1mm

10mm 100mm

1m

10m

Transmission electron microscope Scanning electron microscope Compound light microscope Unaided human eye

Branches of Anatomy
Gross or macroscopic
- surface: study of general form (morphology) - regional: superficial and internal features in a specific body area - systemic: structure of major organ systems

Microscopic (histology) anatomy - cytology Developmental - from conception to physical maturity Comparative anatomical organization of different animals Clinical anatomical features that undergo changes during illness Radiographic structures visualized by imaging techniques
- cross-sectional

Surgical studies landmarks important for surgery

Comparative Anatomy
Dorsal, hollow nerve cord forming brain and spinal cord Notochord a stiffened rod below spinal cord, usually replaced by vertebrae Muscular tail extends beyond exit of digestive tract Somites segmental blocks forming muscles, vertebrae, etc. Skull surrounds brain in cranial cavity Vertebrae surround spinal cord in spinal cavity

Digestive tract Salmon (bony fish) Skull Limb bud Somites Vertebrae

Heart Mouth

Anus

Chicken
Braincase of cartilage or bone surrounds the brain Pharyngeal (gill) arches may persist or be modified to form other structures in adult Ventral body cavity contains thoracic and abdominopelvic organs

Skull Somites

Vertebrae Limb buds

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Human

Human Body Plan

Tube-within-a-tube body plan
- inner tube extends from mouth to anus (respiratory and digestive organs) - outer tube consists of axial skeleton, associated axial muscles, and nervous structures that make up the outer body wall

Bilateral symmetry left half a mirror image of right

- body structures such as hands, eyes, ovaries occur in pairs - median plane structures unpaired but usually have identical right and left sides (ie. nose)

Dorsal hollow nerve cord runs along the back in the median plane
- cord develops into the brain and spinal cord

 Notochord (back string) and vertebrae rod in embryo deep to spinal cord
- quickly replaced by the vertebrae, - some persists as cores of the discs between the vertebrae

Segmentation repeating units of similar structure

- ribs, muscles between ribs, nerves, vertebral column

Pharyngeal pouches correspond to clefts between gills of fish

- gives rise to some structures in the head and neck (auditory tube, middle ear, thymus, parathyroid and thyroid glands)

Levels of Organization
Chemical Cellular Tissue Organ Organ System Organism

Chemical Level: atoms

Cellular Level: smallest unit of life Tissue Level: group of similar cells that perform a common function Organ Level: group of 2 or more tissue types that together perform complex physiological processes Organ System Level: various organs with similar or related functions that work together to accomplish a common purpose Organismal Level- result of all simpler levels working together to sustain life Homeostasis (homeo, unchanging + stasis, standing) Failure of maintaining homeostasis - Disease

Chemical Level - Composition of the Body

Other Elements: Oxygen 26%
Carbon 10%

Hydrogen 62%

Nitrogen 1.5%

Calcium Phosphorus Potassium Sodium Sulfur Chlorine Magnesium Iron Iodine Trace elements

0.2% 0.2% 0.06% 0.06% 0.05% 0.04% 0.03% 0.0005% 0.0000003% (see caption)

Water 67% Proteins 20%

Lipids 10%

Carbohydrates 3%
Molecular composition of the human body

Elemental composition of the human body

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Organism Level

Levels of Organization
Organ System Level
Endocrine Nervous Cardiovascular Lymphatic Respiratory Digestive Urinary Reproductive

Muscular Skeletal Integumentary

The heart

Organ Level

Atoms in combination

Cardiac muscle tissue

Tissue Level

Heart muscle cell Complex protein molecule Protein filaments

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Chemical or Molecular Levels

Cellular Level

Life
Responsiveness - irritability and adaptability Growth and Differentiation - size increase and specialization

Reproduction - new generations

Movement - internal (transport of nutrients) or external Metabolism: complex chemical reactions to provide energy
- catabolism: breakdown of complex molecules - anabolism: synthesis of complex molecules

Metabolism requires absorption of materials to provide energy

- respiration: absorption, transport, and use of O2 by cells - excretion: elimination of waste products

Humans
- Digestion and CV system (internal transport system)

Overview of the Human Organ Systems

Integumentary system
Skeletal system Muscular system Nervous system Protection from environmental hazards; temperature control Support, protection of soft tissues; mineral storage; blood formation Locomotion, support, heat production Directing immediate responses to stimuli, usually by coordinating the activities of other organ systems

Endocrine system
Cardiovascular system

Directing long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems

Internal transport of cells and dissolved materials, including nutrients, wastes, and gases

LE 1-5_2

Lymphoid system Respiratory system Digestive system Urinary system Reproductive system

Defense against infection and disease Delivery of air to sites where gas exchange can occur between the air and circulating blood Processing of food and absorption of organic nutrients, minerals, vitamins, and water

Elimination of excess water, salts, and waste products; control of pH

Production of sex cells and hormones

LE 1-6 a,b

Hair
Skull Epidermis & associated glands Sternum Ribs Upper limb bones Supporting bones (scapula and clavicle)

Vertebrae Sacrum

Fingernail

Supporting bones (hip)

Lower limb bones

The Integumentary System

Protects against environmental hazards; helps control body temperature

The Skeletal System

Provides support; protects tissues; stores minerals; forms blood cells

LE 1-6 c,d Brain Spinal cord

Axial muscles

Appendicular muscles

Peripheral nerves

The Muscular System

Allows for locomotion; provides support; produces heat

The Nervous System

Directs immediate responses to stimuli; usually by coordinating the activities of other organ systems

LE 1-6 e,f Pineal gland Parathyroid gland Thymus

Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Heart Capillaries Artery

Suprarenal gland

Pancreas

Vein

Ovary in female

Testis in male

The Endocrine System

Directs long-term changes in activities of other organ systems

The Cardiovascular System

Transports cells and dissolved materials, including nutrients, wastes, and gases

LE 1-6 g,h

Nasal cavity Pharynx Trachea Thymus Lymph nodes Lung Diaphragm Spleen

Sinus Larynx Bronchi

Lymphatic vessel

The Lymphoid System

Defends against infection and disease; Returns tissue fluid to the bloodstream

The Respiratory System

Delivers air to sites where gas exchange can occur between the air and circulating blood

LE 1-6 i,j

Salivary gland
Pharynx Esophagus Liver Gallbladder

Pancreas Small intestine

Stomach Large intestine Urinary bladder

Kidney Ureter

Urethra
Anus

The Digestive System

Processes food and absorbs nutrients

The Urinary System

Eliminates excess water, salts, and waste products

LE 1-6 k,l

Prostate gland Seminal gland Ductus deferens

Mammary gland Uterine tube Ovary Uterus

Urethra

Epididymis Testis Penis Scrotum

Vagina External genitalia

The Female Reproductive System The Male Reproductive System

Produces sex cells and hormones Produces sex cells and hormones; supports embryonicdevelopment from fertilization to birth

Superficial Anatomy
Anatomical Position - supine or prone Anatomical Regions

Abdominopelvic quadrants and abdominopelvic regions

Anatomical Landmarks
Frons or forehead (frontal) Nasus or nose (nasal) Oculus or eye (orbital or ocular) Cranium or skull (cranial) Auris or ear (otic) Bucca or cheek (buccal) Cervicis or neck (cervical) Thoracis or thorax, chest (thoracic) Mamma or breast (mammary) Abdomen (abdominal) Umbilicus or navel (umbilical)

Cephalon or head (cephalic)

Oris or mouth (oral) Mentis or chin (mental) Axilla or armpit (axillary)

Facies or face (facial)

Brachium or arm (brachial)

Antecubitis or front of elbow (antecubital)

Trunk

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Antebrachium or forearm (antebrachial) Carpus or wrist (carpal) Palma or palm (palmar) Pollex or thumb Patella or kneecap (patellar) Crus or leg (crural) Tarsus or ankle tarsal) Digits (phalanges) or toes (digital or phalangeal) Hallux or great toe Digits (phalanges) or fingers (digital or phalangeal)

Pelvis (pelvic)

Manus or hand (manual) Inguen or groin (inguinal) Pubis (pubic) Femur or thigh (femoral)

Pes or foot (pedal)

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LE 1-8b_1

Shoulder (acromial) Dorsum or back (dorsal) Olecranon or back of elbow (olecranal) Lumbus or loin (lumbar)

Cephalon or head (cephalic) Cervicis or neck (cervical)

Upper limb

LE 1-8b_2

Gluteus or buttock (gluteal)

Popliteus or back of knee (popliteal) Sura or calf (sural)

Calcaneus or heel of foot (calcaneal)

Lower limb

Planta or sole of foot (plantar)

Abdominopelvic Region
To facilitate its study, the abdominopelvic region can be divided into different regions and quadrants There are four quadrants and nine regions
- provides clinicians a useful frame of reference

Abdominopelvic Quadrants

Right lobe of liver, gallbladder, right kidney, portions of stomach, small and large intestine

Left lobe of liver, stomach, pancreas, left kidney, spleen, portions of large intestine

Cecum, appendix, and portions of small intestine, reproductive organs (right ovary in female and right spermatic cord in male), and right ureter

Most of small intestine, and portions of large intestine, left ureter, and reproductive organs (left ovary in female and left spermatic cord in male)

Abdominopelvic Regions

Right hypochondriac region Right lumbar region

Epigastric region

Left hypochondriac region Left lumbar region

Umbilical region

Right inguinal region

Hypogastric region

Left inguinal region

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R. Hypochondriac - right, upper 1/3; gallbladder, liver, r. kidney Epigastric - Upper, central 1/3; liver, stomach, pancreas, duodenum L. Hypochondriac - left, upper 1/3; spleen, colon, liver, l. kidney, small intestine R. Lumbar - right, lateral 1/3; cecum, ascending colon, liver, r. kidney, small intestine Umbilical - center; umbilicus (navel) is located here; jejunum, ileum, duodenum, colon, kidneys, major abdominal vessels L. Lumbar - left, lateral 1/3; descending colon, l. kidney, small intestine R. Iliac (inguinal) - right, lower 1/3; appendix, cecum, small intestine Hypogastric (pubic) - lower, center 1/3; urinary bladder, small intestine, sigmoid colon, female reproductive organs L. Iliac (inguinal) - left, lower 1/3; small intestine, descending colon, sigmoid colon

Superficial anatomical landmarks and underlying organs

Stomach
Liver Gallbladder Large intestine Small intestine Appendix Urinary bladder
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Spleen

Directional Terms
Cranial Right Left

Proximal Posterior or dorsal Anterior or ventral Lateral Medial Proximal Distal

Caudal

Distal

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Anatomical Directions

Sectional Anatomy
Planes any slice through a 3 dimensional object can be described through 3 sectional planes
- sagittal, transverse, frontal (coronal)

Serial reconstruction a series of sections at small intervals in one sectional plane Body cavities vital organs are suspended in these internal chambers to provide protection Visible Human Project http://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/visible/visible_human.html

Planes of Section

Frontal plane

Sagittal plane

Transverse plane
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Sectional Anatomy Planes and Sections

Dorsal Body Cavity Cranial Cavity encases the brain

Body Cavities
Cranial Cavity Vertebral Cavity
Superior mediastinum Thoracic Pleural Cavity Cavity Mediastinum with pericardial cavity Diaphargm Abdominal Cavity Pelvic Cavity

Vertebral Cavity runs through the vertebral column encloses the SC

Ventral Body Cavity or coelom contains the viscera 2 major divisions: Thoracic Cavity
- enclosed by the chest wall

Ventral Body Cavity

Abdominopelvic Cavity
- enclosed by the abdominal wall and pelvis

(b) Anterior view

LE 1-14
Provides protection; allows organ movement; lining prevents friction separated by diaphragm into

Surrounded by chest wall and diaphragm subdivided into

Contains the peritoneal cavity Includes the

Surrounds right lung

Contains the trachea, esophagus, and major vessels also contains

Surrounds left lung

Contains many digestive glands and organs

Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, last portion of digestive tract

Surrounds heart

Serous Cavities
Serous cavity narrow fluid-filled space lined by a serous membrane (serosa)
- Pleura - Pericardium - Peritoneum

Parietal serosa pleura covers the opposing mediastinal surface and inner body wall; pericardium is continuous with the viseral serosa; peritoneum lines the body wall Visceral serosa covers the visceral organs Serous Fluid watery lubricant secreted by both serous membranes to minimize friction between organs and cavity walls Mesenteries organs (stomach, small intestine, parts of large intestine) are suspended by double sheets of peritoneum to provide support and stability with limited movement

Serous Cavities
Visceral pericardium Pleural cavity Pericardial cavity Heart Thoracic cavity Pericardial cavity Parietal pericardium Pleural cavity Pericardial cavity Air space Diaphragm Peritoneal cavity Abdominal cavity Pelvic cavity Balloon Abdominal cavity Abdominopelvic cavity Pelvic cavity Diaphragm

Sternum Heart in pericardial cavity Pleural cavity Right lung Left lung Pleura Mediastinum Spinal cord Right lung Left lung

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Clinical Terms
CT, CAT (computerized [axial] tomography) Diagnosis and prognosis Disease MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) Pathology Radiologist

Ultrasound
X-rays and radiodensity (air, fat, liver, blood, muscle, bone)

X-Ray

Barium-contrast X-ray

Stomach Small intestine LE 1-15a

Stomach

Ultrasound - echogram
Liver Aorta Spleen Left kidney Right kidney Vertebra
LE 1-16 Liver Kidney Stomach

Kidney

CT Scan
Stomach Liver Aorta Rib Left kidney
Vertebra
Liver

MRI

Stomach

Kidney

Vertebra

Spleen

Spleen

Spiral CT
Sternum Aortic arch Heart First rib

Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)

Heart

Aorta

Vertebral column

Right scapula

Arteries of the heart

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