Reflection, Refraction, and Diffraction

Observe specular reflection Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection with both angles measured from a line normal to the reflective surface. Corner Reflectors Parabolic principle of collimation Diffuse reflection collective orientation is different therefore SCATTERING results.

Refraction
When there is a transition from one medium to another. In optics defined by Snells law. When wave enters a region with a higher dielectric constant ( a lower propagation velocity) it bends toward the normal. Critical angle. (large incident angle + wave travels to area of low dielectric constant. Extreme case is total internal reflection) An application example of total internal reflection is optical fibre.( core and cladding)

Refraction

n1 sin 1 n2 sin 2
n ur r where ur relative permeability of medium r relative permitivity of the medium
n ur r n r ur is almost always1 for free space

r2 sin 1 sin 2 r1 r2 r1

Can be used to determine angles of incident and refraction rays.

n1 c arcsin n2
Total internal reflection occurs in optcal fibres. Light reflects from the boundary between the core of the fibre and a cladding.

Cladding n2 core Cladding n2

Diffraction
Light appears to go around corners periodically. Radio waves as well. Assume that each point on a wavefront presents itself as an isotropic source. Some wavefronts pass beside or above the obstruction and radiate in the area beyond. Diffraction more pronounced when dimensions of obstruction are small compared to wavelength.

Terrestrial Propagation
Ground-Wave propagation Ionospheric propagation Line of sight. Tropospheric Scatter Tropospheric Ducting

Ground Waves
Frequencies up to 2 Mhz. Vertically polarized in order to minimize currents induced in the ground creating losses. Further from transmitter the more horizontal the wavefront becomes. Ground waves attenuate quickly above 2 Mhz. Users: Military (15 Khz and 60 Khz) Loran (100 Khz) AM broadcast.

Ionospheric Propagation
Three main regions: d, E, anf F layers(F1 and F2) Ionization increases with altitude and is greater during the day. D and E layers diminish at night. Follows 11 year sunspot cycle. Signal returns by a form of refraction. D and E layers absorb low frequencies( 8-10Mhz) during the day therefore low frequencies propagate better at night.

Ionospheric Propagation Contnd.

Frequency Diversity - transmit on multiple frequencies over HF band. Ionospheric sounding - determines Critical Frequency. MUF - maximum usable frequency. The highest frequency that returns to earth for a given path.
f m f c sec1 fm fc cos1 f c criticalfrequency

where f m MUF

OWF - Optimum usable frequency. ( 0.85 MUF)

1 angle of incidence

Skip zone

As the angle of elevation increases the distance covered decreases and MUF becomes lower. For frequencies above fc there will be a region close to the transmitter that will not receive the signal. (skip zone)

Line of Sight Propagation

VHF signals and higher are not normally returned to eath by ionosphere. Space wave, line of sight, and tropospheric propagation are all the same. For terrestrial application distance is limited by the curvature of the earth. Height of TX and RX antennas above terrain is important in the calculation of distance. Subject to signal reflections from the terrain.

Line of Sight Propagation contd.

Line of Sight propagation is subject to reflections. Waves will either be constructive or deconstructive. Especially a concern where surfaces are flat. If signals are 180 degrees out of phase the reduction in signal strength is quite high ( 20dB or more). This contributes to Fading. Remedies: 1. Locating antennas in order that reflections are diffuse in nature. 2. Frequency Diversity 3. Spatial Diversity

Antenna Heights for LOS

With Sky wave propagation antenna height is only important with regards to the impact of reflections on radiation patterns. With Space wave propagation antenna elevation is important with the higher the better realization.

d 17hT 17hR d max imum dis tan ce in km hT height of TX antenna hR height of RX antenna

Troposcatter: 80 to 800 km

250 Mhz to 5 Ghz

Irregularities in the troposphere can cause radio waves to scatter. Possible causes are water vapor and temperature variations. Although it is used as a mechanism for communication systems, the equipment demands make it inefficient. For example: high power TX,high gain antennas and sensitive receivers.

Superrefractive Layers