IB Biology 2 Cells

2.1 Cell Theory

All syllabus statements IBO 2007 All images CC or public domain or link to original material. Jason de Nys

http://www.flickr.com/photos/thejcb/4078621178/

2.1.1 Outline the cell theory.

Cells are the basic unit of life.

KEY POINTS

New cells are formed from other pre-existing cells.

Cells and cell products make up all of the structures in living things.

TOK
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_theory

What is the difference between a scientific theory and the more general use of the word Theory

2.1.2 Discuss the evidence for cell theory

1665 Englishman Robert Hooke

examines cork under a compound microscope. Comes up with the term cells to describe what he sees.

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Microscope_de_HOOKE.png

1675 Dutchman Antonie van

Leeuwenhoek discovers unicellular organisms. (A replica of his microscope at left)

His drawings of yeast

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Leeuwenhoek_Microscope.png http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Yeast-Anton_van_Leeuwenhoek.jpg

1837 German Botanist

Mathias Schleiden posits that all plants are made of cells

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Matthias_Jacob_Schleiden.jpg

1839 German physiologist

Theodor Schwann, after a lovely dinner with his mate Schleiden and a chat about nuclei, realised that animals were comprised of cells too and stated: All living things are composed of cells and cell products
He was also responsible for the discovery of Schwann cells in the PNS, pepsin in the gut, the fact that yeast is organic and he made up the word metabolism. What a legend! Or, as they say in German, legende!
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Schwann_Theodore.jpg

1855 German doctor,

pathologist and biologist Rudolf Virchow (A.K.A. the father of modern pathology)

He built on the work of others to come up with the statement: every cell comes from another TOK existing cell like it

Omnis cellula e cellula

Virchow vehemently disagreed with another scientist about a theory. What was it? Find out why he was opposed. Comment on how modern day celebrities and scientists weigh in on scientific fields in which they may not be experts. Hint: Google Jenny McCarthy and Lord Monckton for starters
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rudolf_Virchow.jpg

2.1.3 State that unicellular organisms carry out all of the functions of life

What are the functions of life?

Micrococcus luteus

http://www.flickr.com/photos/10451360@N00/284050321/

The functions of life:

Metabolism Nutrition Growth Reproduction Homeostasis Response to stimuli

Micrococcus luteus

2.1.4 Compare the relative size of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses, bacteria, organelles and cells, using appropriate SI units

Use the

10x
rule of thumb
http://www.flickr.com/photos/sanna_nixi/799023133/

Molecules Cell Membrane Virus Bacteria Eukaryotic animal cell Eukaryotic plant cell

1nm 10nm thick 100nm 1m (1000nm) 10m 100m

Links to two visual comparisons of size

Of course, there are numerous egg-ceptions. For example, the yolk of an egg is a single animal cell

http://www.flickr.com/photos/rogerss1/3520043134/ http://click4biology.info/c4b/2/cell2.1.htm#size

Another exception, it is a sulfur metabolising bacterium found in the sediments on the sea floor.

Thiomargarita namibiensis
Specimens have been found at up to 0.75mm long, which is visible to the naked eye!

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sulphide_bacteria_crop.jpg

2.1.5 Calculate linear magnification of drawings and the actual size of specimens in images of known magnification

Using a scale bar:

The image at right is of a virus-like particle. The bar is 50nm long. Use a ruler to measure the scale bar and thus calculate the magnification
= = ( ) ( ) 50nm

e.g. Say the measurement I get is 2cm

2.0 107 (2 ) = 50 = 400,000 4.0 105

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bluetongue_virus.gif?uselang=en-gb

Calculate the size of the structure by measuring it with your ruler and dividing the measurement by the magnification.
2.5 107 (2.5 ) = 40000 = 62.5 50nm

Some practice calculations to do on the next few slides

What is the magnification? 1) How long is one of the rust-coloured anthrax bacteria? 2) What is the size of the yellow cell (a neutrophil) at its widest point? You can measure on the screen with a ruler.

5 m

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Neutrophil_with_anthrax_copy.jpg

 ( ) = ( )
2.7 104 = 5 = 5400X

Bacterium
3.3 104 = 5400 6.1

5 m (measured 2.7cm*)
*Measurements will vary depending on how big the image is that you are measuring

Neutrophil
8.5 104 = 54000

15.7

5 m
*Measurements will vary depending on how big the image is that you are measuring

Assume that the for the scale that can be seen, one tick is 10

1) How big are the nuclei?

2) How wide is an average cell on its short axis?

http://www.flickr.com/photos/ah_pao/2590017159/

10 ticks are 100

2.7 104 = 100 = 270X

Nucleus

4.0 103 = 270 14.8

Width of cell

1.0 104 = 270 37

2.1.6 Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting cell size

What does it have to do with elephants?

http://www.flickr.com/photos/artbandito/67829361/

Think: Why is it that elephants arent furry, but other animals that live in the same environment, like lions and zebras, are furry?

3m 1m 3m 1m 3m 1m

Ideal Elephant Surface Area =3x3x6 = 54m2

Volume =3x3x3 = 27m3

SA: Volume Ratio Elephant 2:1 Lion 6:1

The elephant has less surface area per unit of volume to dissipate heat than a lion. Thus the elephant only has sparse hairs to avoid overheating.

Ideal Lion Surface Area =1x1x6 = 6m2

Volume =1x1x1 = 1m3

Think: Where is this analogy going regarding cells?

What must get in?

What must get out?

http://www.flickr.com/photos/thejcb/5136606417/

If a cell is too large, the SA:Volume ratio is too small for diffusion to accommodate the requirements of the cell

Cells can get around this problem by growing projections, having a flattened form, or being long and thin. Multicellular organisms have developed circulatory systems to deliver nutrients and oxygen and remove wastes. Exchange structures with large surface areas, such as the lungs and the gut, have evolved.

2.1.7 State that multicellular organisms show emergent properties.

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg

The whole is greater than the sum of its parts , and yeah Im Aristotle

Individual atoms can be combined to form molecules such as polypeptide chains, which in turn fold and refold to form proteins, which in turn create even more complex structures.
These proteins, assuming their functional status from their spatial conformation, interact together and with other molecules to achieve higher biological functions and eventually create an organism. (Wikipedia)

Individually, these cardiac muscle cells cant do much.

Together they make cardiac muscle tissue that beats in time to a pacemaker impulse. Cardiac muscle tissue plus valves plus arteries and veins makes the heart, an organ that pumps blood.

http://www.flickr.com/photos/akay/244989836/

2.1.8 Explain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialised functions by expressing some of their genes but not others.

Every cell contains a copy of every gene possessed by an organism (at some stage of the cells life)
But only certain genes are turned on

So, for example, the cells in your kidney do not produce the pigments in your skin cells and the cells in your fingers dont produce the insulin that cells in your pancreas can make.

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Karyotype_color_chromosomes_white_background.png

The genes that arent expressed are more tightly coiled than the genes that are expressed. Heterochromatin, the more tightly coiled DNA, appears darker under an electron microscope than euchromatin, the loosely coiled DNA.
More on coiling and transcription in 3.3 and 3.5

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diagram_human_cell_nucleus.svg

2.1.9 State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to differentiate along different pathways

Two things set stem cells apart from regular cells 1) Self-renewal: the ability to go through numerous cycles of cell division while maintaining the undifferentiated state.

Background: Human embryonic stem cells

http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.0030234

2) Potency: Stem cells are undifferentiated and have the capacity to differentiate down different paths into specialised cell types. This requires stem cells to be either totipotent or pluripotent to be able to give rise to any mature cell type

http://www.flickr.com/photos/pfly/188629337/

The morula just after fertilisation is comprised of totipotent cells that can differentiate into anything At the blastocyst stage the inner cells are pluripotent and can differentiate into almost any cells
(The outer layer of the blastocyst goes on to form the placenta)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stem_cells_diagram.png

Some animations for your enjoyment:

2.1.10 Outline one therapeutic use of stem cells

Take a few minutes to do your own research: 1) Find out about a therapeutic use of stem cells 2) Where do the stem cells used come from?

Adult stem cells have been used for many years to treat leukemia through bone marrow transplants. The bone marrow contains cells that differentiate into the different types of blood cell more

1cm

Section through head of a femur showing red and white marrow

TOK

Why is stem cell research controversial? On what basis do people object to it?

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Caput_femoris_cortex_medulla.jpg

Further information:

Perky Professor Poffenroth! Great short videos

Amazing work by Stephen Taylor with more detail and extension. Use it to add to your notes, contains more practice questions for calculating actual size.