Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
It should be noted that Eqs. (5) and (6) are, in principle, consistent with the dimensional requirements of Eq. (2), provided the constants a and b are adjusted to absorb the factor 4?/yd* and the powers of dy/x left over on separating out v from the Reynolds number. In fact, as far as dimensional theory is concerned, F can be represented by any functional form including even such as have infinite power-series expansions. On the other hand, from a physical point of view it must be remembered that @ choice of F carries with it an implication as to the variation of 2 with the other vari- ables d,y, and ». ‘Thus, in particular, in the case of Eq. (6), values of n exceeding 2 would, by Eq. 2), imply that S2 would deerease with increasing viscosity, which clearly is physically unreasonable.‘69 spressune ORO? TC SUENGTH OF CORE 7 Truvo oensiTY vivewery ‘Teste oF eLow ‘CROSS-SECTIGN AREA = kaso WiscosiTe SYMBOLS a rc waren} "mrSe™ aR OL, WcLav0 cas.us euneay oF MINES or 10 0s 0 000 aad v Fic. 8.—Friction-factor chart for the flow of fluids through sands. (4fter Fancher, Lewis, and Barnes, Bull. Pa. State Expt. Sta.)Figure 8, published by Fancher, Lewis, and Barnes, gives 2 representation of the flow data for a number of consolidated and unconsolidated sands in the form of a “friction-factor chart.” Here the quantity ¢ = dAp/2Lye, which is dimensionally equivalent to the “friction factor” (¢f. footnote on page 58) used extensively in the study of the fluid flow in pipes, is taken for the ordinates. The abscissas are the Reynolds numbers dvy/y, the d here and in ¢ being the “average grain diameter”? defined by the equation 3 - r Oe mi zn.” wy) where d, is the arithmetic mean of the openings in any two con- secutive sieves of the Tyler or U. S. Standard series, and n, is the number of grains of the diameter d,, as found by a sieve analysis. Regardless of the physical significance of this definition of d, the important implication of Fig. 8 is that up to a Reynolds number (as defined above) of the order of 1, the data strietly obey the relation log ¢ = a — log R, (9) from which it follows at once that AP _ ZB = const. » (10) in accordance with Darcy’s law. ? Physically, of course, the term d should represent the average pore rather than grain diameter. However, as the former can be directly meas- ured only by microscopic examination of a cross section of the porous medium itself, all attempts to define or use a value of d to enter into the Reynolds number have referred to the averages of the actual grain diameters.While this law admittedly loses its strict validity and the flow becomes partially or completely turbulent! as the Reynolds number or velocity is increased, there appears to be no unique Ap eaae for large values of the latter. About all that appears to be definitely established is that the empirical data can be expressed in all cases by an equation of the form of Eq. (5), with n having a value in the neighborhood of 2. modification which is assumed by the relation between. and v 1 It may be noted that Lindquist and Nemenyi (¢f. infra, and also Forel heimer, loc. cit., p. 66) attribute the deviation from the condition of viscous flow, as the velocities are increased, to the rise in importance of the inertial forces as compared to the viscous forces, rather than to a real turbulence. This view, however, seems open to question, since there is no net kinetic energy gained in a linear channel, so that the pressure drop is consumed only in supplying the friction losses. Furthermore, as pointed out by Fancher, Lewis, and Barnes (loc. cit.), the turbulent character of the flow can be readily. demonstrated by injecting a stream of fluorescein solution into the main current of liquid flowing through a column of shot. At low velocities the dye passes around the shot in streamers with but little diffusion, whereas as a certain velocity is exceeded the streamers begin to bounce from one shot to another in a chaotic manner and become completely diffused. Finally, as Nemenyi has already observed, the fact that the Reynolds numbers at which the deviations appear are so much lower than those at which turbulence develops in sand-free vessels is in itself not surprising when account is taken of the fact that the actual velocities in the pores of porous medium are higher by a factor of 4-8 than the macroscopic velocities *, and that the flow actually takes place in channels of sharply varying cross section, a condition which, as is well known, ix conducive to the early establishment of turbulence. It, therefore, is not unlikely that the devia tions from Darcy’s law appearing at the low Reynolds numbers of the order of 1-10 (cf. Figs. 8, and 9) are manifestations of a real turbulence dissemi- nated through the flow system.149 900°T 88 HOHE) &1 04 9¥ LOyUS JO AyfeoDsIA !AyfSo>eIA do T JO ping v OF JoJor eyHUN ano} eA 1 E01 x FORT 1-01 X soge's | 0rx sone'@ |-01 x 426r6 | Lor x B6ez's sores'0 - Goa , : 1 = QUOD ayaa, 230°6 1 01x orer9 — |eorx re01's | s-01 x onset | 01 x 96g6'9 e1s0L Seon ne OLX F9T'T set t 01 X £009" SHEL) OE X SHOT cor X sey [= CRASHES D ses A 0.02) OH T 18) 45-008 wl X ctes't 201 X 0086'T sere 1 oor] OFX vEFeT OLX £908T - Gederee yar) eis 008 01 X 610 rer zope | 01 X 9x09 | ror x s80r'6 | LOT X e062'6 - Giewaree OX ¥9eNT 01 X 6986'T 01 X 9282°6 Was] Or X 9060"T 1 wrx zerot |= i (uo/ ane) 9 “999 start | sor X 18161 HOF X toes — | OFX eveE'L |e-0r x yoL0T| Lor X zoo8's 1 - oe foxep ‘oxy 40 |ov/ orm Deas we |cwoy one wo « 9°20 w/e ae | yur) ee] wo/ Go oa4p) oe] (OL wE) arvoe oun (O.00) FHIAA 1] O03) OF FT (0.08) FHT aT ut cor -o10p ° SUN] AUTaVEWusg UOL aTAV], NOISHBANOD—'T BITaVy,Material from: Bird R.B., Stewart, W.E., and Lightfoot, E.N.: Transport Phenomena, Wiley, Inc., New York (1960).§2.3 FLOW THROUGH A CIRCULAR TUBE The flow of fluids in circular tubes is encountered frequently in physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering. The laminar flow of fluids in circular tubes may be analyzed by means of the momentum balance described in §2.1. The only new feature introduced here is the use of cylindrical coordinates, which are the natural coordinates to describe positions in a circular pipe. We consider then the steady laminar flow of a fluid of constant density p ina “very long” tube of length L and radius R; we specify that the tube be “very long” because we want to assume that there are no “end effects”; that is, we ignore the fact that at the tube entrance and exit the flow will not necessarily be parallel everywhere to the tube surface. ‘Momentum in by flow Pressure py SS SST | Momentury flow in |: and out by viscous transfer 4 th Shell of thickness “f= Ar over which ‘momentum balance is made Momentum out by flow Pressure p, Fig. 23-1. Cylindrical shell of fluid over which momentum balance is made to get the velocity profile and the Hagen-Poiseuille formula for the volume rate of flow.We select as our system a cylindrical shell of thickness Ar and length L (see Fig. 2.3-1), and we begin by listing the various contributions to the momentum balance in the z-direction: rate of momentum in across cylindrical surface at r Qarlr Je (23-1) rate of momentum out across cylindrical surface at r+ Ar Qarlr, Jet ar (23-2) tate of momentum in across annular surface at z = 0 Qnrdr 0,\(prJlena 23-3) rate of momentum out across annular surface at z = L Qnrdr 1 \(podlenr (23-4) gravity force acting on cylindrical (QarArL)pg (23-5) shell pressure force acting on annular (QarAr)py (2.3-6) surface at z = 0 pressure force acting on annular —(Qnrdr)p, (23-7) surface at z= L Note once again that we take “in” and “out” to be in the positive direction of the axes. We now add up the contributions to the momentum balance: QarLr,,)|, — Qarkt Near + ar Arp! luo = Qnr Arpt), + 2nr ArLpg + 2nr Ar(py — p,) =O (2.3-8)Because the fluid is assumed to be incompressible, v, is the same at 2 = Zz and L, hence the third and fourth terms cancel one another, We now divide Eq. 2.3-8 by 2nL Ar and take the limit as Ar goes to zero; this gives ((Codlesas = (r7,2)], lim Aro (252 + va) r (23-9) ‘The expression on the left side is the definition of the first derivative. Hence Eq. 2.3-9 may be written as (2.3-10) (23-11) The constant C, must be zero if the momentum flux is not to be infinite at r= 0. Hence the momentum flux distribution is (2 =P; T= | 2L (23-12) This distribution is shown in Fig, 2.3-2. Parabolic velocity distribution v,(r) | T= 07; 1 Linear momentum flux distribution T(r) Fig. 2.3-2. Momentum flux and velocity distributions in flow in evlindrical tubes.Newton’s law of viscosity for this situation is dv, ar (2.3-13) * The quantity # represents the combined effect of static pressure and gravitational force, To allow for other flow orientations, # may be defined more generally as ¥ =p + pgh, where A is the distance upward (that is, in the direction opposed to gravity) from any chosen reference plane. . Fluid initially al rest Lower plate set in motion 1, — 1 ' Velocity buildup Small ¢ in uns aco a in unsteady a ~ — —— Final velocity Large «distribution in steady flow = v a Fig. 1-1. Buildup to steady laminar velocity profile for fluid contained between two plates. subscripts to indicate differentiation of velocity components. Then, in terms of these symbols, Eq. 1.1-1 is rewritten ast (11-2) ay ‘This states that the shear force per unit area is proportional to the negative of the local velocity gradient; this is known as Newton's law of viscosity, and fluids that behave in this fashion are termed Newtonian fluids. All gases and most simple liquids are described by Eq. 1.1-2; fluids that do not obey this simple law (primarily pastes, slurries, and high polymers) are discussed in §1.2.Substitution of this relation into Eq. 2.3-12 then gives the following differen- tial equation for the velocity: do, (2 - #1) de, _ _ (Po= Fa) 23-14 ar Lt |” O14) Integration of this gives A= #1) —_ L) 246, 23-15 - ( au ° aa Because of the boundary condition that v, be zero at r = R, the constant C, has the value (P, — #;)R*/4uL. Hence the velocity distribution is eet] This result tells us that the velocity distribution for laminar, incompressible flow in a tube is parabolic. (See Fig. 2.3-2.) Once the velocity profile has been established, various derived quantities are easily calculated (2.3-16) (i) The maxintum velocity v, mae Occurs at r = 0 and has the value = 2 eee (2.3-17) au. (ii) The average velocity {v,) is calculated by summing up all the velocities over a cross section and then dividing by the cross-sectional area: re a pee rd (ay One 2) =e i ff r dr dO ae o Jo The details of the integration are left to the reader. Note that (v,) = We.max- (ili) The volume rate of flow Q is the product of area and average velocity; thus (2.3-18) (Po — Pi)R* Bul This rather famous result is called the Hagen-Poiseuille? law in honor of the two scientists** credited with its formulation. It gives the relationship Q= (23-19) * Pronounce Poiseuille as “Pwah-z0'-yuh,” in which o is roughly the same as the “oo” in the American pronunciation of “book”. *G, Hagen, Ann, Phys. Chem, 46, 423-442 (18389). “J.L, Poiseuille, Compte Rendus, 11, 961 and 1041 (1840); 12, 112 (1841).between the volume rate of flow and the forces causing the flow—the forces associated with the pressure drop and the gravitational acceleration. (iv) The z-component of the force of the fluid on the wetted surface of the pipe, F,, is just the momentum flux integrated over the wetted area: dv, Grrt)(—p22)| = aR, 91) oR = a R*(py — py) + 7 R*Lpg (23-20) This result is not surprising —all it says is that the net force acting downstream on the cylinder of fluid by virtue of the pressure difference and gravitational acceleration is just counterbalanced by the viscous force F,, which tends to resist the fluid motion. The results of this section are valid only for values of Reynolds numbers less than about 2100, for which the flow is laminar. For this system, it is customary to define the Reynolds number by Re = D(v,)p/u, where D = 2Ris the tube diameter. We may now summarize all the assumptions that are implied in the development of the Hagen-Poiseuille law: a. The flow is laminar—Re less than about 2100. b. The density p is constant (“incompressible fiow”). c. The flow is independent of time (“steady state”)—the corresponding unsteady-state problem is discussed in §4.1. d. The fiuid is Newtonian—that is, 7,, = —p(dv,]dr). e. End effects are neglected—actually an “entrance length” (beyond the tube entrance) on the order of L, = 0.035 Re is required for build-up to the parabolic profiles; if the section of pipe of interest includes the entrance region, a correction must be applied.® The fractional correction introduced in either AF or Q never exceeds L,/L if L > L,. J. The fluid behaves as a continuum—this assumption is valid except for very dilute gases or very narrow capillary tubes, in which the molecular mean free path is comparable to the tube diameter (“slip flow” regime) or much greater than the tube diameter (“Knudsen flow” or “free molecule flow” regime).* g. There is no slip at the wall—this is an excellent assumption for pure fluids under the conditions assumed in (f). 54, H. Perry, Chemical Engineers Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York (1950), Third Edition, pp. 388-389, W. M. Kays and A. L. London, Compact Heat Exchangers, McGraw- Hill, New York (1958), p. 49. *M. Knudsen, The Kinetic Theory of Gases, Methuen, London (1934). E. H. Kennard, Kinetic Theory of Gases, McGraw-Hill, New York (1938). G. N. Patterson, Molecular Flow of Gases, Wiley, New York (1956).§8.1 FOURIER'S LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION Consider a slab of solid material of area A between two large parallel plates a distance Y apart. We imagine that initially (for time r <0) the solid material is at a temperature Ty throughout. At time 1 = 0 the lower plate is suddenly brought to a slightly higher temperature 7; and maintained at that temperature. As time proceeds, the temperature profile in the slab changes, 1, Solid initially at Y 2 temperature Tp —1_| Lower plate £=0 suddenly raised to temperature 7; Fig. 8.1-1. Build up to steady-state temperature profile for a solid slab between two plates; see Fig. I.I-1 for analogous situation for momentum transport. and ultimately a linear steady-state temperature distribution is attained. (See Fig. 8.1-1.) When this steady-state condition has been reached, a constant rate of heat flow through the slab is required to maintain the temperature difference AT = T, — Ty. Itis found then that for sufficiently small values of AT the following relation holds: o_, aT AY That is, the heat flow per unit area is proportional to the temperature decrease in the distance Y; the constant of proportionality & is the thermal conductivity of the slab. (8.1-1)Equation 8.1-1 is also valid if a liquid or gas is placed between the plates, provided that suitable precautions are taken to eliminate convection and radiation. Equation 8.1-1 therefore describes the heat-conduction process in solids, liquids, and gases. Convection and radiation are treated in later chapters. In the analytic treatments that follow it will be more useful to work with Eq. 8.1-1 in differential form; that is, we shall use the limiting form of this equation as the slab thickness Y approaches zero. The local heat flow per unit area (heat flux) in the positive y-direction is designated g,. In this notation Eq. 8.1-1 becomes! wake (8.1-2) dy This equation is the one-dimensional form of Fourier’s law of heat conduction, valid when T = T(y). It states that the heat flux by conduction is proportional to the temperature gradient, or, to put it somewhat pictorially, heat “slides downhill on the temperature versus distance graph.” In an isotropic? medium in which the temperature varies in all three directions we can write an equation like Eq. 8.1-2 for each of the coordinate directions ar c, 7 8.1-3,4,5 en qe ( ) These three relations are the components of the single vector equation q=—-KVT (8.1-6) which is the three-dimensional form of Fourier’s law. It states that the heat flux vector q is proportional to the temperature gradient® V7 and is oppositely directed. Thus in an isotropic medium heat flows by conduction in the direction of steepest temperature descent. In a moving fluid q represents the flux of thermal energy relative to the local fluid velocity The reader will have noticed by this time that there is a striking similarity between Eq. 8.1-2 for one-dimensional energy flux and Eq. 1.1-2 for one- dimensional momentum flux. In both cases the flux is proportional to the + We shall have use for three kinds of heat quantities in the following chapters: the heat flow Q (Btu ht"), the heat flux q (Btu hr ft), and the heat source strength S (Btu bet), * By isotropic we mean that the coefficient & in Eqs. 8.1-3, 4, and 5 has the same value in all three directions. The assumption of isotropy is satisfactory for fluids and for most homogeneous solids; the principal nonisotropic materials are single noncubic crystals and fibrous or laminated solids. (See wood in Table 8.1-4.) # The vector quantity V7'is read “gradient of T” or “del 7,” and in some books it is written as grad T. For a discussion of the gradient of a scalar field, see G. B. Thomas, Analytic Geometry and Calculus, Addison-Wesley (1953), Second Edition pp. 497-500. See Table 10.2-1 for the components of Eq. 8.1-6 in curvilinear coordinates.negative of the gradient of a macroscopic variable, and the coefficients of proportionality are physical properties dependent on the substance and on the local temperature and pressure. For more complicated situations in which the temperature and velocity vary in all three directions, however, we notice that Eqs. 8.1-3, 4, and 5 for the energy flux are simpler than Eqs. 3.2-I1 through 16 for the momentum flux. This difference in form arises because energy is a scalar quantity but momentum is a vector quantity. As a result, the energy flux is a vector with three components, whereas the momentum flux is a tensor with nine components. We can thus anticipate that problems of momentum transport and energy transport will not be mathematically analogous except in certain geometrically simple situations.§16.2 FICK’S LAW OF DIFFUSION In Eq. 1.1-2 the viscosity 1 is defined as the proportionality factor between momentum flux and velocity gradient (Newton's law of viscosity). In Eq. 8.1-6 the thermal conductivity k is defined as the proportionality factor between heat flux and temperature gradient (Fourier’s law of heat conduction). TABLE 16.2-1 EQUIVALENT FORMS OF FICK’S FIRST LAW OF BINARY DIFFUSION Flux Gradient Form of Fick's First Law m4 Vox Mg — 04g +p) = —p%yyVog (A) i Vr4 Ng — 24(Nq + Ny) = ~c% 44 V2q () ja Vag 5a = ~0%4y Very «© Jat Ve Iagt = CP 4, V0, (D) 2 ja Vag da = (5) aeadtatan Vig (2) Jyh Vo, 244 Vo, (F) ; . A au an vg — vp) Vg (og — vy) = ——“2 va, ©) rary Now we define the mass diffusivity 2 ,,, analogous fashio: Py in a binary system in an Jyh = cP yy Ne, (16.2-1) This is Fick's first law of diffusion written in terms of the molar diffusion flux J4*. This equation states that species A diffuses (moves relative to the mixture) in the direction of decreasing mole fraction of A, just as heat flows by conduction in the direction of decreasing temperature. A number of other mathematically equivalent statements of Fick’s first Jaw have appeared in the literature, and some of them are summarized in Table 16.2-1 for reference only. The diffusivity %4y is identical in all these equations. Of special importance in the following chapters is the form of Fick's first law in terms of N,, the molar flux relative to stationary co- ordinates: Ny =24(Nq + Np) — ayV2, (16.2-2) + Temperature gradients, pressure gradients, and external forces also contribute to the diffusion flux, although their effects are usually minor. More complete expressions for the diffusion flux are given in §18.4. A. Fick, Ann. der Physik, 94, 59-86 (1855)This equation shows that the diffusion flux N,, relative to stationary co- ordinates is the resultant of two vector quantities: the vector x4(Ny + Ny), which is the molar flux of A resulting from the bulk motion of the fluid, and the vector J* = —cP4,Vx,, which is the molar flux of A resulting from the diffusion superimposed on the bulk flow. Thus in Fig. 16.1-16 the bulk flow and diffusion terms in Eq. 16.2-2 are in the same direction for species A (because A is diffusing with the current) and are opposed for species B (because B is diffusing against the current). The units of the mass diffusivity D4 are cm? sec! or ft2 hr, Note that the kinematic viscosity » and the thermal diffusivity « also have the same units. ‘The way in which these three quantities are analogous can be seen from the following equations for the fluxes of mass, momentum, and energy in ‘one-dimensional systems: 4 4 (4) — (Fick's law! for constant p) (16.23) y of (pv.) (Newton's law for constant p) (16.24) ty y= a4 (66,1) (Fourier’s law for constant pG,) (16.2-5) ly ‘These equations state, respectively, that (a) mass transport occurs because of a gradient in mass concentration, (6) momentum transport occurs because of a gradient in momentum concentration, and (c) energy transport occurs because of a gradient in energy concentration. These analogies do not apply in two- and three-dimensional problems, however, because t is a tensor quantity, with nine components, whereas j, and q are vectors with three components.