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ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF COMMON
NATURAL
INGREDIENTS
USED IN FOOD,
DRUGS, AND COSMETICS
Third Edition
IKHLAS A. KHAN
Research Professor and Assistant Director
National Center for Natural Products Research
Professor of Pharmacognosy
University of Mississippi
Oxford, Mississippi
EHAB A. ABOURASHED
Assistant Professor
College of Pharmacy
Chicago State University
Chicago, Illinois
Adj. Res. Associate Professor
National Center for Natural Products Research
University of Mississippi
Oxford, Mississippi
LEUNG’S
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF COMMON
NATURAL
INGREDIENTS
USED IN FOOD,
DRUGS, AND COSMETICS
Third Edition
LEUNG’S
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF COMMON
NATURAL
INGREDIENTS
USED IN FOOD,
DRUGS, AND COSMETICS
Third Edition
IKHLAS A. KHAN
Research Professor and Assistant Director
National Center for Natural Products Research
Professor of Pharmacognosy
University of Mississippi
Oxford, Mississippi
EHAB A. ABOURASHED
Assistant Professor
College of Pharmacy
Chicago State University
Chicago, Illinois
Adj. Res. Associate Professor
National Center for Natural Products Research
University of Mississippi
Oxford, Mississippi
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
From I. A. Khan
Dedicated to My Parents
and
My Family, Shabana, Farjad, and Sariya
For Their Love and Support
From E. A. Abourashed
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxv
INTRODUCTION xxvii
NATURAL INGREDIENTS 1
vii
Foreword to the First
Edition
The publication of Encyclopedia of Common Dr. Albert Y. Leung’s education as a phar-
Natural Ingredients Used in Food, Drugs, and macist and pharmacognosist, coupled with his
Cosmetics is a welcome addition to the librar- extensive experience in natural products in-
ies of those of us interested in natural products. dustries, provide him with a unique back-
The reasons for publishing this unique ency- ground that accounts for his successful syn-
clopedia are aptly dealt with by the author in thesis of this information into a practical
the Preface, and the principal audience has compendium. The material is accurately and
been identified as practicing technologists in succinctly presented, the individual mono-
the food, drug, and cosmetic industries and graphs are selectively supplemented with a
their purchasing agents and marketers. But, as current bibliography that allows for further
well, it should prove to be an important refer- reading on a particular product, and the selec-
ence for teaching and research in economic tion of products included has been skillful.
botany, food technology, natural products Dr. Leung is to be commended for his efforts
chemistry, and pharmacognosy, for it brings in bringing us this most worthy publication.
together information about a variety of sub-
ARA G. PAUL, PH.D.
stances that, for various reasons, are not in-
cluded in recent compendia dealing with one Professor of Pharmacognosy
and Dean
or another of these disciplines. Yet, as the College of Pharmacy
author points out, these are materials that find The University of Michigan
significant usage in our society. Ann Arbor, Michigan
ix
Foreword to the First
Edition
By some peculiar irony, the rapid technological information has been buried in foreign scien-
advances made by the chemical industry since tific literature, thus making it unavailable to
World War II have worked to obscure the solid the average technologist.
basic knowledge the industry once had of some Dr. A. Y. Leung has been observing this
of its natural building blocks, the botanicals widening information gap for several years,
that were (and still are) the prime ingredients in perceiving that one logical way to bridge it
so many drugs, cosmetics, flavors, industrial was to put together a compendium of materials
reodorants, and so on. The recently trained of natural origin. He has gone about the task
chemist, pharmacologist, or food flavorist (or, with logic and a sense of order, selecting the
for that matter, the person involved in sales, cardinal facts without deluging the reader or
marketing, or purchasing of these materials) in peruser of the book with a veritable mountain
all likelihood has missed the fact that these of biological data. As befits the only reference
materials have considerable historical signifi- book that covers food, drug, and cosmetic
cance, that they still have application in so aspects of common natural ingredients,
diverse a list of products, and even what spe- Dr. Leung has identified each entry according
cific role they play in familiar products. After to biological name, its alternative or
all, these older, possibly no-longer-glamorous slang description, a general description of
natural substances may seem unsophisticated the plant from which it is derived, chemical
and awkward to handle to those trained in the composition, pharmacological or biological
glories of what might be called synthetic chem- activity, and uses and commercial prepara-
istry—the molecular juggling of carbons, hy- tions. And for those needing more informa-
drocarbons, acids, and alcohols to evolve pris- tion, he has included a comprehensive list of
tine crystals and powders. references.
Many of the veteran bench chemists with Such handy organization of material makes
experience in natural materials have retired or this book especially useful to the working
passed on to their ultimate reward (hopefully, chemist or technologist, to the purchasing
a golf cart or a fishing boat in some warmer director, and to the person in sales or product
clime), so the time is coming when there will development or marketing, for in one fell
be less use of such fascinating ingredients as swoop he or she is given clear, comprehensive
bloodroot, horehound, or ylang ylang oil. information with no unnecessary embellish-
The veteran chemists used these materials to ment. Exotica become less exotic, the strange
make cough remedies or perfume oils becomes more familiar.
before there were synthetics, and when they Because of the ongoing work of the Cos-
are gone, the individual little pockets of metic Ingredient Review and the Research
knowledge have been in danger of dying out. Institute for Fragrance Materials, it is a safe
They appreciated that these unique materials bet that in the not-so-distant future there will
provide special product attributes, in the same be a demand for a second edition of this
way that classic spices do for a good chef. monumental work. These efforts will produce
Then too, much of the chemical and biological much information about the toxicity or safety
xi
xii Foreword to the first edition
of these materials, information that will give Anyone with a sense of romance will cher-
better clues as to whether it may be opportune ish the names of these materials, and anyone
or diplomatic or safe from a regulatory stand- with an appreciation for order and thorough
point to persist in using a material that may be documentation will regard this book as useful
allergenic or sensitizing. Also, Dr. Leung has and to the point.
tried to emphasize the quality of commercial
DONALD A. DAVIS, EDITOR
preparations, with an eye toward the purcha-
sers and end users who will ultimately find the Drug and Cosmetic Industry
New York
volume so useful.
Preface to the Third
Edition
Ten years after the publication of the second satisfying our evaluation criteria. This resulted
edition, we accepted the invitation to complete in the inclusion of more than 6500 references
the third edition of this encyclopedia. As it in the current edition. A number of the most
turned out, it was a massive task that took more prominent textbooks published in the field
than three years to accomplish even though during the same period have also been added
many of the initially planned new ingredients to the general references. Of these, two text-
were eventually left behind. The reader may books focusing on clinical trials with herbal
notice that the included ingredients are almost products (BARRETT; BLUMENTHAL) and a trans-
the same as those of the second edition (ca. 300 lated atlas of phytopharmaceuticals (WICHTL)
main entries and about the same number of are worth mentioning.
related species and varieties) and that the new The general format of the previous edition
ones are included under a new section entitled has been generally maintained (Source,
‘‘Indian Traditional Medicine—Ayurveda.’’ Description, Chemical Composition, Pharma-
Nevertheless, the total number of pages of this cology, Uses, Commercial Preparations, Reg-
edition has increased by at least 50% from the ulatory Status, and References) with minor
previous one. The reason for this is the fact that updated headings for ‘‘Toxicology’’ and ‘‘Di-
since the inception of the Dietary Supplement etary Supplements/Health Foods’’ to reflect
Health and Education Act of 1994 (DSHEA), the latest trends and regulations. The reader
interest in dietary supplement/herbal medicine should refer to prefaces to the first and second
research has witnessed an unprecedented re- editions for a thorough description of each
vival resulting in an exponential increase in heading. The newly added section includes a
scientific/industrial journals on herbals and background on Indian traditional medicine
alternative medicine and reports published and lists information on nine commonly used
therein over the past decade, not only in the herbal ingredients.
United States but all over the world as well. The general references and glossary have
Faced with such a massive body of data, we had been updated and moved to the end of the book
to make a decision to focus our efforts on and assigned as Appendices A and B, respec-
updating the literature related to the currently tively. Two new appendices (Appendices C
included ingredients rather than diverting our and D), explaining and illustrating the botani-
attention to the inclusion of new entities. Pur- cal terminology frequently encountered in the
suing this strategy, we ended up searching text, have also been added.
Medline as our main online source, reviewing It is our hope that this new edition will
thousands of published reports for quality and provide updated information on classical herbs
content, and summarizing the findings of those and/or their common ingredients included in
xiii
xiv Preface to the third edition
the previous edition. Such information should ature summarizing the most prominent find-
continue to be useful to readers with various ings in this field.
backgrounds who share an interest in natural
IKHLAS A. KHAN AND EHAB A. ABOURASHED
product applications in medicine, nutrition,
and cosmetics and who are looking for a Oxford, Mississippi
March 2009
comprehensive compilation of the recent liter-
Preface to the Second
Edition
Fifteen years have passed since the publica- Due to other commitments that limited my
tion of the first edition. During this period, availability for this revision, I enlisted the ca-
basic information on most of the traditional pable assistance of Steven Foster who has
ingredients in the encyclopedia has remained earned a reputation for his writings. He has
essentially the same. However, usages and been instrumental in updating much of the
use trends of many of these ingredients have information in the original entries of the ency-
changed. A whole new field of food/drug clopedia as well as introducing most of the new
products, loosely categorized as ‘‘health non-Chinese ingredients in this revision.
foods,’’ has established itself in North Amer- Concomitant with the development of
ica; so has the use of herbal teas. Although a health foods and herbal teas, many books on
few conventional food and drug companies natural products have appeared since the first
have tried to capitalize on the market gener- edition was published. Some of these books
ated by these new fields, most members of contain well-researched information, while
the medical, pharmaceutical, and food estab- others are simply indiscriminate compilations
lishments have so far chosen to ignore them. of data, which only help to perpetuate the
However, these rapidly expanding fields of confusion relating to information in the herbal
health foods and herbal teas have made it products field. In order to help minimize the
very difficult for one to ignore. For this spread of dubious data, books containing ex-
reason, up-to-date and accurate information cessive outdated, secondary, and/or mislead-
on their ingredients should be made readily ing data, as well as those consisting primarily
available, not only to provide useful data for of indiscriminate compilations of data, includ-
technologists and consumers interested in ing some English titles on Chinese medicinal
these ingredients, but also to counterbalance plants (even though aggressively marketed),
the proliferation of promotional literature are not included in the general references.
from marketers that is often grossly inaccu- An unusual, but positive, alliance emerged
rate and misleading, as well as negative during the past decade. Numerous scientists
information from opposing interest groups and practitioners from traditional fields (phar-
that is based on bias and self-interest and not macognosy, pharmacology, chemistry, medi-
on relevant traditional and scientific data cine, botany, etc.) have joined forces with
available. Consequently, I have included in- herbalists and manufacturers and developers
formation to support the ‘‘new’’ uses in this of health foods and herbal teas to promote
edition. As Chinese herbs constitute a ma- research and information dissemination in the
jority of all natural products used in the field of medicinal plants and herbal products.
world, which have increasingly found their Thus, the Herb Research Foundation, estab-
way into American cosmetic, health food, lished in 1983 with an advisory board of
and herbal tea products in recent years, new respected scientists in various fields, has been
ingredients described in this second edition engaged in promoting research in the various
reflect this trend. aspects of herbs. Along with the more recently
xv
xvi Preface to the second edition
founded American Botanical Council (1988), nutrient (vitamins, minerals, amino acids); and
it publishes HerbalGram, a quarterly journal others.1 Under certain conditions or in specific
that provides accurate information on many dosage forms, ginger could indeed exert some
commonly used natural products. In this new of these effects. But to say that the spice ginger
edition, we have selected as general refer- is narcotic or hypotensive is an oversimplifica-
ences some of the books that we find useful tion in interpretation.
and that we believe had an impact in the This brings up one of the major challenges
industry in recent years. Also, the extensive in natural products research, especially in
use of information from the Chinese literature Chinese herbs, which is to make sense out of
in this new edition reflects the greatly in- their myriad of traditional uses. Some of the
creased availability of data on natural products answers seem to lie in the complex chemical
from China during the past decade. As there is nature of these products. The bioavailability
no standard translation of Chinese pharma- of these chemicals in a herbal formula or in an
ceutical and biomedical titles, I have used the ingested herb is most likely very selective and
transliterated titles of such references when- dependent upon the physiological state of the
ever there is a possibility of confusion. The individual consumer. This may be one of the
pin-yin system of transliteration has been major reasons why ginseng and other tonics
selected over the Wade–Giles system because have been used for so many centuries in China
the former is now standard in Chinese litera- for so many different conditions, and yet
ture originating in the People’s Republic of despite extensive research over the past 30
China, which is by far the more abundant than years, generating thousands of research pub-
that originating elsewhere. lications, ginseng has still not been ‘‘proven
Along with the greatly increased availab- effective’’ by modern science. In our current
ility of information and books on natural pro- state of specialization and advanced instru-
ducts, I have observed a tendency in both the mentation and analytical and biological tech-
professional and lay press in the overly simpli- nology, it is very easy for a chemist to discover
fied interpretation of this information. It is new chemicals or find known active chemicals
tempting to assign the biological activity of a in trace amounts in any plant material or for a
compound present in a natural product to the pharmacologist to test the pharmacological
product itself prematurely, irrespective of the activities of chemicals that are isolated only
amount present. For example, taking this ap- in traces from plant drugs, which would in-
proach, the common spice, ginger, could easily variably result in publications that in turn
be turned into a panacea as it contains dozens of would boost the political and financial status
active compounds, each of which by itself has of the researchers involved. There is nothing
been shown to have various biological activi- wrong about such research. However, the
ties. These activities include antimicrobial challenge is to refrain from over-interpreting
(essential oil components such as linalool, the results that are often blown out of context
geraniol, chavicol, 1,8-cineole, etc.); narcotic by proponents or opponents of the herbal drug
(cumene); spasmolytic (borneol, myrcene); as ‘‘preliminary evidence’’ to promote or re-
analgesic (borneol, gingerols, shogaols); strict use of this particular herb.
diuretic (asparagine); antihistaminic (citral); There is also a general tendency to consider
lipotropic (lecithins); anti-inflammatory (a- biomedical publications from Chinese sources
curcumene, borneol); sedative (gingerols, sho- as of inferior quality, which consequently
gaols); hypotensive (1,8-cineole, gingerols); should not be taken seriously. However, in
hypertensive (shogaols); liver protectant my opinion, the most common flaw in pub-
(borneol); cardiotonic (gingerols); antipyretic lications on natural products, a good amount
(borneol, gingerols, shogaols); insect repellent from ‘‘advanced’’ countries, is the failure of
(p-cymene, geraniol, myrcene); antibronchi- the investigators to identify correctly and
tic, antitussive, and expectorant (1,8-cineole); quality control the material they are studying.
Preface to the second edition xvii
This leads to results that cannot be duplicated ingredients, the medical and pharmaceutical
and contributes further to the overflow of industries generally view them or prefer to
misinformation or useless information in this classify them as drugs requiring strict federal
field. control. Although these opposing views are
While use of natural ingredients in pro- obviously dictated by economic and political
cessed foods and cosmetics was at its peak considerations, the truth, in reality, lies some-
when the first edition was published, use of where in between. I expect this ongoing de-
these ingredients in drugs was on the decline. bate to continue for a long time. In the mean-
Now, the trend is reversed. More and more time, the new ‘‘Health Food/Herb Teas’’
natural ingredients are being used in ‘‘herbal category should be adequate in covering re-
formulations’’ for the prevention and often the ported uses in these areas. However, the infor-
treatment of illnesses, most of which are mation reported here should in no way be
related to side effects of our modern lifestyle construed to be an endorsement of the reported
or are common diseases that normally will usages.
resolve themselves with adjustment of life- Also, the ‘‘Folk Medicine’’ category has
style and without drug treatment. The former been changed to ‘‘Traditional Medicine’’ to
include obesity, hyperlipemia, and stress- accommodate Chinese traditional medical
related conditions, while the latter include usages of the new Chinese drug and cosmetic
some digestive problems, minor aches and entries, as well as to recognize the role that
pains, and the common cold and its related traditional medicine now plays in primary
symptoms. Based on traditional consumption health care delivery, particularly in develop-
patterns and use history, many of these for- ing countries. Since 1978, the World Health
mulations contain ingredients that can truly be Organization (WHO) and dozens of collabo-
considered as food ingredients while others rating institutions worldwide have sought to
fall under the category of drugs, and still assess the value and extent of the use of plants
others can be considered as either food or in health care systems. WHO has estimated
drug, depending on usage. Most of the original that as much as 80% of the world’s population
entries in the first edition serve as ingredients rely chiefly on traditional medical systems,
in both foods and drugs in conventional usage, primarily in the form of plants, plant extracts,
that is, processed foods and over-the-counter and active principles. Observing traditional,
(OTC) drugs. In the second edition, I have historic, folkloric, or ethnobotanical uses of
added over 70 new entries and included a new plants is regarded as a useful approach for
category of usage called ‘‘Health Food/Herb targeting research leads in the development of
Teas.’’ All food and drug uses of commercial new drugs from plants. A recent survey of
products that do not fall under conventional medicinal plants used in therapy worldwide
processed foods or cosmetic or OTC drug found that 119 distinct chemical substances
categories are grouped under ‘‘Health Food/ derived from 91 species are used as drugs in
Herb Teas.’’ In this section, we simply report one or more countries. Of these plant-derived
on perceived uses of individual ingredients in substances, 74% were discovered following
the health food/herb tea category. This infor- chemical studies to determine the active com-
mation is not intended to confirm efficacy or pounds responsible for the use of the plant in
safety for a given indication. Rather, it is meant traditional medicine.2 While many traditional
only to indicate for what purposes consumers uses may not be validated as safe or efficacious
may be using these products. by current scientific methodology, they can
The debate whether health foods or provide valuable leads for new or expanded
herbal teas should be classified legally as utilization in the future.
genuine foods/teas or as drugs still goes on. Under ‘‘regulatory status,’’ information
While health food and herbal tea companies has been included on German regulatory
consider their products as composed of food monographs. German health authorities have
xviii Preface to the second edition
established a separate expert commission turers, and associated trade groups on quality,
(‘‘Commission E’’) to develop standardized no meaningful assay standards or quality
therapeutic monographs on herbal medicines. assurance methods have been introduced to
It has produced nearly 300 ‘‘Therapeutic guarantee purity and quality of many natural
Monographs on Medicinal Products for Hu- ingredients. Thus, for example, the most
man Use.’’ Each monograph, published in the commonly used ingredients, such as aloe vera
German Federal Gazette (Bundesanzeiger), and ginseng, still lack meaningful assay stan-
includes details on the name of the drug, dards and are frequently adulterated. The
constituents, indications (including those for practice of this intentional adulteration is
the crude drug or preparations), contraindica- implicitly encouraged by manufacturers who
tions (if any), side effects (if known), interac- purchase only low priced ingredients and who
tions with other drugs or agents (if known), will simply accept dubious ‘‘certificates of
details on dosage of the crude drug or pre- purity’’ from suppliers as the sole proof of
parations, the method of administration, and quality and by the common practice of
the general properties or therapeutic value of employing ‘‘label claims’’ in the cosmetic
the herb or herb product. The German mono- industry. Only a very small number of com-
graph system is considered to be the best panies have their own programs to standard-
governmental information source on medici- ize and control the identity and purity of the
nal plant usage produced by a Western indus- herbal ingredients used in their products. In
trialized nation.3 It also serves as the model for addition, due to ignorance, even some well-
the development of a European phytomedi- known herbs, especially in their powdered
cine monograph system produced by the Eu- forms, are misidentified, yet distributed as
ropean Scientific Cooperative on Phytother- genuine in the industry. These include echi-
apy (ESCOP) for use by European Union nacea, eleuthero, ginseng, and numerous
member countries. Chinese herbs such as fo-ti. Thus, it is obvi-
Since the publication of the first edition, use ous that much remains to be done in assuring
of natural ingredients in cosmetics had been the identity and quality of natural ingredients
slowly declining until more recently, when a in the health foods/herb teas field.
new surge of interest in Chinese cosmetic This adulteration/misidentification has
ingredients prompted the introduction of a caused a major problem in the research on
number of Chinese natural products into commercial natural products. Due to the fail-
American cosmetics. Although used for cen- ure of researchers to recognize the importance
turies in China, these ingredients are new to of identifying the correct source of test mate-
most American cosmetic formulators. Some rials, results of studies on unidentifiable
of these new ingredients can be found among commercial herbal products (e.g., ‘‘ginseng
the more than 24 main entries that I have capsules’’ or ‘‘aloe vera’’) are irreproducible
included in this revision. Others (more than and mostly worthless. Because of this prob-
22) can be found under the new section titled lem, one should exercise extreme caution when
‘‘Chinese Cosmetic Ingredients.’’ This sec- quoting results of these studies. A well-
tion describes in brief some of the more publicized example is an uncontrolled study on
commonly used natural ingredients in Asia, ginseng (?) resulting in the so-called ‘‘ginseng
which may now be found in new cosmetic abuse syndrome,’’ which was published in a
products on the domestic market. reputable journal.4 This study has been repeat-
Despite renewed talks in the herbal/botanical edly quoted worldwide for the past 16 years
industry to standardize quality and to assure both in scientific journals and in the lay press.
purity of herbal ingredients, trade practices in None of the people who quoted this study
this industry have not changed significantly seemed to have read the original publication,
during the past decade. And irrespective of noticed, realized, or cared that the results of that
claims by individual suppliers, manufac- study were based on uncontrolled test materials
Preface to the second edition xix
that included not only Asian ginseng (identity confusion and would not determine whether
andpuritydoubtful),butalsoAmericanginseng the fo-ti shipment in question is the laxative
(?), Siberian ginseng (?), desert ginseng (canai- (raw root) or the tonic (cured root).
gre) (?), caffeinated drinks, other drugs the A recent trend in the herbal industry is to
subjects happened to be taking, as well as other market the so-called standardized extracts,
unidentified materials (could be anything) in such as ginseng extract standardized to ‘‘gin-
commercial ‘‘ginseng’’ products! Unfortunate- senosides’’ content or Siberian ginseng extract
ly, this is not the only incidence of such pub- to ‘‘eleutherosides’’ content. However, as there
lications or research by researchers and editors is normally more than one (or one type of)
who lack expertise in the natural products area active component in a natural product, stan-
and who otherwise are eminent in their own dardization based on one particular type of
fields. If such papers were submitted to journals chemical component is not representative of
of natural products such as the HerbalGram, the total activity of the product. Consequently,
Planta Medica, and Journal of Natural Pro- these arbitrarily selected components can only
ducts, they would be rejected outright. This be useful as a ‘‘marker’’ of product quality.
clearly demonstrates the need for experts of And these ‘‘markers’’ are only valid for ex-
otherdisciplines tobe aware ofthe intricacies of tracts that are total extractions of the herbs
natural products when investigating, reporting, concerned. Extraction processes designed to
and evaluating these products. extract these ‘‘markers’’ selectively would pro-
Another important point to remember duce extracts that are not representative of the
when studying natural products is that it is original herbs. Thus, a ‘‘standardized’’ ginseng
sometimes not enough just to identify cor- or Siberian ginseng extract may be devoid of
rectly the botanical source of the natural polysaccharides that are also biologically ac-
product to be studied, especially where Chi- tive. Also, the ginsenosides in a ginseng extract
nese herbs are concerned. While in most may not be from ginseng itself but rather from
cases with Western medicinal plants it is another much cheaper, non-ginseng source
sufficient to simply assure their botanical (see ginseng). To be fair to both traditional
identity, it is not so with Chinese herbal and modern science, one should not be over-
materials. In addition to their correct botan- zealous in trying to equate a chemical constit-
ical sources, Chinese herbal materials re- uent to a traditional herbal drug.
quire further clarification, including plant As more and more biological and toxico-
parts used and whether or not the materials logical research is performed on commercial
are simply cleaned and dried or are specially natural products, it is increasingly apparent
treated with other herbs and/or boiled in that scientific evaluation of individual purified
water or wine. Thus, simply identifying an components from these natural products has
herbal drug as Ephedra sinica Stapf can rarely produced results that are consistent with
mean one of the at least two different drugs the property of the products in toto. Conse-
with distinctly different medicinal proper- quently, one should not be prematurely
ties: mahuang (stem) is diaphoretic, among alarmed if one of numerous components in
other properties, while mahuanggen (root) is a long-used natural product is shown to have
antiperspirant. Another example is Polygo- toxic effects in the laboratory, unless further
num multiflorum Thunb., from which at least research on the product in its complete form
three different herbal products are derived, produces the same effects. Conversely, one
each with distinct medicinal characteristics: should not be overoptimistic in claiming a
stem, raw root tuber (heshouwu), and cured particular herb or natural product as ‘‘cure’’
root tuber (zhiheshouwu). It is obvious the for a certain disease after studies have indi-
Western term for it, fo-ti, is meaningless. A cated that one of its numerous chemical com-
voucher specimen of Polygonum multiflor- ponents exhibits a positive effect on the dis-
um to go with fo-ti would further add to the ease. This is especially true if this component
xx Preface to the second edition
is present only in minute quantities whose as due to riboflavin or curcumin would not be
effect may be overshadowed by those of other reported in a medical or pharmaceutical
compounds present, thus making the herb (in journal.
its original form) inactive as a cure for the Appearing in the English literature mostly
disease. Oleanolic acid is a typical example. It for the first time, the information on the new
is widely distributed in nature. A recent Chinese natural products in this second edi-
double-blind study involving 152 cancer pa- tion has been gathered from dozens of major
tients demonstrated it to have immunomodu- Chinese classical and modern works and
lating effects (enhanced phagocytosis, from over 50 Chinese journals on traditional
E-rosette formation, and delayed hypersensi- and herbal medicine. I have tried my best to
tivity), improving the general condition in present a balanced view of the traditional
two-thirds of the patients. Preliminary studies and modern aspects of Chinese herb use. The
have also indicated it to be effective against new ingredients selected for this new edition
hepatitis and HIV.5 However, all this does not generally reflect the trend in current com-
mean eating cloves and olives, both containing mercial use of natural products in America. I
oleanolic acid, will necessarily produce such hope this new edition will provide the read-
an effect. ers with an accurate update on the original
We are currently being literally choked by entries of the first edition as well as an
an overabundance of data on natural products, overview of the huge resources in Chinese
much of which either has not been evaluated or herbal ingredients.
is of dubious value. In this second edition, as in
the first edition, every effort has been made to 1. J. A. Duke, HerbalGram, 17, 20 (1988).
evaluate all original publications available to 2. N. R. Farnsworth et al., Bull. World Health
assure that the research methods and findings Organ., 63 (6), 965 (1985).
are of decent quality. And I have paid particu-
3. V. E. Tyler, HerbalGram, 30, 24 (1994).
lar attention to the identity and quality control
of the test materials. Papers reporting on 4. R. K. Siegel, JAMA, 241, 1614 (1979).
results of studies based on unidentified or 5. Y. Sun et al., Chin. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 6,
unidentifiable test materials are not cited un- 72 (1990).
der the respective entries (e.g., the so-called
ALBERT Y. LEUNG
‘‘ginseng abuse syndrome’’ not cited under
ginseng) for the same reason that results of Glen Rock, New Jersey
July 1995
research on an unidentified ‘‘yellow powder’’
Preface to the First
Edition
About 500 natural ingredients are currently or ignored by editors or authors of readily
used in commercial food, drug, and cosmetic available handbooks. Presumably, when a bo-
products. These do not include antibiotics, tanical drug is deleted from a currently official
vitamins, and many other natural substances compendium, there should no longer be any
that constitute prescription drugs nor medici- interest in it. Formerly official drugs such as
nal herbs that are not readily available in arnica, chamomile, rhubarb, valerian, white
commerce. Some of these ingredients are pure pine, and witch hazel are still widely used
chemicals isolated from natural sources while today in foods, drugs, and cosmetics; so are
others are extracts of botanicals. Our daily many plants that have never been admitted as
food, drug, and cosmetic items often contain official drugs, examples of which are alfalfa
these ingredients. Many of the substances used herb, annatto seed, chicory root, fenugreek
in foods are also used in drugs and cosmetics, seed, ginseng root, and rose hips. There is
where higher concentrations are involved. still ongoing, active research on many of these
Three major reasons have prompted me to natural products, particularly outside the
compile this encyclopedia. First, no reference United States. Since these botanicals are very
books are presently available that specifically much a part of our culture and daily life,
and simultaneously deal with commonly used information on them should be readily avail-
natural ingredients in processed foods, over- able. This encyclopedia is intended to furnish
the-counter drugs, and cosmetics. Since many correct, up-to-date information on these
natural flavor ingredients and food additives materials.
are also drug and cosmetic ingredients when Third, there is a general information gap
used in higher concentrations, there has been regarding natural products between technolo-
an acute need for a compact reference book gists of the botanical industry and those of the
that provides condensed and accurate infor- food, drug, and cosmetic industries, between
mation on these substances, saving the reader members of the academic and research
much time and effort that otherwise would communities and those in industry, as well as
have to be spent in consulting various hand- between the consumer and the industry con-
books and journals. cerned. Information readily available to
Second, most of the currently available one group is often not available to the others.
technical reference books in the English lan- One of the objectives of this book is to try to
guage on food, drug, or cosmetic ingredients bridge this gap by supplying information that
contain limited and out-of-date information would make different groups more aware of
regarding naturally derived substances. Many the practices and happenings outside of their
formerly official botanical drugs that are no own circle regarding the use of natural
longer official in the United States Pharmaco- ingredients.
poeia (U.S.P. XIX) or the National Formulary In this encyclopedia, each natural product
(N.F. XIV) are still widely used in nonpre- is presented in alphabetical order according to
scription pharmaceutical preparations and in its most common name, with each natural
food products. Yet they are largely neglected ingredient being cross-referenced with its
xxi
xxii Preface to the first edition
scientific name (Latin binomial) in the Index. Uses are categorized into four major areas:
As a natural ingredient often has several com- (1) pharmaceutical and/or cosmetic, (2) food,
mon names (synonyms), the reader is advised (3) folk medicine, and (4) others. Pharmaceu-
to use the Index if an ingredient cannot be tical and cosmetic uses refer to current uses in
found in the text under a particular synonym. commercially available products mainly in the
Data on about 310 natural ingredients are United States. No attempt has been made to
furnished. Information included in each item identify the function of each ingredient in a
includes plant or other sources, habitats, parts product, as often there are over a dozen botani-
used or derived from, method of preparation, cal components present in a single preparation,
brief physical description, chemical composi- making it an impossible task. The same situa-
tion, pharmacology or biological activities, tion applies to the food area where the majority
common commercially available forms in the (200–250) of the ingredients used in food
United States, and their qualities, uses, and products are broadly identified only as flavor
regulatory status, whenever applicable. ingredients. The specific function and use level
Data on chemical compositions of natural of a particular ingredient in a flavor formula-
ingredients are constantly increasing as ana- tion are often proprietary information, which is
lytical techniques keep improving. Often an seldom publicly available. Consequently, food
ingredient contains hundreds of chemical con- uses are reported in this encyclopedia by food
stituents, yet only a few (occasionally arbi- categories, as in the report on ‘‘Average Maxi-
trarily selected) are listed in this encyclopedia. mum Use Levels’’ published by the Flavor and
For further information on other compounds, Extracts Manufacturers’ Association of the
the reader is referred to the original references United States (FEMA). Only in cases where
cited. Incidentally, the absence of a particular the functions of the ingredients have become
compound in a natural ingredient does not widely known in the trade or otherwise in open
necessarily mean that it is actually absent; it literature (e.g., fenugreek extract as a major
may simply mean that nobody has analyzed flavoring agent in artificial maple syrup, yucca
for it in this particular ingredient. On the other extracts as foaming agents in root beer, ab-
hand, its reported presence in a natural ingre- sinthium as a flavor ingredient in vermouths,
dient means only that someone has investi- etc.) are they specifically mentioned in this
gated it in this particular ingredient using a book. Sometimes an ingredient is reportedly
particular analytical technique for whatever used in various types of food products, yet
reason. Also, the mere presence of a toxic federal regulations have approved its used in
chemical in a natural ingredient does not only one particular type of product. This ap-
necessarily make this ingredient toxic. Its pears to be a typical case of information dis-
concentration and biological availability semination lag. Under folk medicinal uses are
should be taken into account when the toxicity listed only those traditional uses that are re-
of the ingredient is considered. ported in reliable sources available to me,
The data on pharmacology or biological primarily in the English, German, and Chinese
activities (be they favorable or unfavorable) languages; they are by no means complete and
reported in this book should be viewed with they should not be regarded as endorsement of
caution as often they were single reports or such uses. They are included in this volume
reports from a single laboratory or research because of their popular interest. Under the
group that have not been substantiated by fourth category (‘‘others’’) are listed potential
other studies. Furthermore, it should be kept or unusual uses that do not fall in above
in mind that results from animal studies are not categories.
necessarily applicable to humans. Purity of the Use levels in foods reported in this ency-
test material (which is often not sufficiently clopedia are based on the FEMA report; a
stressed) should also be taken into account manufacturer may foreseeably use an ingredi-
when evaluating such data. ent in an amount five times the average maxi-
Preface to the first edition xxiii
mum use and still be considered within good subjects such as BALSAM AND SAGARIN, FURIA,
manufacturing practice. Use levels reported HARBORNE, LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS, REMINGTON,
for cosmetics are based on values reported in and TYLER, listed in the General References.
the Monographs on ‘‘Fragrance Raw Materi- In the General References are listed text-
als’’ prepared by Opdyke of The Research books and handbooks from which general and
Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc. and sometimes specific information was obtained.
published in Food and Cosmetic Toxicology. They are identified in the text by the names of
Under regulatory status, GRAS means gen- the authors in small capital letters, and if there
erally recognized as safe as sanctioned by the are more than two authors, by the name of the
Food and Drug Administration (FDA); an first author. If an author has more than one
ingredient described as having been approved book, it is identified by a number such as 1 or 2
for food use is not necessarily GRAS. For immediately following the author’s name
more precise and up-to-date information, the (e.g., BAILEY 2); the number refers to the order
reader is referred to §182 and its appropriate of appearance of this author’s books in the list.
sections under Title 21 of the Code of Federal Specific references are cited under Refer-
Regulations (formerly §121.101), to §172.510 ences immediately following each entry, num-
(formerly §121.1163), and to other appropri- bered according to their order of citation in the
ate sections, to the FDA, and to the latest text.
notices and rulings published in the Federal It is hoped that this encyclopedia will serve
Register. as a handy and useful reference to technical
A glossary of terminology commonly used and nontechnical members of the food, drug,
in the botanical industry is found in the Intro- and cosmetic industries, to teachers and stu-
duction. Since the primary purpose of this dents of corresponding sciences and related
encyclopedia is to serve as a practical refer- fields, and to the general public who want to
ence guide for practicing technologists in the know more about natural ingredients.
food, drug, and cosmetic industries and their
ALBERT Y. LEUNG
purchasing agents and marketers, theoretical
considerations and basic principles in the Glen Rock, New Jersey
January 1980
fields concerned are omitted. For these topics,
the reader is referred to standard texts on these
Acknowledgments
Our thanks to Dr. Vaishali Joshi, National unnoticed. Thanks are also due to Dr. Shabana
Center for Natural Products Research, School Khan, National Center for Natural Products
of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, for Research, School of Pharmacy, University of
botanical description and help with mono- Mississippi, for her help with the pharmacol-
graph preparation and literature searching. In ogy sections and proofreading the manuscript.
addition, Dr. Joshi’s major contribution to the Without their support the preparation of this
Indian Traditional Medicine chapter cannot go book would have been a daunting task.
xxv
Introduction
People have been using natural products since However, it must be pointed out that unless
the dawn of human history. Only toward the this chemical is absolutely pure (which it
end of the 19th century, however, have we seldom is), it would contain different impuri-
started to know something about the chemistry ties, depending on its sources. The impurities
of some of these products. With our increasing present in a naturally derived food, drug, or
knowledge of chemistry and related sciences, cosmetic ingredient are bound to be different
we have begun to duplicate some of the natural from those of its synthetic counterpart, and if
chemicals and at the same time make mod- there is more than one way to synthesize this
ifications in these compounds, or sometimes compound, then the impurities would be dif-
produce completely new ones. Consequently, ferent from one synthetic process to another.
since the advent of the Synthetic Era several The relative toxicities or merits of these small
decades ago, many natural drugs have been differences have not been determined. If an
replaced by synthetic ones; natural flavors and impurity, whether it is a natural or synthetic
fragrances have been duplicated or simulated chemical, has unusually high latent biological
by manufactured chemicals. However, the activity, a minute quantity of it present in a
number of natural products/natural product- chemical would produce physiological effects
derived drugs used in pharmaceutical products besides those elicited by the pure chemical
is still sizable, amounting to ca. 25% of the itself. These effects may not be immediately
total number of medicines approved by the apparent. Most, if not all, of existing standards
FDA. This number has not changed appreci- for food, drug, and cosmetic ingredients do not
ably for the last two decades, especially with have provisions for pinpointing small amounts
reference to botanicals. At least 250 plants or of impurities, as it is impractical to set abso-
their extracts are currently used in commercial lute purity standards for these ingredients.
food products broadly classified as flavoring Consequently, in practice, most of these ma-
ingredients (FEMA). Over the past decade, terials are permitted to have a range of errors
there has been an increasing interest in the use built into their purity assays. This range of
of natural products, particularly in foods, errors can be due either to the assay methods
cosmetics, and complementary medicine, themselves or to actual impurities present in
especially after the passage of the Dietary the chemical. In some cases, as analytical
Supplement Health and Education Act methodology advances, this range has become
(DSHEA) in 1994. The implementation of progressively narrower. However, before this
DSHEA in the United States opened the mar- range becomes negligible, one should not
ket to a new class of natural-based products equate a naturally derived chemical with its
that are collectively known as dietary supple- synthetic counterpart, and their sources should
ments (more below). be indicated, as is the case with certain flavor
To define a natural product is not a straight- chemicals.
forward task, for, strictly speaking, everything There are several definitions of a natural prod-
is derived from nature. Nevertheless, by natu- uct. In the case of flavoring substances, some
ral products it is generally meant that products definitions of a natural product (flavor) limit
are not made by chemical synthesis. Theoreti- the product to be one obtained from natural
cally, a natural chemical is the same as sources by physical processes only. Other
its synthetic counterpart in every respect. definitions allow hydrolysis and fermentation
xxvii
xxviii Introduction
as permissible processes. For all practical number, perhaps 12–15% are natural pro-
purposes in this book, a natural product is ducts. Many of these food additives are also
defined as a product that is derived from plant, drugs when used in larger quantities. Some of
animal, or microbial sources, primarily these are also used in cosmetics. The total
through physical processing, sometimes facil- number of the more commonly used natural
itated by simple chemical reactions such as food, drug, and cosmetic ingredients in this
acidification, basification, ion exchange, hy- encyclopedia is about 310 (first edition).
drolysis, and salt formation as well as micro- In spite of the fact that plants have been
bial fermentation. These chemical reactions used for therapeutic purposes for millennia,
do not drastically alter the chemical structure only a relatively few plants or plant products
of the natural product to be isolated. are currently officially recognized in the Unit-
Ingredients used in foods, drugs, and cos- ed States as effective drugs. This is largely due
metics can be divided into two main catego- to the difficulties encountered in plant drug
ries, namely, active and inactive. Active in- research and the limitations of scientific meth-
gredients can be considered as those that odology employed. Quite often, premature
supply energy to the body or serve as its publicity on unconfirmed research data has
nutrients (foods and some food additives), or tainted the reputation of many botanical drugs.
cause physiological changes in or on the body Since many drug plants have rather compli-
(drugs and cosmetics) when taken internally cated chemical compositions and analytical
or applied externally. Inactive (inert) ingredi- technology has not been adequate in deter-
ents are substances that, based on prevalent mining their identities and qualities once
data, do not exert physiological actions when extracts are made from them, adulteration,
ingested or applied to the body. Their primary sophistication, or substitution has been com-
function is to act as diluents (fillers) and/or to mon. This has led to inconsistencies in drug
facilitate the ultimate intake or utilization of potency, and many natural drugs have proba-
the active ingredients. Among food products, bly been removed from officially recognized
basic foodstuffs such as flour, starch, and milk status as a result. Many natural drugs formerly
are not included in this book, although they are recognized by the United States Pharma-
considered active ingredients. Only food ad- copeia (U.S.P.) and National Formulary
ditives are considered. However, in drug and (N.F.) are no longer official in these compen-
cosmetic products, both active and inactive dia, yet many of these continue to be used in
substances are included. pharmaceutical preparations. As mentioned
Food additives are a large group of sub- above, the implementation of DSHEA has
stances that are added to foods either directly imparted a new status to the majority of
or indirectly during the growing, storage, or natural formulations currently available in the
processing of foods for one or more of the United States market. As partially defined
following purposes: under DSHEA, the term “dietary supplement”
means a product (other than tobacco) intended
1. Improve or maintain nutritional value to supplement the diet that bears or contains
2. Enhance quality one or more of the following dietary ingredi-
3. Reduce wastage ents: (a) a vitamin; (b) a mineral; (c) a herb or
other botanical; (d) an amino acid; (e) a dietary
4. Enhance consumer acceptability
substance for use by man to supplement the
5. Improve keeping quality diet by increasing the total dietary intake;
6. Make the food more readily available or (f) a concentrate, metabolite, constituent,
7. Facilitate preparation of the food extract, or combination of any ingredient
described above. As mandated by the FDA,
There are about 2500 direct food additives the label of any dietary supplement marketed
currently used by the food industry. Out of this in the United States should have the statement:
Introduction xxix
“These statements have not been evaluated by Some of the food, drug, and cosmetic ingre-
the Food and Drug Administration. This prod- dients are pure chemicals isolated from plants,
uct is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or animals, or microbes. However, most are in
prevent any disease.” The unevaluated the form of extracts, oleoresins, fixed oils, and
“statements” include any structure/function volatile oils, among others. The included ap-
claims introduced by the manufacturer for a pendices contain most of the commonly en-
particular dietary supplement. countered terms used in the botanical industry.
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; FEMA; FURIA; FURIA AND BELLANCA; REMINGTON; U.S.P. XIX, XXI
AND XXXIII.
1. N. R. Farnsworth and R. W. Morris, Am. J. 4. Dietary Supplement Health and Education
Pharm., 148, 46 (1976). Act of 1994; Public Law 103–417; 103rd
2. National Academy of Sciences , The Use Congress. http://www.fda.gov/opacom/
of Chemicals in Food Production, laws/dshea.html#sec3.
Processing, Storage and Distribution, 5. I. K. Khan, Life Sci., 78, 2033 (2006)
Washington, DC, 1973.
3. D. J. Newman and G. M. Cragg, J. Nat.
Prod., 70, 461 (2007)
LEUNG’S
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF COMMON
NATURAL
INGREDIENTS
USED IN FOOD,
DRUGS, AND COSMETICS
Third Edition
Natural Ingredients
ABSINTHIUM sabinene, trans-sabinyl acetate þ lavandulyl
acetate, ()-sabinyl acetate, (Z)-epoxy-a-
Source: Artemisia absinthium L. (Family ocimene, chrysanthendiol ( þ ), and chry-
Compositae or Asteraceae). santhenyl acetate, among others.11–13 Cadi-
nene, camphene, bisabolene, thujyl alcohol,
Common/vernacular names: Absinthe, absinthe myrcene, 1,8-cineole, and azulenes (e.g., cha-
grande, absinthium, armoise, common worm- mazulene, 3,6-dihydrochamazulene, and 5,6-
wood, wermut, wermutkraut, and wormwood. dihydrochamazulene)are also found.11,13 Cha-
mazulene at concentrations of up to 0.29% was
detected in the flowers at the beginning of
GENERAL DESCRIPTION flowering.14 Also, ()- and trans-epoxyoci-
menes were isolated from anItalian absinthium
Artemisia absinthium is a shrubby perennial oil of which they constituted 16–57%.15
herb with grayish white stems covered with Varying geographical origin, altitude, and
fine silky hairs, 30–90 cm high; leaves also exposures affect qualitative and quantitative dif-
silky, hairy, and glandular, 2–3-pinnatisect, ferences in the essential oil. The volatile oil of
petiolate lobes, mostly obtuse; odor aromatic, different chemotypes can contain >40% of ei-
spicy; taste bitter; native to Europe, northern ther p-thujone, chrysanthenyl acetate, trans-sa-
Africa, and western Asia, naturalized in North binyl acetate, or ()-epoxyocimene (EVANS).11,14
America; extensively cultivated. Parts used PlantmaterialcollectedinArgentina(Patagonia)
are the leaves and flowering tops (fresh and was composed of 59.9% b-thujone (2.34% a-
dried), harvested just before or during flower- thujone), sabinyl acetate (18.11%), ()-epoxyo-
ing; from these a volatile oil is obtained by cimene (1.48%), caryophyllene (1.92%), linalo-
steam distillation (EVANS; FERNALD; YOUNGKEN). ol (1.15%), and sabinene (1.09%), with trace
amounts of a-pinene, a-terpineol, germacrene
D, neryl acetate, neryl propionate, nerol, geranyl
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION propionate, and geraniol (<1% each).13
Miscellaneous constituents of the plant
Artemisia absinthium contains up to 1.7% include inulobiose (an oligofructoside),16
volatile oil composed mainly of thujone (a- coumarins (scopoletin, umbelliferone), phe-
and b-) and b-caryophyllene.1 Bitter principles nolic acids, flavonoids,17–19 amino acids,19
include artabsin (analogous monomer of ab- tannins (4.0–7.7%),20 lignans (3,7-dioxabicy-
sinthin), dimeric guaianolides (absinthin and clo[3,3,0]-octanes),7 pipecolic acid,21 and
absintholide),2,3 artabsinolides A–C (EVANS), sterols, including an antipyretic sterol (24z-
and artemetin (5-hydroxy-3,6,7,30 ,40 -penta- ethylcholesta-7,22-dien-3b-ol).22,23
methoxyflavone);4 other isolated lactones in-
clude arabsin,5 artabin,6 ketopelenolide a
(a germacranolide),7 artenolide, artemoline, PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
and deacetylglobicin (monomeric guaiano- ACTIVITIES
lides),8 anabsin, and isoabsinthin (dimeric
guaianolides).5,7,9,10 Other constituents pres- Despite the postulation that thujone and
ent in relatively high amounts in the oil include tetrahydrocannabinol, active principles of
1
2 Absinthium
absinthe and marijuana, respectively, interact Food. Artemisia absinthium is widely used
with a common receptor in the central ner- in flavoring alcoholic bitters and in vermouth
vous system, no evidence of such activity formulations; average maximum use level of
was found.24 0.024% reported. The oil and extracts are also
Antitumor activity has also been reported25 used in alcoholic beverages as well as in other
and attributed to a flavonoid, artemisetin.26 categories of foods such as nonalcoholic bev-
The essential oil and extracts of the plant erages, frozen dairy deserts, candy, baked
have shown in vitro antimicrobial,27–31 anti- goods, and gelatins and puddings. Reported
fungal,27,31 nematocidal,32 acaricidal,33 and average maximum use levels for the oil is
antimalarial activities.34In vitro antimaliarial about 0.006% in the last four food categories.
activity was found from two homoditerpene The popular 19th century alcoholic bever-
peroxides isolated from the aerial parts of the age, absinthe, is made by macerating ab-
plant.35 The oil was shown to repel mosqui- sinthium and other aromatic herbs in alcohol,
toes, fleas, and flies.31 distilling the spirit, and then adding flavorings
or coloring. Absinthe was banned in many
countries soon after the turn of the 19th
TOXICOLOGY century (1907 in Switzerland; 1912 in the
United States). Its sale persisted in France until
The toxicity of A. absinthium and thujone 191542 where it was popular among writers
remains poorly understood;36 however, inges- and artists, including Toulouse-Lautrec and
tion of large doses of thujone causes convul- Vincent van Gogh, and for a time was the most
sions. Habitual use or large doses of alcoholic heavily consumed alcoholic beverage in the
drinks containing A. absinthium have been country.37
associated with brain damage, epilepsy, sui-
cide, hallucinations, restlessness, insomnia, Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Not
nightmares, vomiting, vertigo, tremors, and commonly used; cut and sifted herb as tea
convulsions.37,38 With the likely exception of (infusion or decoction) reportedly used as a
the latter owing to GABA-modulating activity bitter digestive stimulant (HOFFMAN); also used
of a- and b-thujones,39 how many of these in the form of an aqueous extract at doses
observed toxic effects were caused by the equivalent to 2–3 g of herb for the treatment of
plant remains unknown. anorexia, dyspeptic symptoms, and so on
Thujone is porphyrogenic and may there- (BLUMENTHAL 1).
fore be hazardous to patients with defective
hepatic heme synthesis.40 Applied externally Traditional Medicine. Used as an aromatic
the essential oil is nontoxic.41 bitter for promoting appetite, for strengthen-
ing the system in colds and flu, and as cho-
leretic for liver and gallbladder disorders,
USES usually in the form of a dilute extract; also
as emmenagogue, antianorexic, antidyspetic
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. (EVANS), mental restorative (GRIEVE), febri-
Oil is used as an ingredient in certain rubefa- fuge,36 and topically for contusions, edema,
cient preparations; extracts now rarely used ulcers, as an antiseptic18 and a vermifuge;43
internally, except in some bitter tonics for anthelmintic activity is probably the result of
anorexia and dyspeptic symptoms (bitter lactones related to santonin found in worm-
value of at least 15,000) (BLUMENTHAL 1). The seed (A. cina Berg.) and other Artemisia spe-
oil has been used as a fragrance component in cies.44 The dried and fragmented leaves are
soaps, detergents, creams, lotions, and per- used in the Philippines to treat herpes, puru-
fumes, with maximum use levels of 0.01% in lent scabies, and eczema and to speed the
detergents and 0.25% in perfumes.42 healing of wounds.45
Absinthium 3
REFERENCES
See the General References for APhA; APPLEQUIST; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON;
DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; EVANS; FEMA; FERNALD; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; GUPTA; HOFFMAN; KARRER;
MASADA; MERCK; SAX; STAHL; TUTIN 5; YOUNGKEN.
1. J. Slepetys, Polez. Rast. Priblat. Respub. 14. J. Slepetys, Liet. TSR Mokslu Akad.
Beloruss., Mater., Nauch, Konf., 2, 289 Darb., Ser. C, 4, 29 (1974).
(1973). 15. F. Chialva et al., Riv. Ital. Essenze, Profumi,
2. T. Nozoe and S. Ito in L. Zechmeister, ed., Piante Off, Aromi, Saponi, Cosmet.,
Fortschritte der Chemie Organischer Aerosol, 58, 522 (1976); through Chem.
Naturstoffe, Vol. 19, Springer-Verlag, Abstr., 86, 161105d (1977).
Vienna, Austria, 1959, p. 1. 16. M. L. Tourn and A. Lombard, Atti Acad.
3. J. Beauhaire et al., Tetrahedron Lett., 21, Sci. Torino, Cl. Sci. Fis., Mater. Nat., 5–6,
3191 (1980). 941 (1974).
4. K. Venkataraman in L. Zechmeister, ed., 17. L. Swiatek and E. Dombrowicz, Farm.
Fortschritte der Chemie Organischer Pol., 40, 729 (1984).
Naturstoffe, Vol. 17, Springer-Verlag, 18. L. Swiatek et al., Pharm. Pharmacol.
Vienna, Austria, 1959, p. 1. Lett. 8, 158 (1998).
5. S. K. Zakirov et al., Khim. Prir. Soedin., 19. G. A. Zhukov and V. V. Timofeev, Khim.
4, 548 (1976). Prir. Soedin., 3, 447 (1987).
6. I. S. Akhmedov et al., Khim. Prir. Soedin., 20. J. Slepetys, Liet. TSR Mokslu Akad.
6, (1970). Darb., Ser. C, 1, 43 (1975).
7. M. Dermanovic et al., Glas. Hem. Drus., 21. V. Rosetti and A. Garrone, Phytochemi-
Beogard, 41, 287 (1976). stry, 14, 1467 (1975).
8. S. Z. Kasymov et al., Khim. Prir. Soedin., 22. M. Ikram et al., Planta Med., 53, 389
5, 667 (1987). (1987).
9. A. Ovezdurdyev et al., Khim. Prir. 23. M. D. Sayed et al., Egypt J. Pharm. Sci.,
Soedin., 5, 667 (1987). 19, 323 (1980).
10. J. Beauhaire et al., Tetrahedron Lett., 25, 24. J. P. Meschler and A. C. Howlett,
2751 (1984). Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 62, 473
11. B. M. Lawrence, Perf. Flav. 17, 39 (1992). (1999).
12. D. J. Bertelli and J. H. Crabtree, Tetra- 25. N. V. Gribel and V. G. Pashinskii,
hedron, 24, 2079 (1968). Rastitel’Nye Resursy, 27, 65 (1991).
13. T. Sacco and F. Chialva, Planta Med., 54, 26. I. I. Chemesova et al., Rastitel’Nye
93 (1988). Resursy, 23, 100 (1987).
4 Acacia (gum arabic)
27. V. K. Kaul et al., Indian J. Pharm., 38, 21 37. J. Strang et al., Br. Med. J., 319, 1590
(1975). (1999).
28. N. S. Alzoreky and K. Nakahara, Int. J. 38. C. Gambelunghe and P. Melai, Forensic
Food Micriobiol., 80, 223 (2003). Sci. Int., 130, 183 (2002).
29. D. Basaran et al., Turk. J. Biol., 23, 377 39. K. M. H€old et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
(1999). USA, 97, 3826 (2000).
30. E. O. Turgay, Pharm. Biol., 40, 269 40. H. L. Bonkovsky et al., Biochem.
(2002). Pharmacol., 43, 2359 (1992).
31. F. Juteau et al., Planta Med., 69, 158 41. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
(2003). 13(Suppl.), 721 (1975).
32. A. M. Korayem et al., Anzeiger 42. D. D. Vogt, J. Ethnopharmacol., 4, 337
Schaedlingsk Pflanze Umweltschutz., (1981).
66, 32 (1993). 43. M. B. Quinlan et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
33. H. Chiasson et al., J. Econ. Entomol., 94, 80, 75 (2002).
167 (2001). 44. H. J. Woerdenbag et al. in P. A. G. M.
34. M. M. Zafar et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., De Smet et al., eds., Adverse Effects of
30, 223 (1990). Herbal Drugs, Vol. 3, Springer-Verlag,
35. G. Ruecker et al., Phytochemistry, 31, Berlin, 1997, p. 15.
340 (1992). 45. T. Aburjai and F. M. Natsheh, Phytother.
36. S. G. Khattak et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., Res., 17, 987 (2003).
14, 45 (1985).
ACACIA (GUM ARABIC) a thin strip of the bark. The gummy exudates
form as tears on the surface of the wounds and
Source: Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. and other are collected after they have hardened, usually
Acacia spp. (Family Leguminosae or in 2 or more weeks.
Fabaceae). The Republic of Sudan supplies most of the
world’s gum acacia and produces the best
Common/vernacular names: Gomme arabi- quality product. A. senegal rangesfrom Senegal
que, gomme de Senegal, gum acacia, gum to northeastern Africa, south to Mozambique.
arabic, gum Senegal, gummae mimosae, and Other suppliers include Senegal, Mauritania,
kher. Chad, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Ethiopia.
Gum acacia is one of the most water-solu-
ble plant gums; one part acacia can dissolve in
GENERAL DESCRIPTION two parts water, forming a weakly acidic
solution with pH 4.5–5.5. Its solutions have
The dried gummy exudate from stems and lower viscosities than those of other natural
branches of Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. (syn. gums. It is insoluble in alcohol, chloroform,
A. verek Guill. et Perr.) or other related Afri- ether, and oils and very slightly soluble in
can Acacia species. Acacia senegal has triple glycerol and propylene glycol. It is almost
spines at the base of its branchlets, which odorless and has a bland mucilaginous taste.
distinguishes it from many other Acacia spp. Gum acacia contains a peroxidase that,
in its range. The trees are tapped by making unless destroyed by heating briefly at 100 C,
transverse incisions in the bark and peeling off forms colored compounds with certain amines
Acacia (gum arabic) 5
REFERENCES
See the General References for DAVIDSON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; FURIA; GLICKSMAN;
GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; GUPTA; KEAY; KENNEDY; LAWRENCE; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN; REMINGTON; SAX; TERRELL;
WHISTLER AND BEMILLER; YOUNGKEN.
6 Acerola
REFERENCES
See the General References for CSIR VI; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MORTON 2;
MORTON 4; TERRELL; WATT AND MERRILL.
1. C. G. Moscoso, Econ. Bot., 10, 280 (1956). 5. A. L. Vendramini and L. C. Trugo, Food
2. R. E. Berry et al., Food Prod. Dev., 14, 109 Chem., 71, 195 (2000).
(1977). 6. J. A. Pino and R. Marbot, J. Agric. Food
3. H. Y. Nakasone et al., Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Chem., 49, 5880 (2001).
Sci., 89, 161 (1966). 7. J. Hwang et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 49,
4. A. Schillinger, Z. Lebensm, Unters. 308 (2001).
Forsch., 131, 89 (1966). 8. N. Motohashi et al., Phytother. Res., 18,
212 (2004).
Perennial herbs consisting of many subspe- Total alkaloids 0.2–2%, consisting mainly of
cies, varieties, clones, and forms; up to 1.5 m aconitine (acetylbenzoylaconine), picraconi-
high with tuberous roots that resemble turnips; tine (benzoylaconine), aconine, and napelline
8 Aconite
and other drugs, followed by boiling or steam- ratios. Crude was formerly official in U.S.P.
ing and then drying. The resulting product (1850–1936) and N.F. (1942).
therefore cannot be compared directly with
the American or European product or any other Regulatory Status. Subject of a negative Ger-
unprocessed product (JIANGSU; NANJING; WANG). man therapeutic monograph, due to toxicity
that can occur within the therapeutic dose
(including vomiting, dizziness, muscle spasms,
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS hypothermia, paralysis of respiratory system,
and rhythmic heart disorders) (BLUMENTHAL 1).
Crude and extracts. Strengths (see glossary) of
extracts are expressed in weight-to-weight
REFERENCES
See the General References for BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER;
FARNSWORTH 3; FERNALD; FOGARTY; FROHNE AND PFANDER; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; GUPTA; JIANGSU; KARRER;
MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; NANJING; SAX; WANG.
1. G. de la Fuente et al., Heterocycles, 27, 6. M. Murayama et al., J. Pharm. Pharm-
1109 (1980). acol., 35, 135 (1991).
2. E. Arlandini et al., J. Nat. Prod., 50, 937 7. P. G. Xiao and K. J. Chen. Phytother. Res.,
(1987). 1, 2, 5 (1987).
3. H. Hikino et al., J. Nat. Prod., 47, 190 (1984). 8. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 34, 103 (1971).
4. A. Crema, Arch. Ital. Sci. Farmacol., 7, 9. M. Kimura et al., Jpn. J. Pharmacol., 48,
119 (1957). 290 (1988).
5. N. G. Bisset, J. Ethnopharmacol., 4, 247
(1981).
a firm, resilient gel that does not melt below gluconic acid).7 It may also contain other sugar
85 C. This ability to gel at a much lower residues including 4-O-methyl-L-galactose,
temperature than the melting temperature of 6-O-methyl-D-galactose,8–10D-xylose, and O-
the gel, commonly called hysteresis lag, is methylpentose, as well as boric acid (approxi-
uniquely long in agar, and many of its uses mately 0.1%)11 and various inorganic cations
depend on this property. Agar gels also have (Na þ , K þ , Ca2 þ , Mg2 þ , etc.).12
the property of shrinking and exuding water
from their surface (syneresis), particularly
when broken. The gel strength of agar can PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
be increased by addition of dextrose, sucrose, ACTIVITIES
and locust bean gum, while it tends to weak-
en with gelatin, algin, starch, and karaya Agar is nontoxic and can be ingested in large
gum. The colorless, tasteless powder can doses without much distress. It passes through
absorb up to 200 times its volume of water the intestinal tract mostly unabsorbed.13 Agar
when forming a gel. has shown in vitro antipeptic activities14 and
Agar solutions have low viscosity; their the results of a study in rats suggested that it
degree of clarity and color (yellowish to col- may elevate serum or tissue cholesterol
orless) depend on the quality and source of the levels.15
agar, as do their gel strength, gelling tempera-
ture, and the degree of syneresis. Quality is
largely affected by extraction procedures. TOXICOLOGY
Physical and rheological properties of agar
that provide the greatest determinations of Mice fed agar showed significantly more
quality are the average molecular weight and colon tumors per animal (twice as many) as
molecular weight distribution.1 those fed diets without agar. Agar-fed animals
Agar is insoluble in organic solvents and is also showed decreased levels of fecal neutral
precipitated from aqueous solution by alcohol sterol and bile acid concentrations.13 When
and tannin. fed to rats at 5% and 15% levels of the diet,
agar impaired protein utilization.16
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
USES
The structure of agar is still not fully deter-
mined, the problem being complicated by the Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
large number of commercial sources of agar. As a bulk laxative, particularly in chronic
It is generally believed that all agars consist constipation; in the manufacture of emulsions,
of two major polysaccharides (neutral aga- suspensions, gels, and hydrophilic supposito-
rose and charged agaropectin), although sev- ries; in dentistry as basic constituent of revers-
eral studies have indicated a much more ible impression and duplicating materials.
complicated structure.2–6 Agarose is the gel-
ling fraction and agaropectin is the nongel- Food. Used in canned meat and fish products
ling fraction. Both are composed of a linear as gel filler or gel binder; in baked goods
chain of alternating b-D-galactopyranose and (icings and glazes); and in confectionery,
3,6-anhydro-a-L-galactopyranose residues, dairy products, processed fruits, sweet sauces,
with agaropectin having a higher proportion and reconstituted vegetables, among others.
of uronic acid, sulfate, and pyruvic acid resi- Highest average maximum usage level usually
dues.6 Commercial agar may contain free ami- about 0.4% in baked goods.
no acids (arginine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, Agar has been used as a food in the Far East
and threonine) and free sugars (galactose and for centuries.
Aletris 11
Others. A major use of agar is in culture cal grades demanding the most stringent qual-
media for microorganisms. It is one of the ity. Some high-quality agars from certain
most widely used media for biotechnology commercial sources have higher congealing
purposes. temperatures than that required by the F.C.C.
and N.F., which is due to the source of algae
used.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Regulatory Status. Agar is GRAS as a stabi-
Available in flakes, strips, and powders; lizer (§582.7115) and red algae is affirmed as
grades and quality vary, with the bacteriologi- GRAS (§184.1115).17
REFERENCES
See the General References for FEMA; FURIA; GLICKSMAN; GOSSELIN; LAWRENCE; MARTINDALE; PHILLIPS;
REMINGTON; TYLER 2; UPHOF; WHISTLER AND BEMILLER; WREN.
1. F. Zanetti et al., Planta Med., 58 (S1), 9. M. Duckworth et al., Carbohydr. Res., 18,
A696 (1992). 1 (1971).
2. K. B. Guiseley in A. Standen, ed., Kirk- 10. Y. Karamanos et al., Carbohydr. Res.,
Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical 187, 93 (1989).
Technology, Vol. 17, 2nd ed., 11. H. Hayashi et al., Shokuhin Eiseigaku
Wiley–Interscience, New York, 1968, Zasshi, 29, 390 (1988).
p. 763.
12. H. A. Kordan, Biochem. Physiol. Pflanz.,
3. M. Duckworth and W. Yaphe, Carbohydr. 183, 355 (1988).
Res., 16, 189 (1971).
13. H. P Glauert et al., Food Cosmet.
4. M. Duckworth and W. Yaphe, Carbohydr. Toxicol., 19, 281 (1981).
Res., 16, 435 (1971).
14. M. W. Gouda and G. S. Godhka, Can. J.
5. K. Young et al., Carbohydr. Res., 16, 446 Pharm. Sci., 12, 4 (1977).
(1971).
15. A. C Tsai et al., J. Nutr., 106, 118 (1976).
6. K. Izumi, Carbohydr. Res., 17, 227
16. S. Y Shiau et al., Nutr. Rep. Int., 39, 281
(1971).
(1989).
7. K. Hayashi and K. Nonaka, Nippon
17. Anon., Fed. Regist., 42 (161), 41876
Shokuhin Kogyo Gakkaishi, 14, 66
(1977).
(1967).
8. C. Araki et al., Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 40,
959 (1967).
Source: Aletris farinosa L. (Family Liliaceae). Perennial herb with grasslike leaves up to
20 cm long, formed as a rosette around a
Common/vernacular names: Ague grass, slender, naked flowering stem that grows up
ague root, aletris, blazing star, colic root, to almost 1 m high; flowers white, tubular,
stargrass, starwort, true unicorn root, unicorn mealy at base; native to North America from
root, and whitetube stargrass. southern Maine south to Florida and west to
12 Alfalfa
Wisconsin and Texas. Parts used are the dried menstrual discomforts, in laxatives, and also
rhizome and roots, which are collected in the as an antiflatulent.
fall (FOSTER AND DUKE; YOUNGKEN).
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Crude
root, powdered, or cut and sifted used in
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
tablets, capsules, tinctures, teas, often in com-
bination with other herbs for menstrual dis-
Diosgenin was detected in the roots,1 which,
orders and as a bitter digestive tonic (CRELLIN
along with gentrogenin, was isolated from
AND PHILPOTT).
whole plant samples of two Japanese Aletris
species: A. foliata and A. formosana.2
Traditional Medicine. Tea made from the
Other constituents found in aletris include
leaves was used by the Catawba Indians to
an amber volatile oil said to be pharmacologi-
relieve colic and stomach disorders and to
cally active, a resinous material, and a sapo-
treat dysentery; the Cherokee Indians ingested
nin-like glycoside that yields diosgenin on
the leaves to treat rheumatism, flatulent colic,
hydrolysis.
fever in children, coughs, lung diseases,
cough, jaundice, and painful urination; Mic-
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL mac used the root as an emmenagogue and
ACTIVITIES stomachic; Rappahannock Indians used tea
made from the plant for female problems.4
Aletris has shown estrogenic activity.3
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
USES
Crude and extracts. Strengths (see glossary) of
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
extracts are expressed in weight-to-weight
It has been and is still used in proprietary
ratios. Crude was formerly official in U.S.P.
preparations for the treatment of female
(1820–1860) and N.F. (1916–1942).
disorders such as dysmenorrhea and other
REFERENCES
See the General References for CRELLIN AND PHILPOTT; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FERNALD; FOSTER AND
DUKE; GRIEVE; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; YOUNGKEN.
1. R. E. Marker et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 62, 4. D. E. Moerman, Native American
2620 (1940). Ethnobotany, Timber Press, Portland, OR,
2. T. Okanishi et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 23, 1998, pp. 55–56.
575 (1975).
3. C. L. Butler and C. H. Costello, J. Am.
Pharm. Assoc., 33, 177 (1944).
Source: Medicago sativa L. (Family Legu- Perennial herb with a deep taproot; leaves
minosae or Fabaceae). resemble those of clover; grows to a height
of 1 m with mostly bluish purple flowers in
Common/vernacular names: Alfalfa and the typical subspecies. Native to the Near
lucerne. East (western Asia and east Mediterranean
Alfalfa 13
regions); now cultivated extensively through- quantities believed to be one of the causes for
out the world. Parts used are the aerial parts. bloating in cattle by releasing pectic acids that
The species has several distinct variants in- combine with calcium in the rumen to form a
cluding M. sativa (sensu stricto) and subsp. resinous material, trapping gases produced
falcata (L.) Arcangeli (syn. M. falcata L.). during digestion).4,14–16
The former is a purple-flowered form Alkaloids (trigonelline, which is in seeds
with strongly coiled legumes, originating only; stachydrine; and homostachydrine);
from an arid continental climate in alkaline plant acids (malic, oxalic, malonic, maleic,
soils, principally from Turkey. Wild and cul- and quinic, etc.); vitamins and growth factors
tivated M. sativa subsp. sativa and their prog- (vitamins A, B1, B6, B12, C, E, and K1; niacin;
eny are relatively low in hemolytic saponins. pantothenic acid; biotin; folic acid; etc.);
M. sativa subsp. falcata has yellow flowers and amino acids (valine, lysine, arginine, leucine,
uncoiled fruits, originating from cool, upland, isoleucine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, methi-
humid climates in acidic soils and is compara- onine, and threonine; asparagine in high
tively higher in hemolytic saponins. Both taxa concentrations in seeds); sugars (sucrose,
are involved in the parentage of numerous fructose, arabinose, xylose, galactose, ribose,
commercial alfalfa cultivars.1 Modern western mannoheptulose, and D-glycero-D-mannooc-
European and North American cultivars have tulose); plant pigments (chlorophyll, xantho-
intermediate levels of hemolytic alfalfa sapo- phyll, b-carotene, anthocyanins); crude fibers
nins due to hybridization and introgressions (17–25%); proteins (15–25% in dehydrated
involving M. sativa subsp. falcata.2 alfalfa meal); minerals; and trace elements
(Ca, P, K, Mn, Fe, Zn, Cu) (KARRER; LIST AND
HO€ RHAMMER).
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION Medicarpin-b-D-glucoside (in roots); cere-
brosides (sphingosines); plastocyanins and
Alfalfa has been one of the most studied ferredoxins; benzoylmesotartaric acid, and
plants. Its chemical constituents include the benzoyl-(S),()-malic acid;17–19 three phy-
following. toalexins;20 medicosides A, C, G, I, J, and L
Saponins (2–3%) that on hydrolysis yield (triterpene glycosides) in roots;21 and a new
the aglycones medicagenic acid, soyasapogen- amino acid, medicanine, (S)-N-(3-hydroxy-
ols A, B, C, D, and E, and hederagenin and the propyl)-azetidine-2-carboxylic acid from
glycones glucose, arabinose, xylose, rham- seedlings.22
nose, galactose, and glucuronic acid;3–8 sterols In commercial solid extracts of alfalfa and
(b-sitosterol, a-spinasterol, stigmasterol, cy- red clover, traces of cannabinol, caffeine,
cloartenol, and campesterol, with b-sitosterol scopolamine, isocoumarin, phenylpentadie-
as the major component);9–11 high molecular nal, phenylhexadiene, and nepetalactone have
weight alcohols (octacosanol, triacontanol); been reported.23 Whether or not these com-
and paraffins (nonacosane, triacontane, hen- pounds were results of contamination or adul-
triacontane).12 b-Sitosterol also occurs as es- teration remains to be confirmed.
ters with fatty acids (mainly palmitic, lauric,
and myristic). Triacontanol has been shown to
be a plant growth regulator that increases the PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
growth of rice, corn, and barley as well as the ACTIVITIES
yield of tomato, cucumber, and lettuce.13
Flavones and isoflavones (tricin, genistein, Coumestrol, genistein, biochanin A, and daid-
daidzein, biochanin A, formononetin, and zein have estrogenic activities on rumi-
()-50 -methoxysativan); coumarin deriva- nants.14,15 Studies have also demonstrated
tives (coumestrol, medicagol, sativol, trifoliol, that coumestrol when fed to pullets increases
lucernol, and daphnoretin); and pectin methy- the age of maturity and depresses egg
lesterase (an enzyme present in significant production.24
14 Alfalfa
Regulatory Status. Alfalfa herb and seed are (solvent-free) and natural extractives are
GRAS as natural seasonings and flavorings GRAS (§182.20).
(§ 582.10); alfalfa essential oil, oleoresin
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 2; BARNES; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; JIANGSU; KARRER;
LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TYLER 1; WILLAMAN AND SCHUBERT.
1. E. Small and B. S. Brookes, Econ. Bot., 19. T. Yoshihara and S. Sakamura, Agric.
38, 83 (1984). Biol. Chem., 41, 2427 (1977).
2. E. Small et al., Econ. Bot., 44, 226 (1990). 20. P. M. Dewick and M. Martin, J. Chem.
3. M. Jurzysta, Pamiet. Pulawski, 62, 99 Soc., Chem. Comm., 637 (1976).
(1975). 21. A. E. Timbekova and N. K. Abubakirov,
4. J. F. Morton, Morris Arboretum Bull., 26, Khim. Prir. Soedin., 5, 607 (1986).
24 (1975). 22. S. Fushiya et al., Heterocycles, 22, 1039
5. E. Nowacki et al., Biochem. Physiol. (1984).
Pfanz., 169, 183 (1976). 23. S. R. Srinivas, Dev. Food Sci., 18, 343
6. B. Gestetner, Phytochemistry, 10, 2221 (1988).
(1971). 24. M. Mohsin and A. K. Pal, Indian J. Exp.
7. B. Berrang et al., Phytochemistry, 13, Biol., 15, 76 (1977).
2253 (1974). 25. B. J. Hudson and S. E. Mahgoub, J. Sci.
8. R. L. Baxter, J. Nat. Prod., 53, 298 Food Agric., 31, 646 (1980).
(1990). 26. A. J. George, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 3,
9. P. de Froment, Fr. Demande 2,187,328 85 (1965).
(1974). 27. M. Levy et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 34,
10. S. Ito and Y. Fujino, Nippon Nogei 960 (1986).
Kagaku Kaisha, 47, 229 (1973). 28. M. Slotwinska, Ann. Univ. Mariae Curie-
11. S. Ito and Y. Fujino, Obihiro Chikusan Sklodowska. Sect. C, 38, 177 (1986).
Daigaku Gakujutsu Kenkyu Hokoku, 29. M. Gorski et al., Ann. Univ. Marie
Dai-I-Bu, 9, 817 (1976). Curie-Sklodowska, Sect. C, 35, 167
12. H. Choichiro et al., Nippon Kagaku (1980).
Zasshi, 77, 1247 (1956). 30. M. R. Malinow et al., Steroids, 29, 105
13. S. K. Ries et al., Science, 195, 1339 (1977). (1977).
14. P. J. Schaible, Poultry: Feeds and 31. M. R. Malinow et al., Food Cosmet.
Nutrition, AVI, Westport, CT, 1970, Toxicol., 19, 443, (1981).
p. 358. 32. M. R. Malinow et al., Lancet, 1, 615
15. R. F. Keeler, Lloydia, 38, 56 (1975). (1981).
16. R. W. Miller et al., J. Nat. Prod., 52, 634 33. M. R. Malinow et al., Science, 216, 415
(1989). (1982).
17. Y. Sakagami et al., Agric. Biol. Chem., 34. J. L. Roberts and J. A. Hayashi, N. Engl.
38, 1031 (1974). J. Med., 308, 1361 (1983).
18. E. G. Sarukhanyan et al., Dokl. Akad. 35. P. E. Prete, Arthritis Rheum., 28, 1198
Nauk Arm. SSR, 64, 112 (1977). (1985).
16 Algin
acid is the most effective.12 Sodium alginate lotions, and creams; and a stabilizer for oil-
can also decrease the retention of other in-water emulsions. Calcium alginate is used
radioactive divalent metallic ions in rats in as absorbable hemostatic; potassium alginate
the following order: Ba > Sr > Sn > Cd > Mn (in conjunction with calcium sulfate and so-
Zn > Hg >, with Ba levels being reduced to dium phosphate) is used as an irreversible
3% of control values and Cd and Mn levels dental impression material.
to about 50% in 3 weeks.13
Studies have shown that orally fed alginic Food. Algin is used in virtually every cate-
acid and sodium alginate depress plasma and/ gory of food products. Average maximum
or liver cholesterol levels in rats;14,15 only usage level is about 1% in such products
algin with a high DP is active. Hypocholester- as candy, gelatins, puddings, condiments,
olemic activity was attributed to the inhibition relishes, processed vegetables, fish products,
of cholesterol absorption from the gut.14 and imitation dairy products. Other products
in which it is used in lower levels include
TOXICOLOGY
alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen
dairy desserts, baked goods, meat and
Animal studies have shown that algin (alginic meat products, milk products, fats and oils,
acid and its sodium and calcium salts, and cheese, egg products, soups, snack foods, and
propylene glycol alginate) is generally non- others.
toxic.16 Algin is apparently not digested,
Others. A 0.2% sodium alginate spray as an
though this remains to be confirmed.16,17 Rats
fed sodium alginate as 5% of the diet for effective fungicide against fungal infection of
2 weeks showed elevated pancreatic-bile se- rice by Pyricularia orysae Cav. was claimed
cretion and enlarged digestive organs, possibly by a Japanese patent.19 Alginic acid is used as
as the result of interference by algin with a sizing agent for textiles and in adhesive
absorption and digestion of dietary nutrients.18 formulations.
Algin has been available commercially for Sodium, potassium, ammonium, calcium salts
several decades and currently is widely used. of alginic acid, and propylene glycol alginate.
Its applications generally depend on its thick- Alginic acid is official in N.F. and F.C.C.;
ening, gel-forming, and stabilizing properties. alginates (potassium, propylene glycol, and
sodium) are official in F.C.C.
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
Sodium alginate has many uses: a binding Regulatory Status. Algin is GRAS for use in
and disintegrating agent in tablets; a binding foods (§ 182.7133, § 182.7187, § 582.30,
agent and demulcent in lozenges; a film for- § 582.40); alginic acid (§ 184.1011); and
mer in peel-off facial masks; a suspending and brown algae is affirmed GRAS (§ 184.1120).
thickening agent in water-miscible gels,
REFERENCES
See the General References for DER MARDEROSIAN AND LIBERTI; FEMA; FURIA; MARTINDALE; PHILLIPS; UPHOF;
WHISTLER AND BEMILLER.
1. K. B. Guiseley in A. Standen, ed., Kirk- 2. A. Wylie, R. Soc. Health J., 93, 309
Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Techn- (1973).
ology, Vol. 17, 2nd ed., Wiley–Inter- 3. A. Haug et al., Carbohydr. Res., 32, 217
science, New York, 1968, p. 768. (1974).
18 Alkanet
REFERENCES
See the General References for BISSET; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FURIA; GLASBY 2; GRIEVE;
HARBOURNE AND BAXTER; HOCKING; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; POUCHER; TERRELL; UPHOF; USD
23RD; WICHTL;WREN; YOUNGKEN.
1. V. P. Papageorgiou and A. N. 6. B. Papageorgiou, Chem. Chron., 6, 365
Assimopoulou, Phytochem. Anal., 14, (1977).
251 (2003). 7. L. Majlathova, Nahrung, 15, 505 (1971).
2. E. Roeder, Pharmazie, 50, 83 (1995). 8. V. P. Papageorgiou, Planta Med., 39, 193
3. V. P. Papageorgiou and G. A. Digenis, (1980).
Planta Med., 39, 81 (1980). 9. V. P. Papageorgiou, Ger. Offen. 2,829,744
4. R. D. Gibbs, Chemotaxonomy of Flo- (1979).
wering Plants, Vol. 2, McGill-Queens 10. P. Hatinguais and R. Belle, Fr. Demande
University Press, Montreal, 1974, p. 700. FR 2,477,872 (1981).
5. A. G. Varvoglis, Chem. Chron., 1, 156
(1972).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; AYENSU; BAILEY 1; BARNES; BAUER, FEMA; FURIA; GOSSELIN;
GUENTHER; HARBOURNE AND BAXTER; KARRER; MARSH; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL;
WENIGER AND ROBINEAU.
1. M. Ilyas, Econ. Bot., 30, 273 (1976). 11. J. M. Schulz and K. Herrmann, Z.
2. C. L. Green and F. Espinosa, Dev. Food Lebensm. Unters. Forsch., 171, 278
Sci., 18, 3 (1988). (1980).
3. E. G. Chinenova et al., Konserv. 12. M. Teotia et al., Indian Food Packer, 41
Ovoshchesush. Prom., 24, 31 (1969). (5), 49 (1987).
4. P. R. Ashurst, An. Acad. Bras. Cienc., 44 13. E. Calderon Gomez et al., Rev. Colomb.
(Suppl.), 198 (1972). Cienc. Quim. Farm., 2, 37 (1974).
5. J. W. Hogg et al., Am. Perfum. Cosmet., 14. M. E. Veek and G. F. Russell, J. Food Sci.,
86, 33 (1971). 38, 1028 (1973).
6. J. Pino et al., Nahrung, 33, 717 (1989). 15. A. J. Al-Rehaily et al., Pharm. Biol., 40,
200 (2002).
7. J. Nabney and F. V. Robinson, Flav. Ind.,
3, 50 (1972). 16. F. Meyer and E. Meyer, Arzneim.-
Forsch., 9, 516 (1959).
8. H. Kikuzaki et al., J. Nat. Prod., 63, 749
(2000). 17. Y. Kato, Koryo, 113, 17, 24 (1975).
9. H. Kikuzaki et al., Phytochemistry, 52, 18. K. Oishi et al., Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi,
1307 (1999). 40, 1241 (1974).
10. B. Voesgen et al., Z. Lebensm. Unters. 19. A. Ramos et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 87,
Forsch., 170, 204 (1980). 241 (2003).
20. M. Rodriguez et al., Alimentaria, 34, 107
(1996).
dulcis Mill., and A. communis L., in addition to (e.g., sitosterol, citrostadienol, 24-methylene-
the above synonyms. It grows to a height of cycloartanol);2,6 calcium oxalate;7 tocopher-
about 7 m and has several varieties; two of ols (mostly a);8,9 trace amounts of vitamins
them, var. dulcis and amara, yield sweet A, B complex, and E; and amino acids, includ-
and bitter almonds, respectively. The tree is ing glutamic acid, aspartic acid, and arginine.10
native to western Asia and is now extensively Expressed almond oil has been reported to
cultivated in the Mediterranean countries and in contain 53 individual triglycerides of which
California. The fruit is botanically classified as triolein and dioleolinolein make up 32% and
a drupe (same as peach or plum), except that its 33%, respectively;11 fatty acids present in-
outer portion is leathery, not fleshy and edible clude oleic (66–72%), linoleic (18–22%), pal-
like the peach; the almond is its seed. mitic (5.7–7.9%), stearic, lauric, myristic, and
Sweet almonds are used as food, but bitter palmitoleic acids (MERCK).7,12,13
almonds are not; this is due to the presence of Bitter almond oil contains mostly benzal-
amygdalin in bitter almonds that can be hy- dehyde (95%) and HCN (2–4%). For food and
drolyzed to yield deadly hydrocyanic acid flavor uses the HCN is removed, and the
(HCN). resulting oil is almost pure benzaldehyde.
Two major types of products are derived Almonds also contain varying amounts
from the almond, namely a fixed oil and a (3.11–5.25%) of soluble nonreducing sugars
volatile oil. The fixed oil is commonly called (sucrose, raffinose, and stachyose), depending
almond oil, expressed almond oil, or sweet on the variety.14–16
almond oil; it is made from both sweet and
bitter almonds by pressing the kernels. It does
not contain benzaldehyde or HCN. PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
The volatile oil is called bitter almond oil. It ACTIVITIES
is obtained by water maceration and subse-
quent steam distillation of the expressed and The results of a clinical study in men and
partially deoleated bitter almonds or kernels women suggest that combined with a heart-
of other Prunus species that contain amygda- healthy diet, the addition of 100 g of dry-
lin; these species include apricot (P. armenia- roasted or raw almonds per day may signifi-
ca L.), peach (P. persica (L.) Batsch.), and cantly lower LDL cholesterol.17
plum (P. domestica L.). During maceration, Expressed almond oil has emollient, de-
the enzyme (emulsin) present hydrolyzes the mulcent, and mildly laxative properties. It is a
amygdalin into sugar, benzaldehyde, and weak antibacterial. While easily absorbed and
HCN, the last two being distilled by steam. digested orally, it is slowly absorbed through
Sweet almond does not yield a volatile oil. intact skin.10 Based on prevalent data, almond
oil and almond meal are nonirritating and
nonsensitizing to the skin and are considered
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION safe for cosmetic use.10
Bitter almond oil, containing 2–4% HCN,
Both sweet and bitter almonds have similar is poisonous; and fatal poisoning of an adult
chemical composition and contain 35–55% after taking 7.5 mL has been reported.
fixed oil (MERCK).1,2 The only difference ap- Bitter almond oil, FFPA (free from prussic
pears to be the presence of amygdalin (3–4%) acid, outdated term for HCN), can be
in bitter almond and its absence or presence in regarded as pure benzaldehyde; it has anti-
trace amounts in sweet almonds.3,4 Other peptic, local anesthetic, and antispasmodic
constituents reported to be present in sweet properties; it also has narcotic properties at
and/or bitter almonds include protein high doses; ingestion of 50–60 mL can be
(18–25%); emulsin; prunasin (0.005% in fatal due to central nervous depression with
bitter almond);5 daucosterol, and other sterols respiratory failure (GOSSELIN).18
Almonds 23
Low molecular weight peptides (mol. wt. 0.05%. Synthetic benzaldehyde is even more
1000–10,000) with analgesic and anti-inflam- widely used for the same purposes.
matory activities are described in a Japanese Sweet almonds have been used as food for
patent.19 Two anti-inflammatory peptides thousands of years. They are a good source of
(mol. wt. 257,000 and 19,000) have also been protein, fats, calcium, iron, potassium, phos-
isolated from Chinese almonds (peach ker- phorus, and trace minerals such as zinc and
nels, Prunus persica).14 copper.
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; BRUNETON; CLAUS; DUKE 3; FEMA; GUENTHER;
JIANGSU; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NANJING; SAX; TERRELL; TYLER 2; WATT AND MERRILL.
1. E. Y. Babekova and V. F. Shcheglova, Sb. 4. M. Nishijima et al., Tokyo Toritsu Eisei
Rab. Aspirantov, Tadzh. Univ. Ser Biol. Kenkyusho Kenkyu Nempo, 26, 183
Nauk, 3, 24 (1969). (1975).
2. T. M. Jeong et al., Lipids, 9, 921 (1974). 5. U. Schwarzmaier, Phytochemistry, 11,
3. I. Karkocha, Rocz. Panstev. Zakl. Higi., 2358 (1972).
24, 703 (1973). 6. T. M. Jeong et al., Lipids, 10, 634 (1975).
24 Aloe (and aloe vera)
7. J. Seidemann, Seifen, Öle, Fette, Wachse, 14. F. J. Lopez Andreu et al., An. Edafol.
99, 302 (1973). Agribiol., 44, 207 (1985).
8. G. Lambersten et al., J. Sci. Food Agric., 15. X. D. Fang et al., Zhongyao Tongbao,
13, 617 (1962). 11, 37 (1986).
9. F. Hotellier and P. Delaveau, Ann. Pharm. 16. F. S. Calicto et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
Fr., 30, 495 (1972). 29, 509 (1981).
10. K. T. Fisher, J. Am. Coll. Toxicol., 2, 85 17. G. A. Spiller et al., J. Am. Coll. Nutr.
(1983). 22, 195 (2003).
11. N. S. Geiko et al., Khlebopek. Konditer. 18. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
Prom-st., 8, 25 (1975). 14, 693 (1976).
12. K. Aitzetmueller and M. Ihrig, Fette 19. M. Kubo,Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP
Wiss. Technol., 90, 464 (1988). 62,198,399 [87,198,399] (1987).
13. M. Farines et al., Rev. Fr. Corps Gras, 33, 20. J. Jee et al., J. Pharm. Sci., 67, 438 (1978).
115 (1986).
species contain cathartic anthraglycosides at colon. They are extremely bitter and are con-
concentrations between 10% and 20%, though sidered the least desirable among the plant
some contain levels of 30% barbaloin. A single purgative drugs (see cascara and senna) due
A. vera plant from Sri Lanka was found to to their bitterness and their tendency to pro-
contain 57% barbaloin in its exudate. Highest duce more griping and irritation (GOSSELIN;
concentrations of barbaloin are found in young MARTINDALE). Aloin induces secretion of elec-
mature leaf exudates, decreasing in older trolytes and water in the intestinal lumen,
leaves toward the base of the plant.7 The con- inhibiting reabsorption of electrolytes and
centrations of anthraglycosides vary with the water from the large intestine, which thereby
types of aloe; aloin content ranges from 4.5% increases intestinal volume via increased fill-
to 25%. Other constituents include aloesin ing pressure, which in turn stimulates peristal-
and its aglycone aloesone (a chromone),8 free sis (BLUMENTHAL 1).
anthraquinones (e.g., aloe-emodin), and resins. An alcoholic extract of drug aloe was re-
The composition of aloe vera gel is still not ported to show antitumor activity (JIANGSU).
clear.Studiestodateindicatethatthegelconsists Aloe-emodin (see buckthorn) administered
of more than one type of polysaccharide and that intraperitoneally (i.p.) has shown antitumor
their compositions vary from one season and activity in immunodeficient mice and in vitro
source to the next. While one study showed it to cytoxicity against tumor cells.24 A phthalate
containatleastfour differentpartially acetylated (diethylhexylphthalate or DEHP), isolated
linear glucomannans with (1,4)-glycosidic from A. vera, has shown in vitro activity
linkages,9 others revealed an acidic galactan, against the growth of several human leukemic
mannan, glucomannan, arabinan, and/or gluco- cell lines.25 Daily oral administration of the
galactomannan. The ratios of hexoses in each fresh leaf pulp of A. vera produced cancer
polysaccharide differ widely among the studies, chemopreventive activity in mice, in part by
as do their molecular weights.10–13 inducing the phase II enzyme system and by
The polysaccharides constitute 0.2–0.3% of increasing levels of endogenous antioxidants
the fresh gel (0.8–1.2% of dry matter content). in the liver.26 Antiviral (herpes simplex types 1
Postproduction autodegradation of the gluco- and 2) activities were found from a methanolic
mannan polysaccharides produces mainly extract of the whole leaf of A. vera.17,27,28 In
mannans. The gel polysaccharides, consisting laboratory studies, the leaf gel or extracts of A.
mainly of mannose and glucose in a 1 : 3 ratio, vera leaf have shown diverse activities, in-
can degrade in 48 h at room temperature, with a cluding in vitro antimicrobial and in vivo
decrease in glucose content and an increase in hypocholesteremic, dermal protectant, wound
mannose:glucose ratio to >10.14 healing, burn healing, frostbite healing, anti-
Other constituents reported in A. vera in- ulcerogenic, anti-inflammatory, hypoglyce-
clude other polysaccharides, polypeptides, mic, and others.17
steroids, chromones, lectins, organic acids, A number of studies have explored the
enzymes, amino acids, saponins, and miner- immunoreactive or immunomodulatory activ-
als.1,3–5,13,15–23 Carboxypeptidase, a serine ity of various Aloe species.17 The principle
carboxypeptidase enzyme found in A. arbor- immunoactive constituents identified in A.
escens and other species of Aloe, is suggested vera are lectins29–31 and polysaccharides; in
to be a primary antithermic agent. particular, acemannan15,17 and a water-solu-
ble polysaccharide named aloeride.15
Chromones isolated from A. vera leaves
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL have shown anti-inflammatory32 and antioxi-
ACTIVITIES dant activities.33 From A. arborescens, car-
boxypeptidase showed analgesic activity
Drug aloe and its purified form, aloin, have (comparable with bromelain) and dermopro-
cathartic properties through action on the tectant activity against burns in rats.34,35
26 Aloe (and aloe vera)
Male rats fed freeze-dried, skinned stituents include aloeresin A and anthraqui-
(filetted) A. vera leaf at 1% of the diet showed none glycosides (aloinosides A and B and
significantly fewer instances of death from aloins A and B) not found in A. vera gel
disease.36 Oil-in-water aloe extracts signifi- (BLUMENTHAL 1; BRINKER).42 Use with other
cantly increase soluble collagen levels, sug- laxatives, especially those containing anthra-
gesting a topical antiaging effect.37 Dermal quinone glycosides (e.g., cascara, senna)
wound-healing effects of oral and topical A. should be avoided owing to potentiating
vera gel in rats are partly attributed to their effects.41,42 Aloe is potassium-depleting. Use
ability to increase the contents of proteogly- with diuretics could or other potassium-de-
cans and glycosaminoglycans in the wound pleting substances (e.g., licorice root, thia-
matrix.38 zide diuretics, corticoadrenal steroids) could
A systematic review of controlled clinical result in hypokalemia.
trials on aloe vera preparations up to 1999 Aloe vera gel (freeze-dried) produced no
concluded that it is not clear whether A. vera toxic effects in rats from either acute or
promotes wound healing and that overall, sub-chronic oral doses (1–64 mg/kg p.o.
either topical or oral effectiveness of its pre- twice daily). In mice or rats, the preserved
parations remained insufficiently defined; or fresh gel failed to cause any toxicity at
however, evidence suggested that it might be doses up to 20 g/kg p.o. or i.p., and no toxic
effective in the treatment of psoriasis, genital effects were found from a dose of 5 g/kg
herpes, as an adjunctive in the management of p.o. per day for 45 days.43 Life-long dosing
diabetes, and in lowering cholesterol levels.39 of a freeze-dried filet of the leaves at 1% of
A further critical review of clinical trials on A. the diet also failed to produce any deleteri-
vera preparations in the treatment of various ous effects.36
dermatologic conditions up to 2000 concluded Reported adverse effects of topical use of
that evidence for its efficacy remained A. vera gel preparations by humans include
unconvincing.40 allergic contact dermatitis, mild itching, and
burning sensation. These effects have been
mild, of rare occurrence, and reversible when
TOXICOLOGY use was stopped.17,44,45
REFERENCES
See the General References for AHPA; APhA; BLUMENTHAL 1; DUKE 4; FEMA; GUPTA; JIANGSU; LUST; MERCK;
TERRELL; USD 26TH; YOUNGKEN.
1. A. Y. Leung, Drug Cosmet. Ind., 120 (6), 22. G. D. Bouchey and G. Gjerstad, Q. J.
34 (1977). Crude Drug Res., 9, 1445 (1969).
2. D. Grindlay and T. Reynolds, J. 23. G. Gjerstad, Adv. Front. Plant Sci., 28,
Ethnopharmacol., 16, 117 (1986). 311 (1971).
3. A. Farkas, U.S. Pat. 3,103,466 (1963). 24. T. Pecere et al., Cancer Res., 60, 2600
4. A. Farkas and R. A. Mayer, U.S. Pat. (2000).
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5. H. H. Cobble, U.S. Pat. 3,892,853 (1975). 52, 1037 (2000).
6. H. Matsui and T. Matsukura, Jpn. Kokai 26. R. P. Singh et al., Phytomedicine, 7, 209
75 155,664 (1975). (2000).
7. Q. J. Groom and T. Reynolds, Planta 27. S. M. Kupchan and A. Karim, Lloydia, 39,
Med., 53, 345 (1987). 223 (1976).
8. D. K. Holdsworth, Planta Med., 22, 54 28. R. J. Sydiskis and D. G. Owen, U.S. Pat.
(1972). 4,670,265 (1987).
9. D. C. Gowda et al., Carbohydr. Res., 72, 29. L. A. ’t Hart et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
210 (1979). 23, 61 (1988).
10. G. Mandal and A. Das, Carbohydr. Res., 30. K. Imanishi, Phytother. Res., 7, S20
87, 249 (1980). (1993).
11. Q. N. Haq and A. Hannan, Bangladesh J. 31. H. Saito, Phytother. Res., 7, S14
Sci. Ind. Res., 16, 68 (1981). (1993).
12. G. Mandal et al., Indian J. Chem., Sect. B, 32. J. A. Hutter et al., J. Nat. Prod., 59, 541
22B, 890 (1983). (1996).
13. S. P. Joshi, J. Med. Arom. Plant Sci., 20, 33. K. Y. Lee et al., Free Radic. Biol. Med.,
768 (1998). 28, 261 (2000).
14. A. Yaron, Phytother. Res., 7, S11 34. S. Ito et al., Phytother. Res., 7, S26
(1993). (1993).
15. N. Pugh et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 49, 35. M. Obata et al., Phytother. Res., 7, S30
1030 (2001). (1993).
16. D. Saccù et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 49, 36. Y. Ikeno et al., Phytother. Res., 16, 712
4526 (2001). (2002).
17. T. Reynolds and A. C. Dweck, J. 37. I. E. Danhof et al., Phytother. Res., 7, S53
Ethnopharmacol., 68, 3 (1999). (1993).
18. T. D. Rowe and L. M. Parks, J. Am. 38. P. Chithra et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 59,
Pharm. Assoc., 30, 262 (1941). 179 (1998).
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Chem. Soc., 70, 3248 (1948). Pract., 49, 823 (1999).
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1287 (1964). 341 (2002).
21. L. B. Fly and I. Kiem, Econ. Bot., 17, 46 41. V. A. Luyckx et al., Am. J. Kidney Dis.,
(1963). 39, E13 (2002).
Althea root 29
42. A. Fugh-Berman, The 5-Minute Herb and 46. R. P. Pelley et al., Subtrop. Plant Sci.,
Dietary Supplement Consult, Lippincott 50, 1 (1998).
Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, 47. J. F. Morton, Econ. Bot., 15, 311
2003, pp. 8–9. (1961).
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(2000) (1974).
45. H. P. H€ ormann and H. C. Korting,
Phytomedicine, 1, 161 (1994).
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BARNES; BISSET; BAILEY 2; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA;
BLUMENTHAL 1; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; FOSTER; GLEASON AND CRONQUIST; GOSSELIN;
GRIEVE; GUPTA; KARRER; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; TUTIN 2; USD 23RD; YOUNGKEN.
1. G. Franz, Planta Med., 14, 90 (1966). 4. St. N. I. Ionkova and D. Kolev, Fitoterapia,
2. M. Tomoda et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 25, 63, 474 (1992).
1357 (1977). 5. M. Tomoda et al., Planta Med., 53, 824
3. M. Tomoda et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 28, (1987).
824 (1980). 6. G. Nosal’ova et al., Pharmazie, 47, 224
(1992).
Source: Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. L. An annual or biennial herb with bristly hairs,
(syn. Hibiscus abelmoschus L.) (Family up to 2 m high; showy flowers yellow, crim-
Malvaceae). son centered, about 10 cm across; seeds musk
fragrant, flat, and kidney shaped; indigenous
Common/vernacular names: Ambrette, musk to India; widely cultivated in tropical coun-
mallow, and musk seed. tries, including the West Indies, Java,
Ambrette seed 31
REFERENCES
See the General Reference for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BAUER; CSIR I; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA;
GUENTHER; GUPTA; KARRER; JIANGSU; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TERRELL; USD 23RD; WREN.
1. M. Hashmi et al., J. Oil Technol. Assoc. 5. K. C. Srivastava and S. C. Rastogi, Planta
India, 14, 64 (1982). Med., 17, 189 (1969).
2. B. Maurer and A. Grieder, Helv. Chim. 6. U. K. Chauhan, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.,
Acta, 60, 1155 (1977). India, Sect. B, 54, 236 (1984).
3. T. Y. Nee et al., Phytochemistry, 25, 2157 7. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
(1986). 13, 705, 707 (1975).
4. L. Peyron, Bull. Soc. Fr. Physiol. Veg., 7,
46 (1961).
contains hexylmethylphthalate as its major the highest for either being about 0.1% in the
component (36%).14 perfume category.1,11
Regulatory Status. Regulated as a dietary preparations are indicated for internal use for
supplement in the United States; extract, appetite loss and digestive ailments, including
essential oil, and solvent-free oleoresin of the mild gastrointestinal tract spasms and flatu-
root, seed, or stem are GRAS for use in lence. Crude fruit (seed) and preparations are
foods (§182.20); root and seed are GRAS for not recommended for use as diuretics
use in foods as a spice or natural flavoring and diaphoretics because efficacy and safety
(§182.10). In Germany, the fruit and roots are have not been established (BLUMENTHAL 1;
subjects of official monographs. The crude WICHTL).
root at a daily dose of 4.5 g and galenical
REFERENCES
See the General Reference for BARNES; BARRETT; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BISSET; BLUMENTHAL 1;
BRUNETON; DE NAVARRE; DE NAVARRE; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; FOSTER; GRIEVE; GUENTHER;
GUPTA; JIANGSU; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TERRELL; TUTIN 2; UPHOF.
1. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 10. S. C. Basa et al., Chem. Ind. (London), 13,
13(Suppl.), 713 (1975). 355 (1971).
2. J. Taskinen, Acta Chem. Scand., Ser. B, 11. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
29, 637 (1975). 12(Suppl.), 821 (1974).
3. W. Steck and B. K. Bailey, Can. J. Chem., 12. A. Patra et al., Indian J. Chem., 14B, 816
47, 2425 (1969). (1976).
4. A. B. Svendsen, Blyttia, 11, 96 (1953). 13. T. Beyrich, Arch. Pharm., 298, 672
5. A. Chatterjee and S. Dutta, Indian J. (1965).
Chem., 6, 415 (1968). 14. M. Ashraf et al., Pak. J. Sci. Ind. Res., 23,
6. P. H€arm€al€a et al., Planta Med., 58, 288 73 (1980).
(1992). 15. N. Saksena and H. H. S. Tripathi,
7. J. Carbonnier and D. Molho, Planta Med., Fitoterapia, 56, 243 (1985).
44, 162 (1982). 16. P. H€arm€al€a et al., Planta Med., 58, 176
8. G. I. Kas’yanov et al., Khim. Prir. (1992).
Soedin., 1, 108 (1977). 17. M. T. Khayyal et al., Arzneim.-Forsch.,
9. B. E. Nielsen and H. Kofod, Acta Chem. 51, 545 (2001).
Scand., 17, 1161 (1963). 18. M. L. Yeh et al., Pharmacology, 68, 70
(2003).
C. febrifuga Humb.), a tree related to Galipea against the malarial parasite Plasmodium
officinalis reported to grow in Brazil. (Related falciparum.10
species found in Brazil include Galipea di-
chotoma Sald. and G. multiflora Schult.1)
Much of the scientific literature before 1960 TOXICOLOGY
was based on this species.
Large doses may produce nausea.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
USES
The bark contains two unstable bitter princi-
ples: angostura bitters 1 and 2 (3,5-dihydroxy-
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
5-ethoxy-2-syringoyl-1-methyl-4-O-b-D-glu-
Used in bitter tonics.
copyranosylcyclopentane and 3,5-dihydroxy-
5-ethoxy-2-vanilloyl-1-methyl-4-O-b-D-glu-
Food. Extracts used in most categories of
copyranosylcyclopentane);2 a high content of
food products such as alcoholic (bitters) and
alkaloids (ca. 40%; largely quinoline type)
nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts,
(cusparine, cuspareine, allocuspareine, gali-
candy, baked goods, gelatins and puddings,
poline, galipoidine, galipidine, galipinine, ga-
and gravies. Average maximum use level in
lipine, quinaldine, 4-methoxyquinaldine,
alcoholic beverages is reported to be about
quinoline, 2-n-amyl-quinoline, candicine,
0.3%.
etc.) (GLASBY 1);2–6 and a volatile oil
The well-known “angostura bitters” does
(1–2%) containing some 15 alkaloids
not contain angostura bark at all and is made
(KARRER; WREN) and various sesquiterpenes
from a mixture of gentian root and other
(e.g., b-bisabolene, cadinol T, germacrene
botanicals.
D, d-curcumene) also found in the trunk bark.5
The stem and root bark of a related species,
Traditional Medicine. Used in treating dys-
Galipea trifoliata Aublet, contains phebalo-
pepsia, chronic diarrhea, and dysentery.4 Also
sin, ramosin, and galipein (coumarins).7
used as a febrifuge and bitter tonic in doses of
0.3–1 g; large doses cathartic and emetic.
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
ACTIVITIES
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
The alkaloids, particularly cusparine and ga-
lipine, have shown antispasmodic activity8 Crude and extracts.
and in dogs, respiration–excitation effects.9
The alkaloidal fraction has shown in vitro Regulatory Status. Bark essential oil, sol-
activity against the growth of Mycobacterium vent-free oleoresin, and extractive are GRAS
tuberculosis.6 Galipinine, a tetrahydroquino- for use in foods (§182.20); bark GRAS as
line alkaloid, has shown in vitro activity natural flavoring or spice in foods (§182.10).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; FEMA; GLASBY 2; GUENTHER; MARTINDALE; UPHOF; WREN.
1. W. B. Mors et al., Medicinal Plants of 2. C. H. Brieskorn and V. Beck, Phytoche-
Brazil, Reference Publications, Algonac, mistry, 10, 3205 (1971).
MI, 2000.
36 Anise (and star anise)
ANISE (AND STAR ANISE) often confused with that of licorice, particu-
larly among the public, and is erroneously
Source: Anise: Pimpinella anisum L. (syn. described as licorice-like.
Anisum vulgare Gaertn.; A. officinarum
Moench.) (Family Umbelliferae or Apia-
ceae); Chinese star anise: Illicium verum CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Hook. f. (Family Illiciaceae).
Anise contains 1–4% volatile oil (FURIA AND
1
Common/vernacular names: Anise seed, ani- BELLANCA); coumarins (bergapten, umbelli-
seed, sweet cumin (P. anisum); Chinese star prenine, umbelliferone, scopoletin);2,3 lipids
anise, illicium, and star anise (Illicium (ca. 16%), including fatty acids (C16, C18, C20,
verum). C22, C24, C26, C30, etc.), b-amyrin, and stig-
masterol and its salts (palmitate and stearate)
(MARSH);2,4 flavonoid glycosides (quercetin-
GENERAL DESCRIPTION 3-glucuronide, rutin, luteolin-7-glucoside,
isoorientin, isovitexin, apigenin-7-glucoside
Anise is an annual herb, usually less than 0.6 m [apigetrin], etc.);5 phenylpropanoid gluco-
high; leaves alternate, below, opposite above; sides;6–8 myristicin;9 protein (ca. 18%); car-
native to Greece and Egypt, now widely culti- bohydrate (ca. 50%); and others (MARSH).
vated. Part used is the dried ripe fruit; anise oil Anise oil contains trans-anethole
is obtained from it by steam distillation. (75–90%), estragole (methylchavicol) (1%),
Chinese star anise is an evergreen tree anise ketone (p-methoxyphenylacetone), and
usually 4–6 m high but may reach 12 m; in- b-caryophyllene. Other compounds in minor
digenous to southeastern Asia; extensively concentrations include anisaldehyde, anisic
cultivated in southern China, also in Vietnam, acid (oxidation products of anethole), linalool,
India, Japan. Part used is the dried, ripe fruit limonene, a-pinene, acetaldehyde, p-cresol,
that consists of 5–13 (usually 8) seed-bearing creosol, hydroquinine, b-farnesene, g-hima-
woody follicles (one seed per follicle) at- chalene, neophytadiene, and ar-curcumene
tached to a central axis in the shape of a star, (KARRER).1,10–12
and therefore, the name star anise. In Chinese, Chinese star anise contains about 5% vola-
the plant is also called “eight-horned anise” or tile oil (ca. 10% in follicles and 2.5% in seeds)
simply “eight horns,” referring to the usually (NANJING), phenylpropanoid glucosides,13 lig-
eight-follicled fruit. China is the major pro- nans,14 catechins and proanthocyanidins,
ducer of star anise. Chinese star anise oil is among others.15
obtained by steam distillation. Chinese star anise oil contains trans-anet-
Due to the traditional use of anise oils with hole (80–90%) as its major component. Other
licorice in licorice candy, the flavor of anise is constituents include estragole, 1,4-cineole,
Anise (and star anise) 37
resulted in epidemics of epileptic seizures38 Both anise and Chinese star anise are wide-
and poisoning in infants (after being tradition- ly used as domestic spices; the former is
ally treated with “star anise” for colicky mainly used by Westerners, while the latter
pain).39 Symptoms in infants included vomit- is used primarily by Asians, especially in
ing, nystagmus, and abnormal movements.40 Chinese foods.
Japanese star anise grows in southern
China, Taiwan, and Japan; it looks like a
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Whole,
smaller, deformed version of Chinese star
crushed, or ground crude drug is used for
anise and is highly poisonous. A 10–15%
infusions and other galenical preparations
aqueous extract is used in China as agricultur-
(BLUMENTHAL 1).
al insecticide. Toxicity is attributed to the
sesquiterpene anisatin.
Traditional Medicine. Anise and Chinese
star anise have been used as aromatic carmi-
USES natives, stimulants, and expectorants; also as
estrogenic agents to increase milk secretion,
Anise oil and Chinese star anise oil are used promote menstruation, facilitate child birth,
interchangeably in the United States, both increase libido, and alleviate symptoms of
being officially recognized as anise oil in the male climacteric.29 Chinese star anise has
U.S.P. and F.C.C. been used in Chinese medicine for similar
purposes for 1300 years (JIANGSU). Anise has
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. also been used as an appetizer, diuretic, tran-
Both anise and Chinese star anise oils are used quillizer,21 antiseptic, laxative,24 and as a
as carminatives, stimulants, mild spasmoly- treatment for epilepsy and seizures.41
tics, weak antibacterials, and expectorants in
cough mixtures and lozenges, among other
preparations; internally used for dyspeptic COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
complaints; externally as an inhalant for con-
gestion of the respiratory tract. Crude and essential oils are official in N.F. and
Both oils are used to mask undesirable F.C.C. In Germany, preparations of anise seed
odors in drug and cosmetic products and as containing 5–10% essential oil are used as a
fragrance components in toothpastes, per- respiratory inhalant, whereas Chinese star
fumes, soaps, detergents, creams, and lotions, anise is used internally for peptic discomfort
with maximum use levels of 0.25% anise oil and catarrh (BLUMENTHAL 1).
and 0.4% star anise oil in perfumes.19,20
Regulatory Status. Regulated in the United
Food. Anise, Chinese star anise (to a lesser States as a dietary supplement; P. anisum
extent), anise oil, and star anise oil are widely and I. verum are GRAS as natural flavoring
used as flavoring ingredients in all major or spice for use in foods (§182.10); essential
categories of foods, including alcoholic (bit- oil, extractives, and solvent-free oleoresin of
ters, brandies, and liqueurs, e.g., anisette) and P. anisum are GRAS for use in foods
nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, (§182.20). Anise seed and Chinese star anise
candy (e.g., licorice candies), baked goods, seed are subjects of German official mono-
gelatins and puddings, and meat and meat graphs; 3.0 g of seed or 0.3 g essential oil
products. Highest average maximum use le- (mean daily dose) allowed as a bronchial
vels for anise oil are about 0.06% (570 ppm) in expectorant for upper respiratory tract con-
alcoholic beverages and 0.07% (681 ppm) in gestion and as gastrointestinal spasmolytic
candy. (BLUMENTHAL 1; WICHTL).
Anise (and star anise) 39
REFERENCES
See General References for APPLEQUIST; ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; BARNES; BISSET; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON;
DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; GUPTA; JIANGSU; LUST; MARTINDALE; MASADA; NANJING;
REMINGTON; TERRELL; UPHOF; WICHTL; YOUNGKEN.
1. M. B. Embong et al., Can. J. Plant. Sci., 21. I. G€ulçin et al., Food Chem., 83, 271
57, 681 (1977). (2003).
2. T. Kartnig and G. Scholz, Fette, Seifen, 22. M. F. Melzig et al., Z. Phytother., 24, 112
Anstrichmit., 71, 276 (1969). (2003).
3. T. Kartnig et al., Planta Med., 27, 1 (1975). 23. M. H. Boskabady et al., J. Ethno-
pharmacol., 74, 83 (2001).
4. A. Szegfu et al., Acta Pharm. Hung., 42,
162 (1972). 24. S. I. Kreydiyyeh et al., Life Sci., 74, 663
(2003).
5. J. Kunzemann and K. Hermann, Z.
Lebensm.Unters.Forsch.,164,194(1977). 25. K. Y. Mumcuoglu et al., Isr. Med. Assoc.
J., 4, 790 (2002).
6. T. Ishikawa et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.,
50, 1460 (2002). 26. G. T. Carter, Diss. Abstr. Int. B, 37, 766
(1976).
7. E. Fujimatu et al., Phytochemistry, 63,
609 (2003). 27. G. Marcus and E. P. Lichtenstein, J. Agric.
Food Chem., 27, 1217 (1979).
8. J. Kitajima et al., Phytochemistry, 62, 115
(2003). 28. H. Hitokoto et al., Appl. Environ.
Microbiol., 39, 818 (1980).
9. J. B. Harborne et al., Phytochemistry, 8,
1729 (1969). 29. M. Albert-Puleo, J. Ethnopharmacol., 2,
337 (1980).
10. R. Tabacchi et al., Helv. Chim. Acta, 57,
849 (1974). 30. L. Iauk et al., Phytother. Res., 17, 599
(2003).
11. M. De Vincenzi et al., Fitoterapia, 71,
725 (2000). 31. G. H. Shahidi et al., Daru, 10, 162 (2002).
12. G. Burkhardt et al., Pharm. Weekbl. Sci., 32. M. De et al., Phytother. Res., 16, 94
8, 190 (1986). (2002).
13. S. W. Lee et al., Arch. Pharm. Res., 26, 33. J. J. Garcia-Gonzales et al., Ann. Allergy
591 (2003). Asthma Immunol., 88, 518 (2002).
14. L. K. Sy and G. D. Brown, J. Nat. Prod., 34. D. Assalve et al., Ann. Ital. Dermatol.
61, 987 (1998). Clin. Sper., 41, 411 (1987).
15. J. M. Schulz and K. Herrmann, Z. Lebensm. 35. J. Fraj et al., Allergy, 51, 337 (1996).
Unters. Forsch., 171, 278 (1980). 36. J. Sekizawa and T. Shibamoto, Mutat.
16. H. M. Okely and M. F. Grundon, J. Chem. Res., 101, 127 (1982).
Soc. D, 19, 1157 (1971). 37. E. Small, Econ. Bot., 50, 337 (1996).
17. R. Kaempf and E. Steinegger, Pharm. 38. E. S. Johanns et al., Ned. Tijdschr.
Acta Helv., 49, 87 (1974). Geneeskd., 146, 813 (2002).
18. J. Bricout, Bull. Soc. Chim. Fr., 9–10, 39. P. Minodier et al., Arch. Pediatr., 10, 619
1901 (1974). (2003).
19. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 40. C. Garzo Fernandez et al., An. Esp.
13(Suppl.), 715 (1975). Pediatr., 57, 290 (2002).
20. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 41. M. H. Pourgholami et al., J. Ethno-
11, 865 (1973). pharmacol., 66, 211 (1999).
40 Annatto
norbixin found that doses of 0.8, 7.5, and occur as allergic reactions to the dye in some
68 mg/kg produced hyperinsulinemia in rats individuals.20
and that doses of 56 and 351 mg/kg produced
hypoinsulinemia in mice. In the rats, the
extract also caused a significant decrease in USES
globulins and plasma total protein levels
without evidence of any adverse effects on The current major commercial uses of annatto
the liver or plasma chemistry.14 Adminis- colors are in foods, especially dairy;21 also
tered to pregnant rats, annatto food color used in drugs as color coatings for granules,
containing 28% bixin caused no adverse pills, tablets, and herbal preparations, as well
effects to the mothers and none to the fe- as in cosmetics (e.g., lipsticks) and hair dyes.
tuses. A developmental and maternal No- Aqueous alkaline extracts are extensively
Observed-Adverse-Effect-Level (NOEL) for used in coloring cheeses (especially cheddar)
the extract was proposed as 500 mg/kg p.o. and to a lesser extent in ice creams and other
per day or greater and for bixin, at least dairy products. Oil-soluble extracts are used in
140 mg/kg p.o. per day.15 oily food products such as salad oils, popcorn
At high oral doses in rats, norbixin (8.5 oil, butter, margarine, and sausage casings.
and 74 mg/kg) produced hyperglycemia.14 Major food categories in which annatto color
However, in a subchronic (2-week) toxicity is used include alcoholic and nonalcoholic
test in rats of either sex, the NOEL of beverages, frozen dairy desserts, baked goods,
norbixin was 0.1% of the diet (76 and meat and meat products, condiments and
69 mg/kg p.o. for males and females, respec- relishes, fats and oils, snack foods, and grav-
tively). At 0.3% and 0.9% of the diet, nor- ies, with highest average maximum use level
bixin produced a pronounced elevation in reported for the extract in baked goods (ca.
liver weights, hepatocyte hypertrophy, and 0.24%).
in blood work, increases in albumin/globulin,
albumin, alkaline phosphatase, total protein, Traditional Medicine. The seeds have been
and phospholipid ratios.16 In the micronucle- used in treating tumors of the oral cavity, as a
us test in male mice, annatto food colorant at purgative, antipruritic,8 and in the treatment
dietary levels of 1330, 5330, or 10,670 ppm of venereal diseases. The pulp that surrounds
for 7 days failed to produce any mutagenic the seeds is topically applied as a mosquito
effects. However, the highest concentration repellant.22 Preparations of the leaves are
increased the mutagenic effect of a mutagen traditionally used in treating gonorrhea,23
(cyclophosphamide).17 Similar results were nausea, as a gargle for sore throat, and for
found from in vitro tests in which low con- oral hygiene.8
centrations of norbixin (10–50 mM) protected
DNA against oxidative damage, while at
higher concentrations it enhanced oxidative COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
damage to DNA.18
Induction of drug-metabolizing enzymes of Crude, oil- and water-soluble extracts and
the liver (CYP2B and CYP1A) was found spray-dried powders.
from oral dosing of female rats with an extract Also available for domestic use as ground
of the seeds containing 28% bixin; 95% pure or whole seeds in supermarkets or ethnic
bixin showed only weak inducing activity.19 stores in metropolitan areas in the United
Human allergic reactions to annatto food States.
coloring include IgE-mediated anaphylaxis in
a man who consumed a breakfast cereal con- Regulatory Status. Approved for use as a
taining the dye. Other clinical reports suggest colorant in foods (§73.30), drugs
the possibility that angioedema and urticaria (§73.1030), and cosmetics (§73.2030).
42 Arnica
REFERENCES
See the General References for EVANS; FEMA; FURIA; GRIEVE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MORTON 2; TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. P. Karrer and E. Jucker, Carotenoids, 12. K. C. Thresiamma et al., Indian J. Exp.
Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, Biol., 34, 845 (1996).
Barking, UK, 1950. 13. Y. Kuramoto et al., Biosci. Biotechnol.
2. F. Mayer and A. H. Cook, The Chemistry Biochem., 60, 1712 (1996).
of Natural Coloring Matters, ACS 14. A. C. S. Fernandes et al., J. Nutr.
Monograph Series 89, Rheinhold, Biochem., 13, 411 (2002).
New York, 1943.
15. F. J. R. Paumgartten et al., Food Chem.
3. Z. Angelucci et al., Colet. Inst. Tecnol. Toxicol., 40, 1595 (2002).
Aliment (Campinas Braz.), 11, 89 (1980).
16. A. Hagiwara et al., Food Chem. Toxicol.,
4. R. Bressani et al., Arch. Latinoam. Nutr., 41, 1157 (2003).
33, 356 (1983).
17. R. O. Alves de Lima et al., Food Chem.
5. C. Srinivasulu and S. N. Mahapatra, Toxicol., 41, 189 (2003).
Indian Perfum., 26, 132 (1982).
18. K. Kovary et al., Br. J. Nutr., 85, 431
6. R. Bressani et al., Arch. Latinoam. Nutr., (2001).
33, 356 (1983).
19. A. C. A. X. De Oliveira et al., Braz.
7. D. E. Auslander et al., Drug Cosmet. Ind., J. Med. Biol. Res., 36, 113 (2003).
121 (6), 55 (1977).
20. W. A. Nish et al., Ann. Allergy, 66, 129
8. T. C. Fleischer et al., Fitoterapia, 74, 136 (1991).
(2003).
21. F. E. Lancaster and J. F. Lawrence, Food
9. O. N. Irobi et al., Int. J. Pharmacogn., 34, Addit. Contam., 12, 1 (1995).
87 (1996).
22. V. C. Gupta et al., Fitoterapia, 68,
10. R. Villar et al., Phytother. Res., 11, 441 45 (1997).
(1997).
23. A. Caceres et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
11. S. Kiokias and M. H. Gordon, Food 48, 85 (1995).
Chem., 83, 523 (2003).
acid thymyl ether.1–5 Other constituents timulating activities in vitro.18 Helenalin also
include resins, arnicin (bitter principle), ses- showed immunostimulating activity in a pre-
quiterpene lactones (e.g., helenalin, 11a,13- liminary screening.26
dihydrohelenalin, helenalin and 11a,13-dihy- Double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical
drohelenalin esters, 2b-ethoxy-6-O-isobutyryl trials of homeopathic preparations of A. mon-
1-2,3-dihydrohelenalin and 6-O-isobutyrylte- tana have shown questionable or no benefits in
trahydrohelenalin6–8); tannin, arnisterin (a the treatment of postoperative pain,27,28 post-
sterol), carotenoids (a- and b-carotene, cryp- operative bruising,29,30 postoperative hemato-
toxanthin, lutein, etc.) (KARRER; MERCK);9 mas,28,31 postoperative swelling,30 muscle
flavonoids (astragalin, betuletol, 6-methoxy- soreness,32,33 post-laser treatment bruising,29
kaempferol, hispidulin, isoquercetin, jaceosi- wound healing, pain, edema, stroke, and
din, pectolinarigenin, etc.),10–12 coumarins symptoms of acute trauma.32
(umbelliferone, scopoletin),12 and phenolic
acids (p-hydroxybenzoic, p-coumaric, genti-
sic, ferulic, caffeic, vanillic, etc.).13 TOXICOLOGY
Pseudoguaianolides have been reported in
leaves of A. montana, including arnifolin, Arnica montana is not recommended for any
arnicolides A, B, C, and D, and loliolide.14,15 internal uses. The plant is an irritant to mucous
membranes, and ingestion may cause burning
pain in the stomach, diarrhea, vomiting, gid-
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL diness, intense muscular weakness, collapse,
ACTIVITIES decrease or increase of the pulse rate, short-
ness of breath, and death. One ounce (ca.
An extract of Arnica montana was shown to 30 mL) of the tincture (1 : 0.2 or 20%) has
increase the resistance of animals to bacterial been reported to produce serious but not fatal
infections by stimulating phagocytosis of the symptoms (USD 23RD).34 Evidence suggests
bacteria involved, particularly Listeria mono- that helenalin is responsible for many, if not
cytogenes and Salmonella typhimurium.16 all, of these toxic effects.34
The sesquiterpene lactones helenalin ace- Reported cases of contact allergic reactions
tate and 11,13-dihydrohelenalin have shown to A. montana preparations are numerous and
platelet aggregation, 5-hydroxytryptamine se- date from as early as 1844. Cross-reactivity
cretion, and thromboxane formation-inhibit- with other plants is also reported (e.g., sunflow-
ing,17 and antibacterial and antifungal activi- er, Tagetes, Chrysanthemum).12 Sesquiter-
ties in vitro.18 Numerous esters of helenalin pene lactones, especially helenalin and its de-
have shown anti-inflammatory activity in rivatives, are known sensitizers.6,34–36 Data on
mice and rats.19 The anti-inflammatory activ- the safety of Arnica Montana extract, which is
ity of A. montana flowers is attributed to made from the dried flower heads of A. mon-
helenalin,20 which has the ability to inhibit tana, are lacking. It has an oral LD50 of >5 g/kg
proinflammatory gene expression21 by direct- in rats, whereas in mice the LD50 was 123 mg/
ly modifying the transcription factor NF-kB kg p.o. An extract made from the dried plant
in vitro.22 Helenalin has also shown in vitro showed mutagenic activity in the Ames test, an
antitrypanosomal activity (Trypanosoma effect attributed to the flavonol content.37
cruzi and T. brucei rhodesiense),23 and anti-
tumor activity against human colorectal cancer
(COLO 320 cells) and human small cell lung USES
carcinoma (GLC4 cells).24 It also induces
apoptosis in leukemia (Jurkat T cells).25 Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
Acidic polysaccharides derived from an No longer (or rarely) used in preparations
extract of A. montana have shown immunos- intended for internal use. Current use is mostly
44 Arnica
as a local anti-inflammatory in the form of a tic, analgesic, antiseptic, vulnerary for hema-
tincture of the dried flower heads as a compo- tomas, dislocations, contusions, fracture-in-
nent (5–25% v/v) of salves, ointments, com- duced edema, and insect bites.26
pressed, gels, and creams for external applica-
tion to sprains and bruises26,38,39 and in various
dilutions in homeopathic preparations;32 also COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
used in hair tonics and antidandruff prepara-
tions; oil occasionally used in perfumes and Crude, tincture, and extracts. Crude, tincture,
other cosmetic preparations.37,40 and fluid extract were formerly official in N.F.;
crude flowers and root formerly in U.S.P. In
Food. Used (though not widely) as a flavor the United States in 1998, Arnica Montana
ingredient in alcoholic (ca. 0.03%) and non- extract was reported to be used in close to 100
alcoholic (0.02%) beverages, frozen dairy body care formulations including bubble
desserts (0.03%), candy (0.04%), baked goods baths, hair conditioners, hair dyes, deodor-
(0.08%), and gelatins and puddings (0.04%), ants, skin fresheners, moisturizers, shaving
with reported average maximum use levels in creams, and various others such products.37
parentheses. These figures apparently cannot
apply to the crude flowers as they are too high Regulatory Status. Flowers GRAS as a natu-
to be safe in all categories, except perhaps ral flavoring (§172.510). External applica-
alcoholic beverages because of their limited tions of preparations containing A. montana
volume of intake. flower are the subject of a positive German
monograph that includes inflammatory con-
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Vari- ditions (superficial phlebitis, insect bites, fu-
ous ointments, salves, lotions, tinctures, and runculosis, oral cavity, and throat conditions),
homeopathic products for external use only injuries, contusions, hematomas, joint pro-
(FOSTER AND CARAS; LUST; WREN). blems, rheumatism, and edema resulting from
bone fractures (BLUMENTHAL 1).
Traditional Medicine. Used as a diaphoret-
ic, diuretic, stimulant; externally antiphlogis-
REFERENCES
See the General Reference for APPLEQUIST; ARCTANDER; BARNES; BISSET; BLUMENTHAL 1; DER MARDEROSIAN
AND BEUTLER; FEMA; FOSTER AND CARAS; GRIEVE; LUST; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; WICHTL; WREN;
YOUNGKEN.
1. G. Willuhn, Planta Med., 21, 221 (1972). 8. G. Willuhn et al., Planta Med., 49, 226
2. H. Kating et al., Planta Med., 18, 130 (1983).
(1970). 9. M. Vanhaelen, Planta Med., 23, 308
3. G. Willuhn, Planta Med., 22, 1 (1972). (1973).
4. G. Willuhn, Planta Med., 21, 329 (1972). 10. I. Merfort, Planta Med., 50, 107 (1984).
5. R. Schmitz and H. Kating, Planta Med., 11. I. Merfort and D. Wendisch, Planta Med.,
31, 310 (1977). 53, 434 (1987); 54, 247 (1988).
6. H. D. Herrmann et al., Planta Med., 34, 12. H. P. H€ormann and H. C. Korting,
299 (1978). Phytomedicine, 1, 161 (1994).
7. G. Willuhn et al., Planta Med., 50, 35 13. L. Swiatek and J. Gora, Herba Pol., 24,
(1984). 187 (1978).
Artichoke 45
14. V. Herout, in H. Wagner and L. 27. O. Hart et al., J. R. Soc. Med., 90, 73
H€orhammer, eds., Pharmacognosy and (1997).
Phytochemistry, 1st International 28. M. Wolf et al., Forsch. Komplemen-
Congress, Munich, 1970, Springer- tarmed. Klass. Naturheilkd., 10, 242
Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1971, p. 93. (2003).
15. M. Holub et al., Phytochemistry, 14, 1659 29. D. Alonso et al., Dermatol. Surg., 28, 686
(1975). (2002).
16. H. Buschmann, Fortschr. Veterin€armed., 30. C. Stevinson et al., J. R. Soc. Med., 96, 60
20, 98 (1974). (2003).
17. H. Schroder et al., Thromb. Res., 57, 839 31. A. A. Ramelet et al., Dermatology, 201,
(1990). 347 (2000).
18. G. Willuhn et al., Pharm. Ztg., 127, 2183 32. E. Ernst and M. H. Pittler, Arch. Surg.,
(1982). 133, 1187 (1998).
19. I. H. Hall et al., Planta Med., 53, 153 33. A. J. Vickers et al., Clin. J. Pain, 14, 227
(1987). (1998).
20. C. A. Klaas et al., Planta Med., 68, 385 34. S. MacKinnon, Can. Pharm. J., 125, 125
(2002). (1992).
21. J. Gertsch et al., Biochem. Pharmacol., 35. G. Willuhn, Dtsch. Apoth. Ztg., 126, 2038
66, 2141 (2003). (1986).
22. G. Lyss et al., J. Biol. Chem., 273, 33508 36. E. Spettoli et al., Am. J. Contact Dermat.,
(1998). 9, 49 (1998).
23. T. J. Schmidt et al., Planta Med., 68, 750 37. M. Z. Fioume, Int. J. Toxicol., 20(Suppl.
(2002). 2), 1 (2001).
24. H. J. Woerdenbag et al., Planta Med., 60, 38. H. Wagner et al., Arzneim.-Forsch., 35,
434 (1994). 1069 (1985).
25. V. M. Dirsch et al., Cancer Res., 61, 5817 39. A. R. Bilia et al., J. Pharm. Biomed.
(2001). Anal., 30, 321 (2002).
26. H. Wagner et al., Planta Med., 50, 139 40. H. B. Heath, Cosmet. Toilet., 92, 19
(1985). (1977).
plaints (e.g., nausea, abdominal pains, dys- leretic and diuretic, among other uses (BIAN-
pepsia, loss of appetite), hepatobiliary dys- CHINI AND CORBETTA).
function, and to lower cholesterol levels.32
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 2; BARNES; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1; DER
€ RHAMMER; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; UPHOF;
MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; GRIEVE; LIST AND HO
WICHTL; WREN.
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62, 1288 (1979). 14. A. J. MacLeod et al., Phytochemistry, 21,
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48 Asafetida
21. A. Jimenez-Escrig et al., J. Agric. Food 31. H. Heckers et al., Atherosclerosis, 26, 249
Chem., 51, 5540 (2003). (1977).
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Source: Ferula assa-foetida L. (Family Um- Contains 40–64% resinous material com-
belliferae or Apiaceae). posed of ferulic acid, asaresinotannols, um-
belliferone, and umbelliferone ethers (e.g.,
Common/vernacular names: Asafetida, asa- farnesiferols A, B, and C, kamolonol) among
foetida, giant fennel; oleogum resin of the others; approximately 25% gum composed of
plant: devil’s dung, food of the gods, and gum glucose, galactose, L-arabinose, rhamnose,
asafetida. and glucuronic acid; volatile oil (3–21%; usu-
al range 7–9%) consisting of disulfides and
polysulfides as its major components, notably
GENERAL DESCRIPTION 2-butyl propenyl disulfide (E- and Z-isomers),
with monoterpenes (a- and b-pinene, etc.),
Asafetida is the oleogum resin obtained by free ferulic acid, valeric acid, and traces of
incising or cutting the living rhizomes vanillin, are also present.1–8 A chloroform
and roots of F. assa-foetida. It is a solid or extract of the resins from the roots yielded
semisolid with a persistent alliaceous (garlic- sesquiterpene coumarins, assafoetidnols A
like) odor and bitter acrid taste. An essential and B,9 3-O-acetylepisamarcadin,10 samar-
oil (asafetida oil) is obtained by steam candin, bradrakemin, galbanic acid, gummo-
distillation. sin, neveskone, and polyanthin.9
F. assa-foetida is a large branching peren- Sulfur-containing compounds are respon-
nial herb, up to 3 m high; native to south- sible for the characteristic flavor and odor
western Asia (eastern Iran and western of asafetida (e.g., asadisulfide11 and other
Afghanistan). sulfides12).
Asafetida 49
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; BARNES; CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN AND
BEUTLER; FEMA; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; HUANG; JIANGSU; LUST; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; MORTON 1;
NANJING; USD 23RD.
1. G. H. Mahran et al., Bull. Fac. Pharm., 3. L. Caglioti et al., Helv. Chim. Acta, 41,
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2278 (1958). 30, 137 (1976).
50 Ash, prickly
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Commun., 37, 1166 (1972). Res. Treat., 81, 1 (2003).
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899 (1984). (2003).
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68 (1980). (1967).
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Fitoterapia, 69, 41 (1998). Ethnopharmacol., 67, 1 (1999).
11. T. Kajimoto et al., Phytochemistry, 28, 19. A. K. Nadkarni, Indian Materia Medica,
1761 (1989). Vol. 1, Popular Prakashan, Bombay,
12. R. Rajanikanth et al., Phytochemistry, 23, India, 1976.
899 (1984). 20. M. M. Samimi and W. Unger, Planta
Med., 36, 128 (1979).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BARNES; CLAUS; FEMA; FERNALD; FOSTER AND DUKE; KROCHMAL AND
KROCHMAL; LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; USD 23RD.
1. Y. Ju et al., Phytother. Res., 15, 441 (2001). 7. F. R. Stermitz and I. A. Sharifi,
2. G. C. Sun, Diss. Abstr. Int. B, 35, 5826 Phytochemistry, 16, 2003 (1977).
(1975). 8. S. Gibbons et al., Phytother. Res., 17, 274
3. F. Fish et al., Lloydia, 38, 268 (1975). (2003).
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(1990). 57, 1239 (1996).
5. F. Fish and P. G. Waterman, J. Pharm. 10. J. F. Morton, Bull. Med. Libr. Assoc.,
Pharmacol., 25(Suppl.), 115P (1973). 56, 161 (1968).
6. K. V. Rao and R. Davies, J. Nat. Prod., 49, 11. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 34, 103
340 (1986). (1971).
52 Asparagus
Roots contain inulin and fructo-oligosacchar- The roots are reported to have diuretic and
ides;1 glycosidic bitter principles (officina- hypotensive properties (JIANGSU). Animal ex-
lisnin-I and officinalisnin-II);2 b-sitosterol, periments with the roots indicate diuretic ac-
sarsasapogenin, and steroidal glycosides tivity (BLUMENTHAL 1). Extracts of the spears
(named asparagosides A to I, in order of have shown in vitro antioxidant activity.17
their increasing polarity);3,4 asparagusic ac- Fibers isolated from the vegetable are claimed
id;5 and others. to have mutagen-adsorbing (cancer-prevent-
Shoots (spears and tips) contain sulfur-con- ing) properties.18 An antifungal deoxyribonu-
taining acids, including asparagusic, dihy- clease was isolated from the seeds19 and the
droasparagusic, and S-acetyldihydro-aspara- saponin fraction has shown antifungal activi-
gusic acids;5,6 a-amino-dimethyl-g-butyr- ty.20 Among the saponins, protodioscin, found
othetin (an S-methylmethionine derivative), in larger quantities in the bottom of the stalks
among others;7 a glycosidic bitter principle than the tips,9 has shown in vitro cytotoxic
that is different from the two found in roots;8 activity against herpes simplex virus type 1,21
protodioscin;9 flavonoids (rutin, hyperoside, human leukemia HL-60 cells,13 colon cancer
isoquercitrin, cosmosiin, kaempferol-3-O-L- cells, glioma cells, melanoma, renal and CNS
rhamno-D-glucoside, kaempferol, quercetin, cancer cells.22 Protodioscin has also shown
etc.);10,11 asparagine, arginine, tyrosine, sar- proerectile activity in rabbits.23
sasapogenin, b-sitosterol, succinic acid, su-
gars, and others (KARRER; JIANGSU; MERCK).12
Asparagusic acid and its derivatives are TOXICOLOGY
plant growth inhibitors, inhibiting the growth
of lettuce;6 it also has nematicidal properties, Allergic reactions to asparagus have occurred
thus being responsible for the resistance of from ingestion or handling of the plant and
asparagus to several plant parasitic commonly result in severe asthma or anaphy-
nematodes.5 laxis. Allergens from asparagus have been
Methylmercaptan (a hydrolysis product of identified as lipid transfer proteins24,25 and
the S-containing compounds) or asparagi- 1,2,3-trithiane-5-carboxylic acid, a sulfur-
ne–aspartic acid monoamide is believed to be containing plant growth inhibitor.26
Asparagus 53
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; BAILEY 2; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1; DER
MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; GUPTA; KARRER; JIANGSU; LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS;
UPHOF; WREN.
1. N. Shiomi et al., Agric. Biol. Chem., 9. M. Wang et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
40, 567 (1976). 51, 6132 (2003).
2. K. Kawano et al., Agric. Biol. Chem., 10. M. Woeldecke and K. Herrmann, Z.
39, 1999 (1975). Lebensm. Unters. Forsch., 155, 151
3. G. M. Goryanu et al., Khim. Prir. Soedin., (1974).
3, 400 (1976). 11. T. Kartnig et al., Planta Med., 51, 288
4. G. M. Goryanu and P. K. Kintya, Him. (1985).
Prir. Soedin., 6, 762 (1976). 12. R. Tressl et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
5. M. Takasugi et al., Chem. Lett., 1, 43 25, 459 (1977).
(1975). 13. Y. Shao et al., Planta Med., 63, 258 (1997).
6. H. Yanagawa et al., Tetrahedron Lett., 14. R. Goldberg, Phytochemistry, 8, 1783
25, 2549 (1972). (1969).
7. R. Tressl et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 15. J. Deli et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
25, 455 (1977). 48, 2793 (2000).
8. S. Sakamura et al., Nippon Shokuhin 16. Y. R. Prasad and S. S. Nigam, Proc. Natl.
Kogyo Gakkaishi, 14, 491 (1967). Acad. Sci. India, Sect. A, 52, 396 (1982).
54 Aspidium
17. D. P. Makris et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 23. P. G. Adaikan et al., Ann. Acad. Med.
49, 3216 (2001). Singapore, 29, 22 (2000).
18. Y. Sasaki et al., Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho 24. A. Tabar et al., Clin. Exp. Allergy, 34, 131
JP 6140764 (1986). (2004).
19. H. Wang and T. B. Ng, Biochem. Biophys. 25. A. Diaz-Perales et al., J. Allergy Clin.
Res. Commun., 289, 120 (2001). Immunol., 110, 790 (2002).
20. M. Shimoyamada et al., Agric. Biol. 26. B. M. Hausen and C. Wolf, Am.
Chem., 54, 2553 (1990). J. Contact Dermat., 7, 41 (1996).
21. T. Ikeda et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 23, 363 27. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 97 (1970).
(2000). 28. C. S. Barnes et al., Lloydia, 38, 135 (1975).
22. K. Hu and X. Yao, Planta Med., 68, 297 29. V. J. Brondegaard, Planta Med., 23,
(2002). 167 (1973).
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. Crude and oleoresin. Was formerly official in
Oleoresin is used for expulsion of tapeworms U.S.P.
along with a saline laxative such as magne-
sium or sodium sulfate.
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE;
KARRER; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; USD 26TH; YOUNGKEN.
1. C. J. Widen, Helv. Chim. Acta, 54, 2824 6. H. S. Puri et al., Planta Med., 33, 177
(1971). (1975).
2. M. Guley and T. Soylemezoglu, Ankara 7. G. P. Husson et al., Ann. Pharm. Fr., 44,
Univ. Eczacilik Fak. Mecm., 6, 214 41 (1986).
(1976). 8. S. S. A. Vichkanova et al., Rast. Resur.,
3. F. Bottari et al., Phytochemistry, 11, 2519 18, 93 (1982).
(1972). 9. D. H. Li et al., Zhongcaoyao, 17(6), 14
4. O. Faix et al., Holzforschung, 31(5), 137 (1986).
(1977). 10. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 288 (1970).
5. H. Otsuka et al., Takeka Kenkyusho Ho,
30, 225 (1971).
the sliced root with honey (from 25–30 parts to ypterocarpan, (6aR,11aR)-10-hydroxy-3,9-di-
100 parts of root) over medium heat until no methoxypterocarpan, calycosin glucoside,
longer sticky to touch. 9,10-dimethoxypterocarpan-3-O-b-D-gluco-
side and 20 -hydroxy-30 ,40 -dimethoxy-isofla-
vone-7-O-b-D-glucoside, among others.2,10–15
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION Of over 20 free amino acids identified,
asparagine, glutamic acid, canavanine, pro-
The main constituents of the root are saponins, line, arginine, b-aminobutyric acid, g-amino-
polysaccharides, isoflavonoids, free amino butyric acid (GABA), aspartic acid, and ala-
acids, and trace minerals.2,3 Other constitu- nine are present in the highest concentrations;
ents include coumarin, folic acid, nicotinic they make up 0.50–1.26% of astragalus root,
acid, choline, betaine, phenolic acids (ferulic, depending on sources.2,3,16,17
isoferulic, caffeic and chlorogenic acids, etc.), Among more than 20trace mineralsfoundin
sitosterol, sucrose, and linoleic and linolenic astragalus are magnesium (1108–1761 ppm),
acids (HU; JIANGSU).2,4 iron (94–694 ppm), manganese (8–52 ppm),
More than 40 triterpene glycosides (sapo- zinc (11–23 ppm), copper (5–9 ppm), rubidi-
nins) have been isolated from roots of A. um (11–13 ppm), molybdenum (0.1–10 ppm)
membranaceus, A. mongholicus, and other and chromium (0.3–0.8 ppm).2,18–20
Chinese Astragalus species, including astrag-
alus saponins I, II, and III; astragalosides I, II,
III, IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII; acetylastragalo- PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
side I; isoastragalosides I and II; astrasiever- ACTIVITIES
sianin I, II, III, IV (astragaloside I), V, VI, VII
(isoastragaloside II), VIII (astragaloside II), Astragalus root is a highly valued Chinese
and IX–XVI; cyclogaleginosides A and B; herbal tonic with diverse pharmacological
astramembrannin I (astragaloside IV, astrasie- properties. Decoctions, alcoholic extracts,
versianin XIV) and astramembrannin II (cy- and/or powders of the root have shown nu-
clogaleginoside B); and soyasaponin I. Soya- merous activities in humans and experimental
sapogenol B is the aglycone of soyasaponin I animals, including immunopotentiating ef-
and astragaloside VIII and cycloastragenol fects;21–30 tumor-inhibiting,31 antibacterial,23
(cyclogalegigenin, astramembrangenin), the and antiviral;28 promoting nucleic acid syn-
aglycone of the other saponins.4–6 Huangqiye- thesis in liver and spleen; elevating and/or
nins A and B were isolated from the leaves.7 reducing cAMP and cGMP levels in blood,
Polysaccharides (from A. mongholicus root) liver, and spleen of mice;23 cyclooxygenase-
include astragalan I (mol. wt. 36,300; D-glu- 2-inhibiting in vitro;32 anti-inflammatory;33
cose: D-galactose: L-arabinose ¼ 1.75 : 1.63 : 1; cardiovascular effects (hypotensive, vasodi-
with a trace of pentose), astragalan II (mol. lating, etc.);28,34 inhibiting experimentally in-
wt. 12,300; a-(1,4)(1,6)-glucan), and astra- duced hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia in
galan III (mol. wt. 34,600; a-(1,4)(1,6)-glu- mice;35 contracting smooth muscles; prolong-
can);2,6 and AG-1 (a-glucan with a-(1,4) : ing life span of silkworm and of cells
a-(1,6) ratio of 5 : 2), AG-2 (water-insoluble in vitro;21,36 larvicidal (Lymantria dispar
a-(1,4)-glucan), AH-1 (acidic; galacturonic L.);37 antiprotozoal (Trypanosoma cruzi);38
acid/glucuronic acid:glucose:rhamnose: inducing the release of growth hormone in rat
arabinose ¼ 1 : 0.04 : 0.02 : 0.01), and AH-2 pituitary cells in vitro;39 melanocyte prolifer-
(glucose:arabinose ¼ 1 : 0.15).2,8,9 ation-stimulating in vitro;40 antioxidant ef-
Flavonoids include kaempferol, quercetin, fects41 (e.g., increasing superoxide dismutase
isorhamnetin,calycosin,formononetin,rhamno- activity); antimutagenic in vitro;28 improving
citrin, kumatakenin, (3R)-20 ,30 -dihydroxy-7,4- learning and memory; promoting cartilage
dimethoxy-isoflavone, L-3-hydroxy-9-methox- growth in vitro; hepatoprotective against
Astragalus 57
experimental liver toxicity; reducing urinary Traditional Medicine. One of the major
protein in chronic and in experimental nephri- Chinese qi (energy) tonics, with a recorded
tis; diuretic; improving stamina; and others use history of 2000 years. Raw root is tradi-
(JIANGSU; WANG; ZHOU AND WANG).28,42,43 Its tionally considered to benefit the body’s resis-
effects are not due to a single compound or tance (yiwei gubiao), promote diuresis, reduce
one single class of compounds but rather to swelling, promote suppuration (drains pus,
different types of components, with the sapo- tuo du), and regenerate tissue or promote
nins, polysaccharides,21–44 and isoflavonoids3 muscle growth (sheng ji). Cured root is said
appearing to play a major role. to reinforce the Middle Burner and replenish
A placebo-controlled study on A. membra- the vital energy (buzhong yiqi).
naceous found that blood leucocytes of sub- Raw astragalus used mainly in spontaneous
jects treated with the root showed a signifi- and night sweating, edema, chronic sores and
cantly greater level of interferon induction.45 abscesses, unhealing wounds and ulcers, and
painful joints; cured astragalus primarily as an
energy (qi) tonic to treat general weakness,
TOXICOLOGY fatigue, lack of appetite, diarrhea caused by
spleen deficiency (pi xu xie xie), rectal pro-
Toxicity of astragalus root is very low: a crude lapse, and uterine bleeding. Uses of the two
water extract (75 and 100 g/kg p.o.) produced occasionally overlap.
no adverse effects in mice within 48 hours; Modern/recent uses include prevention and
LD50 in mice: 40 g/kg i.p. The former oral doses treatment of the common cold and influenza;
are 375 and 500 times the usual effective di- stomach ulcer,46 neurodermatitis, and diabe-
uretic dose in humans (WANG; ZHOU AND WANG). tes, for which high doses (>60 g) are some-
times used (CHP; JIANGSU). Astragalus root has
also been studied as one of the fuzheng guben
USES (strengthening body defense therapy) herbs
used in treating AIDS.47
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. Usual daily oral dose for adults is 9–30 g.
Extracts of astragalus root are used in skin
care cosmetics (e.g., hand and facial creams
and lotions) for its traditional healing and COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
nourishing as well as vasodilating properties;
also used in hair tonics for similar effects Raw astragalus (readily available as sticks or
(ZHOU). slices in several grades); powdered crude; and
extracts (aqueous, hydroalcoholic, glycolic).
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Pow- Most extracts come without standardized
dered crude and/or extracts are used singly or strengths, and powdered astragalus may con-
in combination with other herbs in capsule, tain adulterants such as starches and pre-ex-
tablet, or liquid (syrup or drink) form primari- tracted plant materials.
ly as a general (qi) tonic to improve body
resistance (immunity); also used in sliced or Regulatory Status. Regulated in the United
tea bag cut form in tea or soup mix packets States as a dietary supplement.
(FOSTER AND YUE).
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHP; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FOSTER AND YUE; HONGKUI; HU;
HUANG; JIANGSU; JIXIAN; WANG; ZHOU; ZHOU AND WANG.
58 Astragalus
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20. C. L. Ma and S. K. Wang, Zhongcaoyao, (1989).
16, 4 (1985).
43. X. R. Li et al., Zhongchengyao, 11 (3), 27
21. Z. D. Du and Y. M. Lai, Zhongcaoyao, 19, (1989).
40 (1988).
44. H. Wagner, Naturheilpraxis, 3, 256 (1983).
22. B. Y. Du and J. Y. Zhang, Zhongyao
45. Y. Hou et al., Chin. Med. J., 95, 35 (1981).
Tongbao, 12, 53 (1987).
46. J. Grujic-Vasic et al., Planta Med., 55,
23. C. S. Geng, Chin. J. Integr. Trad. West.
649 (1989).
Med., 6, 62 (1986).
47. S. M. Bao, Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi,
24. B. H. S. Lau et al., Phytother. Res., 3(4),
14, 59 (1989).
148 (1989).
Avocado 59
A.16,27 Fed to rats with toxin-induced liver bark, seeds) have been reported (LEWIS AND
injury, the fruit pulp showed hepatoprotective ELVIN-LEWIS).
activity; an effect attributed to various fatty
acid derivatives (e.g., 2E,5E,12Z,15Z)-1-hy-
droxyheneicosa-2,5,12,15-tetraen-4-one).28 USES
A methanol extract of the fruits showed
in vitro inhibition of acetyl-CoA carboxylase, Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
an enzyme involved in fatty acid biosynthesis. Avocado oil is believed to have healing and
Activity was attributed to 5E,12Z,15Z)-2-hy- soothing properties to the skin and the pulp oil
droxy-4-oxoheneicosa-5,12,15-trienyl and is used in massage creams, muscle oils, hair
several other related compounds.29 products, and others. A pharmaceutical prep-
In rabbits fed a high-fat diet, atherogenicity aration containing the seed oil (unsaponifiable
of avocado oil in the diet was not significantly fraction) has been patented for use in the
different from that of olive or corn oil.30 Rats treatment of sclerosis of the skin, pyorrhea,
fed a high-cholesterol diet with the addition of arthritis, and others.35 The fruit pulp is used in
defatted avocado fruit pulp showed lower food face creams.
consumption, body weight gain, and levels of The unsaponifiable fraction is combined
hepatic total fat, compared to rats fed the same with those of soy beans for use in the treatment
diet with added cellulose instead of avocado.31 of osteoarthritis.36,37
4,800 -Biscatechin, a condensed flavanol iso-
lated from avocado seeds, has shown antitu- Food. Pulp has been used as a food for
mor activity against Sarcoma 180 in mice and thousands of years in tropical America and is
Walker 256 in rats.21 C17 oxygenated unsatu- today consumed internationally.4
rated aliphatics (especially 1,2,4-trihydroxy-
heptadeca-16-ene) isolated from avocado Traditional Medicine. Pulp of Persea pla-
(pulp and seeds) have shown in vitro antimi- nifolia (American avocado) used by Guate-
crobial activity against Gram-positive bacte- malan Indians as a hair pomade to stimulate
ria, especially Staphylococcus aureus.22,32 hair growth, to hasten suppuration of wounds,
and as an aphrodisiac and emmenagogue;
seeds used to treat diarrhea and dysentery;
TOXICOLOGY powdered seeds used by American Indians
(Mahuna, southwest California) to treat pyor-
Avocado is a known cross-reactant in indivi- rhea; infusion used to treat toothache.
duals with latex allergy.33 Severe allergic
reactions can occur in these patients after
eating avocado.34 COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Poisoning of cattle, horses, goats, rabbits,
canaries, and fish by avocado (leaves, fruit, Fruit and pulp oil.
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 2; BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
MOERMAN; MORTON 2; POUCHER; UPHOF; WATT AND MERRILL.
1. L. O. Williams, Econ. Bot., 31, 315 3. J. L. Weihrauch and J. M. Gardner, J. Am.
(1977). Diet. Assoc., 78, 39 (1978).
2. K. C. Duester, J. Am. Diet. Assoc., 101, 4. K. C. Duester, Nutr. Today, 35, 151
404 (2001). (2000).
Avocado 61
5. D. P. Jones et al., Nutr. Cancer, 17, 57 21. M. M. DeOliveira et al., An. Acad. Bras.
(1992). Cienc., 44, 41 (1972).
6. T. Itoh et al., Fruits, 30, 687 (1975). 22. I. Neeman et al., Appl. Microbiol., 19, 470
7. M. H. Bertoni et al., Ann. Asoc. Quim. (1970).
Argent., 55, 257 (1967). 23. D. I. Acostade Iglesias et al., Riv. Ital.
8. G. G. Slater et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., Essenze, Profumi, Piante Offic., Aromi,
23, 468 (1975). Saponi, Cosmet., Aerosol, 58, 158 (1976).
9. D. Pearson, J. Sci. Food Agric., 26, 207 24. M. Nose and N. Fujino, Nippon Shokuhin
(1975). Kogyo Gakkaishi, 29, 507 (1982).
10. G. Ben-Et et al., J. Food Sci., 38, 546 25. M. A. Murcia et al., J. Food Prot., 64,
(1973). 2307 (2001).
11. B. I. Brown, J. Agric. Food Chem., 20, 26. O. K. Kim et al., Cancer Lett., 125, 199
753 (1972). (1998).
12. I. Johansson and N. K. Richtmyer, 27. O. K. Kim et al., Biosci. Biotechnol.
Carbohydr. Res., 13, 461 (1970). Biochem., 64, 2504 (2000).
13. J. N. Ogata et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 28. H. Kawagishi et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
20, 113 (1972). 49, 2215 (2001).
14. M. Tada et al., Nippon Eiyo Shokuryo 29. H. Hashimura et al., Biosci. Biotechnol.
Gakkaishi, 37, 13 (1984). Biochem., 65, 1656 (2001).
15. L. Gu et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 51, 30. D. Kritchevsky et al., J. Am. Coll. Nutr.,
7513 (2003). 22, 52 (2003).
16. M. A. Joslyn and W. Stepka, Food Res., 31. E. Naveh et al., J. Nutr., 132, 2015 (2002).
14, 459 (1949). 32. I. Neeman et al., Fr. Demande 2,075,994
17. A. Zanobini et al., Boll. Soc. Ital. Biol. (1971).
Sper., 50, 887 (1974). 33. C. Blanco, Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep., 3,
18. A. O. Moreno et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 47 (2003).
51, 2216 (2003). 34. S. Isola et al., Allergy Asthma Proc., 24,
19. N. K. Richtmyer, Carbohydr. Res., 12, 193 (2003).
135 (1970). 35. H. Thiers, Neth. Appl. 6,601,888 (1966).
20. H. M. Alves et al., An. Acad. Bras. Cienc., 36. E. Ernst, Clin. Rheumatol., 22, 285 (2003).
42 (Suppl.), 45 (1970). 37. K. L. Soeken, Clin. J. Pain, 20, 13 (2004).
62 Balm, lemon
improved memory scores.26 Placebo-con- dried leaves used for tea in doses of 1.5–4.5 g
trolled, double-blind randomized clinical of the herb in infusion; often used in combi-
trials of topical lemon balm cream prepara- nation with other herbs (BLUMENTHAL 1).
tions (1% dried extract of the leaves) showed
significant benefits in the treatment of herpes Traditional Medicine. Regarded in Euro-
simplex.30,31 pean folklore for the treatment of melan-
choly and for enhancing the memory; Greek
physicians used the plant to treat wounds
USES (GRIEVE) and in Iranian folk medicine lemon
balm is used in treating gastrointestinal dis-
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. orders and for analgesic, asntispasmodic,
Used in numerous European pharmaceutical sedative, diuretic, digestive, and carminitive
preparations as a carminative and mild tran- effects.14
quilizer; also used in cough drops oil more
often used as a component in perfumes; com-
monly used in lip balms.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Food. The monoterpene derivative citral,
composed of neral and geranial, is widely Crude; extracts, and oil; oil is seldom unadul-
used in cosmetics and foods to lend a lemon- terated, (ARCTANDER). Crude formerly official
like aroma and flavor.1 Balm extract and oil in U.S.P.
are used in major categories of food products
such as alcoholic (bitters, vermouths, etc.) Regulatory Status. Regulated in the United
and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy States as a dietary supplement; both lemon
desserts, candy, baked goods, and gelatins balm (§182.10) and the essential oil, extrac-
and puddings. Highest average maximum use tive, and solvent-free oleoresin are GRAS for
level reported is 0.5% of extract in baked use in foods (§182.20). Formerly official in the
goods. U.S.P. from 1840 to 1890. The leaves and
preparations thereof are the subject of a posi-
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Cut tive German therapeutic monograph, indicat-
and sifted herb, powdered herb, liquid and ed for difficulty in falling asleep caused by
dried extracts, infusions, tinctures, and so on, nervous conditions, and functional gastroin-
used as mild sleep aid as well as a stomachic; testinal symptoms (BLUMENTHAL 1).
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; ARCTANDER; BARNES; BARRETT; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA;
BLUMENTHAL 1; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; LUST; MARTINDALE;
MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; ROSE; UPHOF; WICHTL; YOUNGKEN.
1. F. Enjalbert et al., Fitoterapia, 54, 59 5. H. Wagner and L. Sprinkmeyer, Dtsch.
(1983). Apoth. Ztg., 113, 1159 (1973).
2. N. Stankeviciene et al., Polez. Rast. 6. H. Thieme and C. Kitze, Pharmazie, 28,
Priblat. Respub. Beloruss., Mater. 69 (1973).
Nauch. Konf., 2 (1973), 264 (1973). 7. L. S. Kucera and E. C. Herrmann Jr., Proc.
3. S. Kapetanovic and S. Dugumovic, Acta Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 124, 865 (1967).
Pharm. Jugosl., 18(304), 127 (1968). 8. E. C. Herrmann Jr. and L. S. Kucera,
4. F. W. Hefendehl, Arch. Pharm. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 124, 869
(Weinheim), 303, 345 (1970). (1967).
64 Balm of gilead buds
9. I. Morelli, Boll. Chim. Farm., 116, 334 21. J. Mikus et al., Planta Med., 66, 366
(1977). (2000).
10. U. Gerhardt and A. Schroeter, Fleisch- 22. C. Araujo et al., J. Food Prot., 66, 625
wirtschaft, 63, 1628 (1983). (2003).
11. J. Patora et al., Acta Pol. Pharm., 59, 139 23. A. M. Debelmas and J. Rochat, Plant
(2002). Med. Phytother., 1, 23 (1967).
12. A. Mulkens et al., Pharm. Acta Helv., 60 24. G. Wake et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 69,
(9–10), 276 (1985). 105 (2000).
13. M. Burgett, Bee World, 61(2), 44 (1980). 25. D. O. Kennedy et al., Neuropsycho-
14. H. Sadraei et al., Fitoterapia, 74, 445 pharmacology, 28, 1871 (2003).
(2003). 26. C. G. Ballard et al., J. Clin. Psychiatry, 63,
15. K. Yamasaki et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 21, 553 (2002).
829 (1998). 27. S. Akhondzadeh et al., J. Neurol.
16. Z. Dimitrova et al., Acta Microbiol. Bulg., Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 74, 863 (2003).
29, 65 (1993). 28. D. O. Kennedy et al., Pharmacol.
17. J. Hohmann et al., Planta Med., 65, 576 Biochem. Behav., 72, 953 (2002).
(1999). 29. R. Koytchev et al., Phytomedicine, 6, 225
18. M. Auf’mkolk et al., Endocrinology (1999).
(Baltimore), 115, 527 (1984). 30. R. H. W€olbling and K. Leonhardt,
19. F. Santini et al., J. Endocrinol. Invest., 26, Phytomedicine, 1, 25 (1994).
950 (2003). 31. A. P. Carnat et al., Pharm. Acta Helv., 72,
20. M. T. Khayyal et al., Arzneim.-Forsch., 301 (1998).
51, 545 (2001).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; CLAUS; GOSSELIN; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; LUST;
MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; POUCHER; ROSE; SARGENT; UPHOF; YOUNGKEN.
1. E. Wollenweber and W. Weber, Z. 3. O. Isaac et al., Dtsch. Apoth. Ztg., 108, 293
Pflanzenphysiol., 69, 125 (1973). (1968).
2. S. Frantisek et al., Collect. Czech. Chem. 4. Monograph Populi gemma. Bundesan-
Commun., 18, 364 (1953). zeiger, no. 22 (February 1, 1990).
Source: Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. (Family Balsam Canada is an oleoresin occurring nor-
Pinaceae). mally in the bark of Abies balsamea, collected
by puncturing the vesicles on the bark. It is a
Common/vernacular names: Balm of Gilead, light greenish-yellow, viscous liquid that so-
balsam fir, balsam of fir, balsam fir Canada, lidifies on exposure to air. A. balsamea is an
Canada balsam, Canadian balsam, and evergreen tree up to 20 m high with trunk
Canada turpentine. usually 30–45 cm in diameter; native to
66 Balsam canada
eastern North America, reaching Minnesota creams as antiseptic and as treatment for
and Wisconsin. Canada balsam is not a true hemorrhoids; as a fixative or fragrance ingre-
balsam because it does not contain benzoic or dient in soaps, detergents, creams, lotions, and
cinnamic acid or their esters (see glossary). perfumes. Maximum use levels reported are
0.15% in soaps and 0.2% in perfumes.4
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION Formerly used in dentistry as an ingredient in
root canal sealers and dentifrices (ADA).5
The bark of A. balsamea contains a volatile
oil (up to 30%) and an odorless resin. Food. Both the oleoresin and oil have had
The volatile oil is composed entirely of limited use in major categories of foods, in-
monoterpenes (37.4% b-phellandrene, 36.4% cluding alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages,
b-pinene, 23.5% a-pinene, and 2.7% frozen dairy desserts, candy, and gelatins and
a-phellandrene).1 The resin makes up the puddings. Use levels have been low, generally
remainder of the oleoresin and contains below 0.001% (10 ppm).
neutral and acidic materials (e.g., abietic and
neoabietic acids; diterpenoids). Traditional Medicine. Bark resin used ex-
ternally by American Indians for burns, sores,
and cuts and to relieve heart and chest pains.
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL Also reportedly used in treating tumors.6
ACTIVITIES
Others. Due to its ability to dry to a brittle,
In guinea pigs, oral administration of abietic clear glass-like residue, Canada balsam (usu-
acid (an abietane diterpenoid found in the oleo- ally freed from volatile oil and dissolved in
resin) produced antiallergic activity. In vitro xylene) was extensively used as a cement for
inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase by abietic acid lenses and prepared microscopic slides. Its use
may be a contributing factor to the activity.2 in some “balsam” hair grooming products
The essential oil (balsam fir oil) extracted probably takes advantage of this property to
from the foliage has shown in vitro cytoxicity stiffen hair and give it “body.”
against several tumor cell lines. The main active
constituent was identified as a-humulene.3
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
TOXICOLOGY
Oleoresin and oil. Oleoresin was formerly
Oleoresin considered as nontoxic when ap- official in U.S.P.
plied externally.4 Internal toxicity data not
available. Regulatory Status. Only needles and twigs of
A. balsamea and their appropriate prepara-
USES tions are approved for food use as natural
flavoring substances (§172.510).
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
Oleoresin used in certain ointments and
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; CLAUS; FEMA; GUENTHER; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; MERCK;
SARGENT; UPHOF.
1. H. J. Petrowitz et al., Riechst., Aromen, 2. N. N. Ulusu et al., Phytother. Res., 16, 88
K€orperpflegem., 12, 1 (1962). (2003).
Balsam copaiba 67
3. J. Legault et al., Planta Med., 69, 402 5. K. M. Kosti, U.S. Pat. 4,348,378
(2003). (1982).
4. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 6. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 288 (1970).
13, 449 (1975).
TOXICOLOGY
including alcoholic and nonalcoholic bever- tract infections, leucorrhea, blenorrhagia, pso-
ages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked goods, riasis, dressing the navel of newborns, and as
gelatins and puddings, and meat and meat an anti-inflammatory for sore throat. In large
products. Average maximum use levels are doses, copaiba balsam is believed to provoke
usually very low, less than 0.002% (16 ppm). diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and colic.11
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; CLAUS; FEMA; GUENTHER; LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS; MARTINDALE;
MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MORTON 1; TERRELL; YOUNGKEN.
1. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 7. J. C. Maruzzella and N. A. Sicurella, J.
14(Suppl.), 687 (1976). Am. Pharm. Assoc., 49, 692 (1960).
2. G. Delle Monache et al., Tetrahedron 8. A. C. Basile, et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
Lett., 8, 659 (1971). 22, 101 (1988).
3. M. Ferrari et al., Phytochemistry, 10, 905 9. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
(1971). 11, 1075 (1973).
4. F. Delle Monache et al., Ann. Chim. 10. M. J. Del Nunzio, Aerosol Cosmet., 7(41),
(Rome), 59, 539 (1969). 7 (1985).
5. F. Delle Monache et al., Ann. Chim. 11. W. B. Mors et al. Medicinal Plants of
(Rome), 60, 233 (1970). Brazil, Reference Publications, Algonac,
6. J. R. Mahajan and G. A. L. Ferreira, Ann. MI, 2000.
Acad. Bras. Cienc., 43, 611 (1971).
Source: Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Lam.) Britt. Oregon balsam is an oleoresin that occurs in
(syn. P. douglasii Carr.; P. mucronata the tree trunk and is usually collected from
(Raf.) Sudw.) (Family Pinaceae). felled trees. It is a light amber or yellow,
viscous liquid with a piney odor. It is not a
Common/vernacular names: Balsam fir, true balsam (see glossary). The tree varies
balsam Oregon, Douglas fir, Douglas spruce, greatly in size, depending on localities; often
Oregon balsam, and red fir. up to 60 m high with a trunk of approximately
Balsam peru 69
Although considerable chemical data are Similar to those of Canada balsam; used as an
available on the needles, wood, and bark adulterant of the latter oleoresin; however,
(KARRER),1–6 chemical information on the Oregon balsam is not suited for use in micros-
“balsam” (oleoresin) itself is practically copy because it is less viscous and slower
nonexistent, except that it has been re- drying than Canada balsam; it does not dry
ported to be an oleoresin of the turpentine to a glassy and brittle film as Canada balsam.
type, yielding a volatile oil on steam dis-
tillation and has properties and uses similar COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
to those of Canada balsam (ARCTANDER;
CLAUS). Oleoresin (“balsam”).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; GOSSELIN; GUENTHER; SARGENT; UPHOF; YOUNGKEN.
1. E. Von Rudloff, Can. J. Bot., 50, 1025 4. E. F. Kurth and H. J. Klefer, Tappi, 33, 183
(1972). (1950).
2. E. Von Rudloff, Pure Appl. Chem., 34, 401 5. H. L. Hergert and E. F. Kurth, Tappi, 35, 59
(1973). (1952).
3. H. M. Graham and E. F. Kurth, Ind. Eng. 6. R. D. Kolesnikova et al., Khim. Prir.
Chem., 41, 409 (1949). Soedin., 5, 613 (1976).
mate and benzyl benzoate, and 50–64% of a ingredient in soaps, detergents, creams, lo-
high-boiling volatile oil, referred to as cinna- tions, and perfumes, with maximum use level
mein; and 20–28% resin. The volatile oil up to 0.8% in perfumes. Balsam of Peru oil and
consists mainly of benzoic and cinnamic acid resinoid, obtained by high-vacuum distillation
esters such as benzyl benzoate, benzyl cinna- and/or solvent extraction of the balsam, are
mate, and cinnamyl cinnamate (styracin), with also used in cosmetics.1,6,7
small amounts of nerolidol, free benzyl Balsam of Peru is also used in dental pre-
alcohol, and free benzoic and cinnamic acids parations, especially for the treatment of dry
also present. Other constituents include traces socket (postextraction alveolitis) and as a
of styrene, vanillin, and coumarin (KARRER; component in certain dental impression ma-
MARTINDALE; REMINGTON). terials, and dentifrices.8
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL Food. Balsam and oil are extensively used as
ACTIVITIES a flavor ingredient in major categories of
foods, including alcoholic and nonalcoholic
Balsam of Peru has mild antiseptic and anti- beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked
bacterial properties and is believed to promote goods, and gelatins and puddings, with the
the growth of epithelial cells; also antiparasitic highest reported average maximum use level
(especially for scabies) (BLUMENTHAL 1). of about 0.0015% (15.33 ppm) for the balsam
in candy.
TOXICOLOGY
Traditional Medicine. Reportedly used in
treating cancer.9
Balsam Peru is one of the most common
contact allergens. Dermatitis as a result of
contact with this balsam is documented in COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
many countries.1–4 A double-blind, placebo-
controlled study found that taken orally, bal- Balsam, resinoid, and oil. Balsam of Peru was
sam of Peru caused allergic dermatitis to flare.5 formerly official in N.F. XII.
REFERENCES
See the General References for ADA; ARCTANDER; BLUMENTHAL 1; DERMARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA;
GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; MARTINDALE; PHILLIPS; TERRELL; YOUNGKEN.
1. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol. 3. O. Hammershoy, Contact Dermatitis, 6,
12(Suppl.), 951 (1974). 263 (1980).
2. B. M. Hausen, Am. J. Contact Dermat., 12, 4. Y. Olumide, Contact Dermatitis, 17, 85
93 (2001). (1987).
Balsam tolu 71
Balsam tolu is obtained from the tree trunk of PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
M. balsamum by making V-shaped incisions ACTIVITIES
through the bark and sap wood. The liquid
balsam is collected in gourds and solidifies It has mild antiseptic and expectorant
on aging. The balsam is a plastic solid with a properties.
brown or brownish-yellow color that darkens
and hardens on aging. Like balsam Peru, it is a
TOXICOLOGY
true balsam. Tolu balsam has an aromatic
vanilla-like odor and an aromatic, mildly pun-
Allergic reactions to tolu balsam occur in
gent taste; it is insoluble in water but soluble
some individuals.3,7
in alcohol, acetone, benzene, and chlorinated
hydrocarbons.
Myroxylon balsamum is a tall tree native USES
to northern South America (Colombia, Peru,
Venezuela), cultivated in the West Indies. Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
Balsam tolu is extensively used as a flavor
and mild expectorant in cough medicines
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (e.g., syrups, lozenges, etc.); also used as an
ingredient in Compound Benzoin Tincture or
Contains resin, free cinnamic and benzoic similar formulations for treatment of bed-
acids, and volatile oil composed mainly of sores, cracked nipples, lips, and minor cuts
esters of these acids with small amounts of on the skin and for inhalation to treat laryngitis
terpenes. Concentrations of these constituents and croup. Both balsam and its oil (obtained
vary greatly with each report, probably due to by dry or steam distillation) are used as a
the great differences in quality of commercial fixative or fragrance ingredient in cosmetics
products and the lack of requirements for including soaps, detergents, creams, lotions,
determining specific components in official and perfumes, with maximum use levels of
compendia (e.g., U.S.P.). Other constituents 0.1% in soaps and 0.2% in perfumes reported.3
72 Barberry
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BLUMENTHAL 1; CLAUS; FEMA; GUENTHER; UPHOF; USD 26th;
YOUNGKEN.
1. I. Wahlberg et al., Acta Chem. Scand., 25, 5. H. D. Friedel and R. Matusch, Helv. Chim.
3285 (1971). Acta, 70, 1616 (1987).
2. K. J. Harkiss and P. A. Linley, J. Pharm. 6. K. J. Harkiss, personal communication.
Pharmacol., 25(Suppl.), 146P (1973). 7. T. N. Salam and J. F. Fowler Jr., J. Am.
3. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., Acad. Dermatol., 45, 377 (2001).
14(Suppl.), 689 (1976). 8. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 97 (1970).
4. I. Wahlberg and C. R. Enzell, Acta Chem. 9. J. A. Duke and R. Vasquez, Amazonian
Scand., 25, 70 (1971). Ethnobotanical Dictionary, CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL, 1994, p. 121.
methyl ether), bervulcine, and magnoflorine;1 exhibits various cardiovascular effects, in-
those in B. aquifolium include aromoline, cluding hypotensive and antiarrhythmic.12
obamegine, oxyberberine, berbamine, and
oxyacanthine.2
USES
Berberine and other Berberis alkaloids
were reported to be toxic to seedlings of dog
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
rose and horse chestnut, causing atrophy.3
Berberis is used as an ingredient in certain
tonic preparations. Berberine salts have been
used in ophthalmic products, usually in eye
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
drops and eyewashes.
ACTIVITIES
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Crude
The total ethanol extract of the root of
root, cut and sifted and powdered used in
B. vulgaris administered i.p. inhibited acute
capsules, teas, and other products, primarily
inflammation in rats more potently than
as a bitter tonic (FOSTER AND DUKE).
berberine, oxyacanthine, or three alkaloidal
fractions of the roots. It was also more potent
Traditional Medicine. In Bulgaria, the stem
at inhibiting chronic inflammation in a model
bark and roots of B. vulgaris are used to treat
of adjuvant arthritis in rats.4 An aqueous extract
arthritis and chronic inflammatory conditions
of the fruits of B. vulgaris exhibited in vitro
of the kidneys, liver, and gallbaldder.4 In
anticholinergic and antihistaminergic activity.5
Europe and the United States, Berberis is
Certain Berberis alkaloidal salts, particu-
reportedly used as a bitter tonic, antipyretic,
larly berberine, oxyacanthine, and columba-
and antihemorrhagic, usually referring to B.
mine, have bactericidal activities.6,7 In one
vulgaris. In China, various Berberis species
study, berberine chloride showed higher ac-
are also used for similar purposes; B. vulgaris
tivity than chloramphenicol against Staphylo-
is listed as a related drug, sometimes used as
coccus epidermidis, Neisseria meningitidis,
an adulterant, to Dichroa febrifuga Lour.,
Escherichia coli, and other bacteria. Oxya-
which is widely used in China for its antima-
canthine chloride at 0.01% and columbamine
larial and antipyretic activities (NANJING).
chloride at 1.0% killed Bacillus subtilis and
Colpidium colpoda.7
Some reports have stated berberine sulfate COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
to be amebicidal, and trypanocidal and
berbamine, isotetrandine, and hydroxya- Barberry (B. vulgaris) is available in crude and
canthine to have hypotensive properties extract form. Qualities of extracts may vary
(GLASBY 1; MARTINDALE).8 because the only standards for potency are
Berberine has antifibrillatory activity, ele- strengths (see glossary) based on a weight-to-
vating the ventricular fibrillation threshold to weight ratio of extract to crude drug. Crude
electrical stimulation in anesthetized cats.9 was formerly official in U.S.P.
Berberine also has anticonvulsant, sedative,
uterine stimulant, and numerous other activi- Regulatory Status. Root of B. vulgaris is the
ties (see goldenseal). subject of a German therapeutic monograph in
A fraction of a root extract of B. vulgaris which the uses for the claimed therapeutic
containing 80% berbamine and three uniden- applications are not recommended owing to
tified isoquinoline alkaloids has shown spas- lack of documented benefits; such applica-
molytic effects on smooth muscles.10 tions including the use of the bark, root bark
A study of berbamine in mice infected with or fruits for gastrointestinal, kidney, liver,
influenza viruses yielded results that indicate urinary tract, circulatory, spleen, bronchial,
it to be an immunostimulating agent.11 It also and other organ functions (BLUMENTHAL 1).
74 Basil, sweet
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BAILEY 2; BLUMENTHAL 1; CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN
AND BEUTLER; FARNSWORTH 3; FOGARTY; FOSTER AND DUKE; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; JIANGSU; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
MERCK; NANJING.
1. M. Ikram, Planta Med., 28, 353 (1975). 7. E. Andronescu et al., Clujul Med., 46, 627
2. D. Kostalova et al., Chem. Pap., 40, 389 (1973).
(1986). 8. L. P. Naidovich et al., Farmatsiya
3. V. M. Oleksevich, Introd. Eksp. Ekol. (Moscow), 25, 33 (1976).
Rosl., 1, 224 (1972). 9. D. C. Fang et al., Zhongguo Yaoli Xuebao,
4. N. Ivanovska and S. Philipov, Int. J. 7, 321 (1986).
Immunopharmacol., 18, 553 (1996). 10. P. Manalov et al., Eksp. Med. Morfol., 24,
5. F. Shamsa et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 64, 41 (1985).
161 (1999). 11. L. Jin and W. Z. Sui, Zhongguo Yaoli
6. Z. Kowalewski et al., Arch. Immunol. Xuebao, 7, 475 (1986).
Ther. Exp., 20, 353 (1972). 12. F. L. Li, Yaoxue Xuebao, 20, 859 (1985).
Annual herb, about 0.5 m high, thought to be The volatile oil (ca. 0.08%) contains d-lin-
native to Africa and tropical Asia; cultivated alool and estragole as the major components,
worldwide (e.g., Europe, India, and the United with the former up to 55% and the latter about
States). There are many varieties, some of 70%, depending on the sources (MASADA).3,4
which have different compositions and flavor- Other components include methyl cinna-
ing characteristics. The plant is also strongly mate (reported to be the major component
affected by environmental factors such as (ca. 28%) of a variety of sweet basil), 1,8-
temperature, geographic location, soil, and cineole, eugenol, borneol, ocimene, geraniol,
amount of rainfall.1,2 Parts used are the dried anethole; 10-cadinols, b-caryophyllene,
leaves and flowering tops. a-terpineol, camphor, 3-octanone, methyleu-
An essential oil is obtained by steam distil- genol, safrole, sesquithujene, and 1-epibicy-
lation. There are two major types of commer- closesquiphellandrene as well as juvocimene
cial basil oils, namely, the true sweet basil oil 1 and juvocimene 2, which are potent juve-
and the so-called exotic or Reunion, basil oil. nile hormone mimics (JIANGSU).4–8 There are
True sweet basil oil is distilled in Europe and great variations in concentrations of these
the United States; exotic basil oil is produced components in the volatile oils from different
in the Comoro Islands, the Seychelles, and the sources.
Basil, sweet 75
Other constituents present in sweet basil Food. Used as a spice and in chartreuse
include protein (14%), carbohydrates (61%), liqueur.
vitamins A and C in relatively high concen- The oil and oleoresin are extensively used
trations (MARSH), rosmarinic acid,9,10 thymol, as a flavor ingredient in all major food pro-
and xanthomicrol (a flavone).11 ducts, usually in rather low use levels (mostly
below 0.005%).
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
Traditional Medicine. The herb has been
ACTIVITIES
used for head colds and as a cure for warts
and worms, as an appetite stimulant, carmina-
The volatile oil of a variety of sweet basil was
tive, and diuretic, among other applications
shown to have antiwormal activities.12 Essen-
(BLUMENTHAL 1).7
tial oil has shown antimicrobial and mildly
More widely used as a medicinal herb in the
antiseptic activities in vitro.13
Far East, especially in China and India. It was
Methyl cinnamate, estragole and, to a lesser
first described in a major Chinese herbal
extent, ocimene, cineole, and linalool have
around AD 1060 and has since been used in
insecticidal activities.14
China for spasms of the stomach and kidney
Xanthomicrol has shown cytotoxic and
ailments, among others; it is especially re-
antineoplastic activities.11
commended for use before and after parturi-
tion to promote blood circulation. The whole
TOXICOLOGY herb is also used to treat snakebite and insect
bites (JIANGSU; NANJING).
Sweet basil oil is reported to be nontoxic.15
Estragole, a major component in some
sweet basil oils, has been shown to produce COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
tumors (hepatocellular carcinomas) in mice16
and genotoxicity. The Council of Europe Crude, essential oil, and oleoresin.
currently recommends that the level of estra-
gole in food products should not exceed Regulatory Status. Regulated in the United
0.05 mg/kg.17 States as a dietary supplement; in foods,
both the use of the herb as a spice, natural
flavoring, or seasoning (§182.10), and the use
USES
of the essential oil and extractives (§182.20)
are GRAS. Subject of a German therapeutic
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
monograph; claimed efficacies not well sub-
Used as a fragrance ingredient in perfumes,
stantiated; allowed as flavor corrigent at 5% or
soaps, hair dressings, dental creams, and
less (BLUMENTHAL 1; WICHTL).
mouth washes.
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BISSET; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; FEMA; FOSTER; GUENTHER;
JIANGSU; MASADA; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MORTON 1; NANJING; ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL; YOUNGKEN.
1. D. Pogany, Diss. Abstr. B, 28, 1871 4. S. S. Nigam and A. K. Rao, Riechst.,
(1967). Aromen, K€orperpflegem., 18, 169 (1968).
2. S. N. Sobti et al., Lloydia, 41, 50 (1978). 5. S. J. Terhune et al., Paper presented at the
3. B. C. Gulati et al., Parf€um. Kosmet., 58, 6th International Congress of Essential
165 (1977). Oils, 1974, p. 153.
76 Bay, sweet
6. M. S. Karawya et al., J. Agric. Food 12. M. L. Jain and S. R. Jain, Planta Med., 22,
Chem., 22, 520 (1974). 66 (1972).
7. J. W. Hogg et al., Am. Perfum. Cosmet., 13. K. J. Lachowicz et al., Lett. Appl.
86, 33 (1971). Microbiol., 26, 209 (1998).
8. W. S. Bowers and R. Nishida, Science, 209 14. R. S. Deshpande and H. P. Tipnis,
(4460), 1030 (1980). Pesticides, 11(5), 11 (1977).
9. U. Gerhardt and A. Schroeter, Fleish- 15. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
wirtschaft, 63, 1628 (1983). 11, 867 (1973).
10. A. Reschke, Z. Lebensm. Unters. Forsch., 16. N. R. Drinkwater et al., J. Natl. Cancer
176, 116 (1983). Inst., 57, 1323 (1976).
11. M. O. Fatope and Y. Takeda, Planta Med., 17. H. Schulz et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 51,
54, 190 (1988). 2475 (2003).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BRUNETON; DUKE 4; FEMA;
GRIEVE; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; MASADA; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL; UPHOF; YOUNGKEN.
1. H. Hokwerda et al., Planta Med., 44, 116 4. J. M. Schulz and K. Hermann, Z. Lebensm.
(1982). Unters. Forsch., 171, 278 (1980).
2. Caredda et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 50, 5. H. Hibasami et al., Int. J. Mol. Med., 12,
1492 (2002). 147 (2003).
3. Z. Putievsky et al., Isr. J. Bot., 33, 47 6. M. Yoshikawa et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem.,
(1984). 8, 2071 (2000).
78 Bay, west indian
7. H. W. Kang et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 25, 21. M. Sayyah et al., Phytother. Res., 17, 733
102 (2002). (2003).
8. B. Pech and J. Bruneton, J. Nat. Prod., 45, 22. F. U. Afifi et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 58, 9
560 (1982). (1997).
9. D. J. Gomez-Coronado and C. Barbas, J. 23. I. Gurbuz et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 83,
Agric. Food Chem., 51, 5196 (2003). 241 (2002).
10. U. Asllani, Bull. Univ. Shteteror 24. H. Matsuda et al., Alcohol Alcohol., 37,
Tiranes, Ser. Shkencat Natyr., 23, 93 121 (2002).
(1969). 25. M. Simic et al., Fitoterapia, 74, 613
11. N. A. Gugunava, Subtrop. Kul’t., 3, 84 (2003).
(1971). 26. H. Moteki et al., Oncol. Rep., 9, 757 (2002).
12. M. G. Pertoldi and B. Stancher, Atti 27. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
Congr. Qual., 6, 303 (1967). 14, 337 (1976).
13. J. T. MacGregor et al., J. Agric. Food 28. J. C. Mitchell in V. C. Runeckles, ed.,
Chem., 22, 777 (1974). Recent Advances in Phytochemistry,
14. J. W. Hogg et al., Phytochemistry, 13, 868 Vol. 9, Plenum Press, New York, 1975,
(1974). p. 119.
15. H. Tada and K. Takeda, Chem. Pharm. 29. M. G. Ozden et al., Contact Dermatitis,
Bull., 24, 667 (1976). 45, 178 (2001).
16. K. Tori et al., Tetrahedron Lett., 5, 387 30. A. Cheminat et al., Arch. Dermatol. Res.,
(1976). 276, 178 (1984).
17. M. M. Verma, Diss. Abstr. Int. B, 41(12, 31. Council of Europe , Opinion of the
Pt. 1), 4514 (1981). Scientific Committee on Food on
18. V. L. L. Machado et al., Anais Soc. Methyleugenol (4-Allyl-1,2-dimethoxy-
Entomol. Brasil, 24, 13 (1995). benzene), European Commission Health
and Consumer Protection Directorate-
19. L. Re and T. Kawano, Mem. Inst. Oswaldo
General, Brussel, Belgium, 2001.
Cruz, 82(Suppl. 4), 315 (1987).
Available at: http://europa. eu.int/comm/
20. M. Sayyah et al., Phytomedicine, 9, 212 food/fs/scf/index_en.html.
(2002).
32. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 32, 247 (1969).
Tree with leathery leaves, up to about 8 m The main components of bay oil are euge-
high; native to the West Indies; cultivated in nol (up to 56%), chavicol (up to 22%),
Bay, west indian 79
and myrcene (up to 21%). Those present (GOSSELIN). However, no allergic reactions
in lesser amounts include 1,8-cineole, in humans have been reported.8 Recently,
limonene, isoeugenol, linalool, methyleu- the Council of Europe recommended that
genol (3,4-dimethoxyallylbenzene), estra- owing to evidence of heptotoxicity, methy-
gole (methyl chavicol), a-terpineol, and leugenol should not be allowed in foods at
others.1–3 any level.9
The leaves of two other general varieties,
either anise scented or lemon scented, have
been reported to yield volatile oils with USES
quite different proportions of the above com-
ponents. The anise scented variety contains Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
methyleugenol (43%) and methylchavicol Volatile oil used extensively as a fragrance
(32%) as the major components, and the ingredient in bay rum; also in creams, lo-
lemon scented variety contains mostly citral tions (particularly aftershave and hair lo-
(>80%).1 The main constituents of the es- tions), soaps, detergents, and perfumes,
sential oil of the leaves of P. racemosa var. with maximum use level of 1.5% in certain
terebinthina (Burret) L. R. Landrum are perfumes.8
4-methoxy eugenol (12.6%), a-terpineol
(20%), and a-terpineol acetate (27%), while
in the essential oil of P. racemosa var. grisea Food. Volatile oil, oleoresin, and extract
(Kiaersk.) Fosberg, the major constituents (less extensively) all used as a flavor ingre-
are 4-methoxy eugenol (4.5%) and 4-meth- dient in major categories of food products,
oxy-isoeugenol (75.2%).4 The leaves also including alcoholic and nonalcoholic
contain abietic acid, a diterpene.5 Lupeol, beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy,
a triterpene, was isolated from the leaves baked goods, gelatins and puddings, meat
of P. racemosa var. ozua (Urban & Ekman) and meat products, and condiments and
L. R. Landrum.6 relishes at very low levels, usually below
0.01%.
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; FEMA; GUENTHER; MASADA.
1. D. McHale et al., Food Chem., 2, 19 8. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
(1977). 11, 869 (1973).
2. R. G. Buttery et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 9. Council of Europe, Opinion of the Sci-
22, 773 (1974). entific Committee on Food on Methy-
3. Analytical Methods Committee , Analyst, leugenol (4-Allyl-1,2-dimethoxybenzene),
100, 593 (1975). European Commission Health and Con-
sumer Protection Directorate-General,
4. D. Garcia et al., Flav. Fragr. J., 10, 319
Brussel, Belgium, 2001. Available at:
(1995).
http://europa. eu.int/comm/food/fs/scf/
5. M. A. Fernandez et al., J. Pharm. index_en.html.
Pharmacol., 53, 867 (2001).
10. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 288 (1970).
6. A. Fernandez et al., Farmaco, 56, 335
11. B. Weniger and L. Robineau, in C.
(2001).
Gyllenhaal and D. D. Soejarto, eds.,
7. S. A. Burt et al., Lett. Appl. Microbiol., 36, Elements for a Caribbean Pharma-
162 (2003). copeia, Enda-Caribe, Ministry of Public
Health, Cuba, 1988, p. 207.
Contains tannins, triterpenes (myricadiol, Tannins and phenols isolated from bayberry
taraxerol, and taraxerone), and myricitrin bark administered subcutaneously to rats have
Bee pollen 81
shown carcinogenic activity.6 Myricadiol has astringent and in larger doses an emetic, for
shown spermatocidal activity.1 chronic gastritis, diarrhea, dysentery, leucor-
rhea, jaundice, fevers; externally for hard-
to-heal ulcers (FOSTER AND DUKE). Micmac
USES Indians used the roots to treat headaches and
inflammations, and as an analgesic.7 External
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. inflammations were treated with the crushed
Root bark has been and probably still is used roots soaked in water.8
as astringent, tonic, and stimulant to indolent
ulcers and as an ingredient in Composition Other. Fruit is source of bayberry wax for
Powder used for colds and chills. candles.
Traditional Medicine. Used in Puerto Rico Regulatory Status. Bayberry root bark was
to treat stubborn ulcers (MORTON 2). Root bark included in N.F. IV–V (1916–1926).
used historically in the United States as an
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FOSTER AND DUKE; GRIEVE;
KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; LUST; MARTINDALE; MERCK; MORTON 2; YOUNGKEN.
1. B. D. Paul et al., J. Pharm. Sci., 63, 958 5. S. Mihara and M. Fujimoto, Eur. J.
(1974). Pharmacol., 12, 33 (1993).
2. M. Nagai et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 48, 6. G. J. Kapadia et al., J. Natl. Cancer Inst.,
1427 (2000). 57, 207 (1976).
3. K. Sakurawi et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 44, 7. R. F. Chandler et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
343 (1996). 1, 49 (1979).
4. N. Chistokhodova et al., J. Ethnophar- 8. W. D. Wallis, Am. Anthropol., 24, 24
macol., 81, 277 (2002). (1922).
yield commercial bee pollen include buck- The following are some examples of
wheat, rape, maize, and pine, among specific chemical constituents reported to
others. Typha pollen (puhuang) is collected be present in certain types of pollen but
from Typha species (T. angustata Bory et not necessarily in others: pentacosane, iso-
Chaub., T. angustifolia L., T. latifolia L., rhamnetin glycoside, narcissin, free palmi-
etc.) and has probably the longest and most tic and stearic acids, 6-aminopurine, tura-
extensively documented use history, dating nose and an oligosaccharide, sitosterol, and
back to the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing (ca. a-typhasterol in puhuang (ZHOU AND WANG);6
200 BC–AD 100). Pine pollen is collected b-sitosterol and cholesterol, ursolic acid,
from numerous Pinus species (including rutin (0–17%), C-3/C-800 -biapigenin, palmi-
P. thunbergii Parl., P. massoniana Lamb., tic acid, nonacosane, luteolin, tricetin,
and P. tabulaeformis Carr.) and has been in kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside, and kaemp-
traditional Chinese medical records since ferol-3-O-b-D-gluco-7-O-b-D-glucoside in
the 7th century when it was first described buckwheat pollen.7
in the Tang Ben Cao.
Commercial bee pollen is collected by
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
means of netlike pollen traps, set up next to
ACTIVITIES
the beehives that remove some of the pollen
from the hind legs of worker bees as they
Numerous activity studies have been per-
return to their hives. The collected pollen is
formed on bee pollen. However, results of
manually rid of impurities (dirt, floral parts,
these are extremely difficult to evaluate or
insect fragments, etc.) and dried. Major bee
duplicate due to the highly variable nature of
pollen-producing countries include China
this food/drug. The following are some of the
and Spain. Bee pollen from China is mostly
activities of pollen and its extracts: hypolipe-
derived from buckwheat (Fagopyrum escu-
mic in humans and experimental animals (pu-
lentum Moench) and rape (Brassica campes-
huang and pollen mixture);8,9 antiathero-
tris L).
sclerotic in experimental animals (puhuang
To collect typha and pine pollen, the
and pollen mixture);10,11 protecting liver from
male inflorescence or flower head is
experimental injury (rape pollen and pollen
picked in spring or summer when the flow-
mixture);12,13 inhibiting prostatic hypertrophy
ers just start to bloom. It is sun dried; the
in aged dogs (rape pollen and pollen mix-
pollen is then mechanically separated from
ture);14–16 immunoregulating and antioxidant
the floral parts and other impurities. Major
(rape pollen and puhuang);11,17,18 antiulcer in
producers are northeastern provinces of
humans and experimental animals (puhuang
China.
and rape pollen;19,20 antifatigue in mice
(maize pollen);21 laxative in humans (maize
pollen and unspecified product);22,23 anti-in-
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
flammatory (puhuang); and uterine stimulant
(puhuang) effects, among others (WANG; ZHOU
Pollen is very rich in nutrients. However, its 24
AND WANG).
chemistry varies greatly depending on its
botanical source and contains: 3–16% water;
5.9–28.3% crude protein: 14.6–21.9% amino TOXICOLOGY
acids, with some in free form; 1–20% lipids;
up to 44% carbohydrates; 4–10% simple su- Although rare, bee pollen can cause allergic
gars; 2–2.5% flavonoids; vitamins (A, B1, B2, reactions,25,26 including anaphylactic reac-
C, D2, E, K1, K3, folic acid, nicotinic acid, tions.27 As it is a uterine stimulant, pregnant
etc.); 19–24 trace elements; sterols; and women are advised not to use it (puhuang)
others.1–5 (CHP).
Bee pollen 83
Traditional Medicine. Used for centuries by Bee pollen comes in powdered or granular
different cultures as a nutrient. form, usually with color ranging from yellow
In China, typha pollen (puhuang) was first to orange, depending on sources. Typha pollen
described 2000 years ago as sweet tasting, comes in two types, one mixed with anthers
neutral, and having diuretic, hemostatic and and filaments, while the other is pure pollen.
stasis-dispersing properties. It has since been Extracts (water, hydroalcoholic, and lipoid)
used to treat bleeding of different kinds (nose- are also available.
bleed, vomiting blood, coughing blood,
metrorrhagia, bloody diarrhea, traumatic in- Regulatory Status. U.S. regulatory status not
juries, etc.), amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, ab- determined. Subject of a German therapeutic
dominal pain, painful urination, mouth sores, monograph; allowed as an appetite stimulant
constipation, and externally, eczema. (BLUMENTHAL 1).
REFERENCES
See General References for BLUMENTHAL 1; CHP; JIANGSU; LU AND LI; NATIONAL; TYLER 1; WANG; ZHOU
AND WANG; ZHU.
1. C. Y. Guo et al., Jilin Zhongyiyao, (4), 35 8. B. Z. Zhang et al., Chin. J. Integr. Med., 5,
(1990). 141 (1985).
2. L. Z. Mao et al., Yingyang Xuebao, 12(1), 9. P. G. Xiao and K. J. Chen, Phytother. Res.,
121 (1990). 1(2), 53 (1987).
3. S. S. Jia and S. M. Yang, Zhongcaoyao, 10. J. Wojcicki et al., Atherosclerosis, 62(1),
19(1), 47 (1988). 39 (1986).
4. V. E. Tyler, The New Honest Herbal, 11. Y. L. Yin et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao
George F. Stickley Co., Philadelphia, Zazhi, 17, 374 (1992).
PA, 1987, p. 184. 12. J. Wojcicki et al., Acta Pharma-
5. T, Seppanen et al., Phytother. Res., 3(3), col. Toxicol. Suppl., 59(7), 233
115 (1989). (1986).
6. L. F. Chen et al., Zhongguo Yaoli Xuebao, 13. M. S. Wang et al., Zhongcaoyao, 18(5), 25
8(2), 123 (1987). (1987).
7. J. X. Wei et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao 14. B. C. Qian et al., Zhonghua Laonian Yixue
Zazhi, 15(5), 37 (1990). Zazhi, 6, 177 (1987).
84 Beeswax
Although beeswax is generally regarded as Yellow beeswax, white beeswax, and bees-
inert and nontoxic, allergic reactions have wax absolute; first two are official in F.C.C.
been reported (MARTINDALE).14–16 and N.F.
Ethoxylated derivatives of beeswax known
as PEG (polyethylene glycol)-6 and PEG-20 Regulatory Status. GRAS for use as adju-
Sorbitan Beeswax are currently considered vants for pesticide chemicals (§582.1972,
safe for use in cosmetics.17 §582.1975).
86 Beet color, red
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; FEMA; JIANGSU; REMINGTON; SAX; YOUNGKEN.
1. E. S. McLoud in A. Standen, ed., 11. R. Menendez et al., J. Med. Food, 4, 71
Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemi- (2001).
cal Technology, Vol. 22, 2nd ed., 12. R. Menendez et al., Arch. Med. Res., 32,
Wiley–Interscience, New York, 1970, 436 (2001).
p. 156.
13. K. Ramanarayan et al., Phytochemistry,
2. J. J. Jimenez et al., J. Chromatogr. A, 55, 59 (2000).
1007, 101 (2003).
14. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
3. R. Aichholz et al., J. Chromatogr. A, 855, 14(Suppl.), 691 (1976).
601 (1999).
15. M. Garcia et al., Contact Dermatitis, 33,
4. M. S. Blum et al., Comp. Biochem. 440 (1995).
Physiol. B, 91, 581 (1988).
16. V. Junghans et al., Am. J. Contact
5. A. P. Tulloch, Lipids, 5, 247 (1970). Dermat., 13, 87 (2002).
6. C. E. M. Ferber and H. E. Nursten, J. Sci. 17. R. S. Lanigan et al., Int. J. Toxicol., 20
Food Agric., 28, 511 (1977). (Suppl. 4), 27 (2001).
7. V. Molina et al., J. Med. Food, 5, 79 18. S. L. Pulco, Cosmet. Toilet., 102(6), 57
(2001). (1987).
8. D. Carbajal et al., Prostaglandins Leukot. 19. Anon., J. Am. Coll. Toxicol., 3(3), 1
Essent. Fatty Acids, 59, 235 (1998). (1984).
9. D. Carbajal et al., Pharmacol. Res., 42, 20. Z. X. Huang et al., Huaxue Shiji, 9, 299
329 (2000). (1987).
10. M. Noa et al., Drugs Exp. Clin. Res., 26, 21. C. Devakumar et al., Indian J. Agric. Sci.,
13 (2000). 56, 744 (1986).
Source: Beta vulgaris L. (Family The coloring principles present in red beet
Chenopodiaceae). juice are known as betalains (quaternary am-
monium amino acids). They consist mostly of
betacyanins (red), with a small amount of
GENERAL DESCRIPTION betaxanthins (yellow). Betanin and to a lesser
extent isobetanin account for most of the
betacyanins present, while vulgaxantin-I and
Red beet color is the coloring material vulgaxanthin-II are the major betaxanthins.
derived from the red beet root, Beta vul- Betanin is a glucoside of betanidin, and iso-
garis L. Beta vulgaris has several varieties betanin is its C15 epimer. There is evidence
with roots ranging in size from small to that betanin occurs in red beet root as a sulfate
thick and in color from whitish or yellowish linked through the sugar moiety at the 3- or 6-
(sugar beets) to deep blood-red (certain position.3,4 Cyclodopa glucoside has recently
garden beets).1,2 been found in red beet juice, strengthening its
Beet color, red 87
REFERENCES
10. G. Muschiolik and H. Schmandke, 15. M. Ishidate Jr. et al., Food Chem.
Nahrung, 22, 637 (1978). Toxicol., 22, 623 (1984).
11. J. P. Adams et al., J. Food Sci., 41, 78 16. K. Kawana et al., Kanagawa-ken Eisei
(1976). Kenkyusho Kenkyu Hokoku, 13, 27
12. J. Von Elbe and C. H. Ammundson, Ger. (1983).
Offen. 2,545,975 (1976). 17. J. H. Von Elbe and S. J. Schwartz, Arch.
13. J. Kanner et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 49, Toxicol., 49, 93 (1981).
5178 (2001). 18. S. J. Schwartz et al., Food Chem. Toxicol.,
14. L. Tesoriere et al., Free Radic. Res., 37, 21, 531 (1983).
689 (2003).
REFERENCES
See the General References for APhA; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; CLAUS; GOODMAN AND GILMAN; GRIEVE;
GUPTA; JIANGSU; JIXIAN; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NANJING; USD 26th.
1. T. Hartmann et al., Planta Med., 52, 390 6. D. Bousta et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 74,
(1986). 205 (2001).
2. F. Oprach et al., Planta Med., 52, 513 7. R. Jaspersen-Schib et al., Schweiz. Med.
(1986). Wochenschr., 126, 1085 (1996).
3. J. D. Phillipson and S. S. Handa, 8. K. Jellema et al., Ned. Tijdschr.
Phytochemistry, 14, 999 (1975). Geneeskd., 146, 2173 (2002).
4. G. Clair et al., C.R. Hebd. Seances Acad. 9. H. J. Southgate et al., J. R. Soc. Health,
Sci. Ser. D., 282, 53 (1976). 120, 127 (2000).
5. S. A. Shvests et al., Exp. Med. Biol., 404, 10. Anon., Am. J. Chin. Med., 3, 91
475 (1996). (1975).
90 Benzoin
while Siam benzoin is used in flavors and Food. Classified as a natural flavor; used in
fragrances. Benzoin is also used in incense most categories of foods, including alcoholic
(EVANS) and aromatherapy oils.11 and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy
desserts, candy (e.g., chocolate glaze), baked
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. goods, and gelatins and puddings. Use levels
Mainly used in friar’s balsam; also as an usually quite low, with highest average maxi-
antiseptic, astringent, and expectorant; in mum level of 0.014% reported in candy and
vaporizer fluids for inhalation to relieve respi- baked goods.
ratory discomforts; in Compound Benzoin
Tincture, which is widely used as a skin
protectant or topical adhesive agent; and as COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
an antiseptic and styptic on small cuts. Tinc-
ture also used in dentistry to treat inflamma- Crude benzoin, benzoin tincture, fluid extract,
tion of gums and oral herpetic lesions. and resinoid are all readily available. Benzoin
Benzoin, especially Siam benzoin, has anti- is currently official in U.S.P.
oxidative and preservative properties and is
used in cosmetics for these properties. The Regulatory Status. Resin approved for food
resinoid is extensively used as a fixative in use as a natural flavoring substance
perfumes, soaps, detergents, creams, and lo- (§172.510).
tions, in amounts up to 0.8% in perfumes
(ARCTANDER).5,12
REFERENCES
See the General References for ADA; ARCTANDER; CLAUS; EVANS; FEMA; GUENTHER; MARTINDALE; TYLER 3;
YOUNGKEN.
1. A. Nitta et al., Yakugaku Zasshi, 104, 592 7. L. Scardamalgia et al., Australas. J.
(1984). Dermatol., 44, 180 (2003).
2. I. Pastorova et al., Phytochem. Anal., 8, 63 8. C. B. Lesesne, J. Dermatol. Surg. Oncol.,
(1997). 18, 990 (1992).
3. X. Fernandez et al., Flav. Fragr. J., 18, 9. D. C. S. Gough and N. Lawton, Br. J.
328 (2003). Urol., 65, 418 (1990).
4. R. L. Bronaugh et al., Food Chem. 10. R. C. Tripathi et al., Lens Eye Toxic Res.,
Toxicol., 28, 369 (1990). 7, 173 (1990).
5. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 11. C. Anderson et al., Phytother. Res., 14,
11, 871 (1973). 452 (2000).
6. W. D. James et al., J. Am. Acad. 12. D. O. Gyane, Drug Cosmet. Ind., 118, 36
Dermatol., 11, 847 (1984). (1976).
Source: Citrus bergamia Risso & Poit. (syn. Brownish-yellow or greenish oil with an aro-
C. aurantium L. subsp. bergamia Wright & matic bitter flavor and fragrant odor; obtained
Arn. ex Engl.) (Family Rutaceae). from the peel of the fresh, nearly ripe fruit of
92 Bergamot oil
Citrus bergamia, a small tree native to tropical has caused photosensitivity reactions owing to
Asia, now extensively cultivated in the Calab- the presence of certain furocoumarins (partic-
rian coast in southern Italy. Bergamot oil is ularly bergapten and xanthotoxin, also known
obtained by cold expression of the peel; it is as 5-methoxypsoralen and 8-methoxypsora-
also known as expressed bergamot oil from len, respectively) in the expressed oil. Due to
which rectified or terpeneless bergamot oil is the photosensitizing activity of these consti-
produced by vacuum distillation or by selec- tuents, the use of bergamot oil in cosmetics has
tive solvent extraction, or by chromatography caused hyperpigmentation of the face and
(ARCTANDER). neck.5,6,10 When used with long-wave ultravi-
olet light, however, the same furonocoumarins
have been effectively used in the treatment of
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION psoriasis, vitiligo, and mycosis fungoides.14
Recent cases of phototoxic reactions to the oil
Approximately 300 compounds have been have been reported from its use in aromather-
identified in the expressed oil, including apy11 and from traditional medical colognes
30–60% linalyl acetate, 11–22% linalool known as “Florida Water” and “Kananga.”12
and other alcohols; sesquiterpenes (a-trans-
bergamotene, caryophyllene, b-farnesene, hu-
mulene, b-bisabolene), terpenes (limonene, USES
p-cymene, g-terpinene, phellandrene, a- and
b-pinene), C20 to C33 n-alkanes, and furocou- Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
marins (bergaptene, bergamottin, citroptene, Formerly used extensively used in high-
7-methoxy-5-geranoxycoumarin, bergaptol, quality perfumes (especially eau de cologne),
isopimpinellin, and xanthotoxin, and bergap- aromatherapy oils, creams, lotions, suntan-
ten at 0.30–0.39%).1–6 ning preparations to stimulate melanin pro-
The distilled oil contains a small concen- duction,10 and in soaps, with use levels up to
tration of coumarins compared to the cold 0.25% in creams and lotions and 3% in per-
pressed oil.7 Rectified (terpeneless) oil con- fumes (EVANS; MARTINDALE).6
tains a lower concentration of terpene
components than the expressed oil and no Food. Allowed for use in foods provided
coumarins (ARCTANDER).8 coumarins (e.g., bergapten) are removed;13
once widely used as an ingredient in flavor
formulations with fruity citrus notes in most
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL major food categories, including alcoholic
ACTIVITIES and nonalcoholic beverages, Earl Grey tea,
frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked goods,
5-Methoxypsoralen (5-MOP) appears in gelatins and puddings, and meat and meat
blood serum following topical application of products. Highest average maximum use level
bergamot essential oil to human skin9 and has was 0.02% in gelatins and puddings.
shown mutagenic effects on mammalian cells
in vitro.10
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
REFERENCES
See the General References for FEMA; GUENTHER; MASADA; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2.
1. M. Mammi de Leo, Essenze Deriv. 8. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
Agrum., 46, 181 (1976). 11, 1035 (1973).
2. G. Calabro and P. Curro, Ann. Fac. Econ. 9. L. H. Wang and M. Tso, J. Pharm.
Commer., Univ. Studi Messina, 10, 67 Biomed. Anal., 30, 593 (2002).
(1972). 10. M. J. Ashwood-Smith et al., Nature, 285,
3. A. Liberti and G. Goretti, Atti Conv. Naz. 407 (1980).
Olii Essenz. Sui Deriv. Agrum., 1–2, 69 11. S. Kaddu et al., J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.,
(1974). 45, 458 (2001).
4. U. R. Cieri, J. Assoc. Offic. Anal. Chem., 12. L. Wang et al., Cutis, 70, 29 (2002).
52, 719 (1969).
13. B. B. Mandula et al., Science, 193, 1131
5. S. T. Zaynoun et al., Br. J. Dermatol., 96, (1976).
475 (1977).
14. T. Lakshmipathi et al., Br. J. Dermatol.,
6. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 96, 587 (1977).
11, 1031 (1973).
7. F. Buiarelli et al., Ann. Chim., 92, 363
(2002).
REFERENCES
See the General References for AHPA; APPLEQUIST; BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 1 & 2; DER MARDEROSIAN AND
BEUTLER; DER MARDEROSIAN AND LIBERTI; HORTUS 3rd; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; STEINMETZ; TUTIN 2; UPHOF; WEISS;
WREN.
1. R. B. van Breemen et al., J. Agric. Food 11. R. N. Zozulya et al., Rast. Resur., 11, 87
Chem., 51, 5867 (2003). (1975).
2. P. Dugo et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 49, 12. A. Lietti et al., Arzneim.-Forsch., 26, 829
3987 (2001). (1976).
3. P. Slosse and C. Hootele, Tetrahedron 13. A. Lietti and G. Forni, Arzneim.-Forsch.,
Lett., 34, 397 (1978). 26, 832 (1976).
4. P. Slosse and C. Hootele, Tetrahedron 14. A. M. Robert et al., J. Med., 8, 321 (1977).
Lett., 37, 4287 (1981). 15. V. Bettini et al., Fitoterapia, 55, 265
5. M. Azar et al., J. Food Sci., 52, 1255 (1987). (1984).
6. H. Friedrich and J. Sch€oert, Planta Med., 16. V. Bettini et al., Fitoterapia, 56, 3 (1985).
24, 90 (1973). 17. P. Morazzoni and M. J. Magistretti,
7. Y. Levy and Y. Glovinsky, Eye, 12, 967 Fitoterapia, 57, 11 (1986).
(1998). 18. A. Cignarella et al., Thromb. Res., 84, 311
8. E. R. Muth et al., Altern. Med. Rev., 5, 164 (1996).
(2000). 19. S. Mills and K. Bone, Principles and
9. M. Marcollet et al., C. R. Soc. Biol., 163, 8 Practice of Phytotherapy, Chruchill
(1969). Livingstone, Edinburgh, 2000, p. 301.
10. C. Cluzel et al., C. R. Soc. Biol., 163, 147 20. G. Pulleirio et al., Fitoterapia, 60, 69
(1969). (1989).
REFERENCE
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; FEMA; FOSTER AND DUKE;
GUENTHER; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; UPHOF; USD 26th.
1. G. A. Nowak, Am. Perfum. Cosmet., 81, 37
(1966).
Source: Rubus fructicosus L. (Family A spiny shrub with an edible black berry;
Rosaceae). extensively hybridized; native to temperate
Europe and adjacent countries. Part used is
Common/vernacular names: Blackberry, the dried bark of the rhizome and roots col-
bramble. lected in the spring and fall.
Black cohosh 97
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Black- Regulatory Status. Approved for food use as
berry bark in capsules, tablets, teas, and other a natural flavoring substance (§172.510).
REFERENCE
See the General References for BAILEY 2; FEMA; FERNALD; FOSTER AND DUKE; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL;
MERCK; YOUNGKEN.
1. H. Jouad et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 81,
351 (2002).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY1; BARNES ET AL.; BLUMENTHAL 1 & 2; BRADLY; DER MARDEROSIAN
AND BEUTLER; FOGARTY; FOSTER; FOSTER AND DUKE; JIANGSU; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; GRIEVE; MCKENNA;
MERCK; UPHOF; WREN; YOUNGKEN.
1. S. Chen et al., J. Nat. Prod., 65, 601 11. E. M. D€uker et al., Planta Med., 57, 420
(2002). (1991).
2. K. He et al., Planta Med., 66, 635 (2000). 12. L. S. Einbond et al., Breast Cancer Res.
3. E. Bedir and L. A. Khan, Chem. Pharm. Treat., 83, 221 (2004).
Bull., 48, 425 (2000). 13. K. Woo et al., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.,
4. K. Wende et al., J. Nat. Prod., 64, 986 309, 641 (2004).
(2001). 14. H. Winterhoff et al., Maturitas, 44(Suppl.
5. A. Panossian et al., Phytochem. Anal., 15, 1), S51 (2003).
100 (2004). 15. W. Wuttke et al., Maturitas, 44(Suppl. 1),
6. S. O. Kruse, Planta Med., 65, 763 (1999). S67 (2003).
7. H. Jarry et al., Planta Med., 51, 316 16. T. Low Dog et al., Menopause, 10, 299
(1985). (2003).
8. J. E. Burdette et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 17. J. Freudenstein et al., Cancer Res., 62,
51, 5661 (2003). 3448 (2002).
9. H. Jarry et al., Maturitas, 44(Suppl. 1), 18. T. Nilein and J. Freudenstein, Toxicol.
S31 (2003). Lett., 150, 271 (2004).
10. D. Seidlova-Wuttke et al., Maturitas,
44(Suppl. 1), S39 (2003).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; FEMA; FOSTER AND DUKE; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; MCGUFFIN
1 & 2; uphof; APPLEQUIST; WICHTL; WREN; YOUNGKEN.
1. C. H. Jarboe et al., J. Med. Chem., 10, 488 5. L. Tomassini et al., Phytochemistry, 44,
(1967). 751 (1997).
2. R. Upton, ed., Cramp bark (Viburnum 6. C. H. Jarboe et al., J. Org. Chem., 34, 4202
prunifolium), American Herbal Pharma- (1969).
copeia, Santa Cruz, CA, 2000. 7. C. H. Jarboe et al., Nature, 212, 837 (1966).
3. R. Upton, ed., Cramp bark (Viburnum 8. G. Balansard et al., Plantes Med.
opulus), American Herbal Pharmacopeia, Phytother., 17, 123 (1983).
Santa Cruz, CA, 2000.
4. L. Tomassini et al., Planta Med., 65, 195
(1999).
Source: Cnicus benedictus L. (Family Com- Thistle-like, highly branched, reddish annual
positae or Asteraceae). up to 60 cm in height; leaves are long and
narrow with prominent white veins beneath;
Common/vernacular names: Carbenia bene- flowers pale yellow in prickly green heads;
dicta, carduus benedictus, cnicus, Holy whole plant covered in thin down; indigenous
thistle. to waste lands and fields of the Near East
Blessed thistle 101
REFERENCES
See the General References for AHPA; BISSET; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; DUKE 2; GLEASON AND CRONQUIST;
HARBOURNE AND BAXTER; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NIKITAKIS; STEINMETZ; TUTIN 4; TYLER 1; UPHOF; WREN.
1. A. Ulubelen and T. Berkan, Planta Med., 2. M. Vanhaelen and R. Vanhaelen-Fastre,
31, 375 (1977). Phytochemistry, 14, 2709 (1975).
102 Bloodroot
Both the rhizome and root contain benzo[c] Sanguinarine and dehydrosanguinarine were
phenanthridine alkaloids (approximately implicated in the pathogenesis of glaucoma
4–7% and 1.8%, respectively).1 The major in epidemic dropsy in India in the years
alkaloid of the rhizome is sanguinarine, fol- 1880–1930 when it was found as a constituent
lowed in order of concentration by chelerythr- (approximately 0.5%) of Mexican prickly-
ine, sanguilutine, chelilutine, chelirubine, and poppy seed oil (Argemone mexicana L.).1,21
sanguirubine.2 Other alkaloids identified in Although the contribution of sanguinarine was
the plant include protopine, oxysanguinarine, later disputed,22 further studies found the
a- and b-allocryptopine, dihydrosanguilutine, alkaloid inhibited Na þ /K þ -ATPase activity
berberine, coptisine, and homochelidonine. of the heart, which suggested that it could be
Also contains a reddish resin and citric and responsible for degenerative changes seen in
malic acids.3–5 cardiac heart muscle of rats fed Mexican
Bloodroot 103
prickly-poppy seed oil and consequently for nose following surgical treatment25 and in
cardiac failure and tachycardia in epidemic cough remedies, almost always in combination
dropsy patients. Other studies have shown that with other herbal ingredients (e.g., spikenard
the alkaloid interferes with pyruvic acid oxi- root, balm of Gilead bud, white pine, and wild
dation that leads to pyruvic acid accumulation cherry barks, as in Compound White Pine Syrup
in the blood.21 Long-term studies in rats ad- and other formulations). Also used in cosmetics
ministered the alkaloid orally failed to show for its alleged healing properties. Sanguinarine
teratogenic effects.1 Oral administration of a has also been used as an antiplaque agent in
sanguinaria extract containing approximately toothpaste and mouthwash preparations.
68% total benzo[c]phenanthridine alkaloids
and approximately 33% sanguinarine chloride Traditional Medicine. Used by various east-
to rabbits and rats failed to show any effects on ern North American Indians for face painting;
fetal and neonatal development, fertility, or by Canadian Indians in Quebec as a tonic; root
reproduction at doses below 60 mg/kg/day chewed to treat heart troubles. Used by Amer-
and 25 mg/kg/day, respectively. The acute oral ican Indians as a blood purifier and to treat
LD50 of sanguinarine and extracts of the burns, cuts, sores, ulcers, debility, pain, he-
rhizome in rats ranges between 1250 and morrhages, fevers, asthma, coughs, colds, sore
1658 mg/kg.23 A recent study of oral leukopla- throat, tuberculosis, gonorrhea, rheumatism,
kia in 10 patients who had used a rinse and/or stomach cramps, and other health problems
dentifrice containing sanguinaria for 6 months (MOERMAN).
called for avoiding such preparations until the
risk of malignancy could be determined.24 Regulatory Status. Classified by the U.S.
FDA as being unsafe for use in drugs, foods,
or beverages (WICHTL).E Crude and fluid ex-
USES tracts were formerly official in N.F. and U.S.P.
Strengths (see glossary) of extracts are ex-
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. pressed in weight-to-weight ratios between
Formerly used in treating carcinoma of the crude and extracts.
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BARNES; CLAUS; DE NAVARRE; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER;
DER MARDEROSIAN AND LIBERTI; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; MARTINDALE; MERCK; YOUNGKEN.
1. P. Kosina et al., Food Chem. Toxicol., 42, 7. I. S. Shenolikar et al., Food Cosmet.
85 (2004). Toxicol., 12, 699 (1974).
2. K. C. Godowski, J. Clin. Dent., 1, 96 8. M. M. Chaturvedi et al., J. Biol. Chem.,
(1989). 272, 30129 (1997).
3. F. Santavy in R. H. F. Manske, ed., The 9. M. Tin-Wa et al., Lloydia, 33, 267
Alkaloids, Vol. 12, Academic Press, (1970).
New York, 1970, p. 333. 10. N. Ahmad et al., Clin. Cancer Res., 6,
4. M. Tin-Wa et al., J. Pharm. Sci., 61, 1846 1524 (2000).
(1972). 11. H. Matsuda, Planta Med., 54, 498
5. D. K. Kim and F. R Stermitz, (1988).
Phytochemistry, 14, 834 (1975). 12. R. T. Boulware et al., J. Soc. Cosmet.
6. V. Preininger in R. H. F. Manske, ed., Chem., 36, 297 (1985).
The Alkaloids, Vol. 15, Academic Press, 13. H. Tenebaum et al., J. Periodontol., 70,
New York, 1975, p. 207. 307 (1999).
104 Blue cohosh
(8–850 ppm),13 very little taspine was found used primarily for menstrual difficulties
in the dried rhizome (0.00013%).3 Reduced (amenorrhea and dysmenorrhea) (FOSTER).
coronary flow was observed in rat heart pre-
parations infused with N-methylcytisine and a Traditional Medicine. A decoction or syrup
vasoconstrictive effect was found in hog and of the root was used by American Indians as a
cattle carotid artery preparations exposed to sedative to treat “hysterics” and “fits.” Often
the compound.14 in the form of a decoction, the root was also
Case reports of adverse effects attributed to used to treat rheumatism, fevers, stomach
blue cohosh include contact dermatitis from cramps (alone or in conjunction with painful
handling the root;12 severe congestive heart menstruation), genitourinary problems in
failure in a neonate after the mother ingested 3 men, profuse menstruation, to aid childbirth,
times the recommended dose of blue cohosh and in treatments of lung problems, including
tablets for several weeks prior to parturition;15 hemorrhages (MOERMAN).
poisoning in children from ingestion of the
seeds.12
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
USES
Available as crude and extracts; crude was
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. formerly official in N.F. (1916–1942); U.S.P
Used in diuretic, uterine, antispasmodic, (1880–1890). Strengths (see glossary) of ex-
and emmenagogue as well as laxative tracts are expressed as weight-to-weight ratios
preparations. between crude and extract.
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BARNES; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FOSTER; GRIEVE;
KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; YOUNGKEN.
1. J. W. Jhoo et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 49, 9. M. M. Anisimov, Antibiotiki (Moscow),
5969 (2001). 17, 834 (1972).
2. M. Ganzera et al., Phytochem. Anal., 10. L. I. Strigina et al., Khim. Prir. Soedin., 5,
14, 1 (2003). 619 (1976).
3. E. J. Kennelly et al., J. Nat. Prod., 62, 11. P. S. Benoit et al., Lloydia, 39, 160
1385 (1999). (1976).
4. M. S. Flom et al., J. Pharm. Sci., 56, 1515 12. P. A. G. M. De Smet in P. A. G. M. De
(1967). Smet, et al., eds., Adverse Effects of
5. M. S. Flom, Diss. Abstr. Int. B, 32, 2312 Herbal Drugs, Vol. 2, Springer-Verlag,
(1971). Berlin, Germany, 1993, p. 153.
6. C. T. Che, Diss. Abstr. Int. B, 43, 1049 13. J. Betz et al., Phytochem. Anal., 9, 232
(1982). (1998).
7. L. I. Strigina et al., Khim. Prir. Soedin., 6, 14. H. C. Ferguson and L. D. Edwards, J. Am.
552 (1970). Pharm. Assoc., 43, 16 (1954).
8. L. I. Strigina et al., Phytochemistry, 14, 15. T. K. Jones and B. M. Lawson, J. Pediatr.,
1583 (1975). 132, 550 (1998).
106 Bois de rose oil
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; FEMA; GUENTHER; LIST AND HO€ RHAMMER; MA; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
UPHOF.
1. A. Alpande de Morais et al., Acta Amazon., 5. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
2, 41 (1972). 11, 1039 (1973).
2. A. Alpande de Morais et a1., An. Acad. 6. F. Homburger and E. Boger, Cancer Res.,
Bras. Cienc., 44(Suppl.) 303 (1972). 28, 2372 (1968).
3. G. Chiurdoglu et al., Ind. Chim. Belge., 28, 7. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
636 (1963). 13, 827 (1975).
4. I. C. Nigam and L. Levi, Perfum. Essent.
Oil Rec., 54, 814 (1963).
Boldo leaves 107
the use of the essential or distillates of the tional uses of boldo include nervous weak-
leaves because of the content of ascaridole, a ness, headache, nasal congestion, menstrual
toxic, antihilminthic principle (BLUMENTHAL 1; pain, earache, gonorrhea, syphilis, flatulence,
WICHTL). and dyspepsia.1
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
USES
Crude and extracts. Crude and fluid extract
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
were formerly official in N.F. Strengths (see
In tonic and diuretic preparations; in Europe
glossary) of extracts are expressed in weight-
for gastrointestinal spasms (BLUMENTHAL 1);
to-weight ratios.
rarely, if at all, used in cosmetics.
Regulatory Status. Regulated in the United
Food. Only used in alcoholic beverages (li- States as a dietary supplement; leaves per-
queurs, bitters, etc.). Average maximum use mitted for use as a natural flavoring substance
level reported is about 0.002% (16 ppm). in alcoholic beverages only (§172.510). Leaf
preparations that are practically free of the
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Leaves toxic principle ascaridole are the subject of a
used in combination products, capsules, ta- German therapeutic monograph that allows
blets, and infusions as antioxidant (WREN) and use for mild gastrointestinal spasms and dys-
for liver and gallbladder (WICHTL). peptic disorders. It advises against any use in
cases of biliary obstruction and severe liver
Traditional Medicine. Reportedly used as a diseases, and in cases of gallstones without
diuretic and biliary stimulant in hepatic ill- the advice of a physician (BLUMENTHAL 1;
nesses and cholelithiasis (gallstones) (MARTIN- WICHTL).
DALE); used by the Mapuche Indians of Chile
in the treatment of rheumatism. Other tradi-
REFERENCES
See the General References for BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1; DER MARDEROSIAN AND
BEUTLER; FEMA; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; MARTINDALE; RAFFAUF; TERRELL; WILLAMAN AND SCHUBERT; WREN;
YOUNGKEN.
1. H. Speisky and B. K. Cassels, Pharmacol. 7. E. Bombardelli et al., Fitoterapia, 47, 3
Res., 29, 1 (1994). (1976).
2. M. Sobiczewska and B. Borkowski, Acta 8. M. C. Levy-Appert-Collin and J. Levy, J.
Pol. Pharm., 29, 271 (1972). Pharm. Belg., 32, 13 (1977).
3. M. Vanhaelen, J. Pharm. Belg., 28, 291 9. N. Backhouse et al., Agents Actions, 42,
(1973). 114 (1994).
4. N. Didry, Bull. Soc. Pharm. Lille, 31, 51 10. Y. Y. Jang et al., Pharmacol. Res., 42, 361
(1977). (2000).
5. H. Schindler, Arzneim.-Forsch., 7, 747 11. T. Hirosue et al., Nippon Shokuhin Kohyo
(1957). Gakkaishi, 35, 630 (1988).
6. K. Bruns and M. K€ohler, Parf€um. 12. I. Jimenez et al., Phytother. Res., 14, 339
Kosmet., 55(8), 225 (1974). (2000).
Boneset 109
13. G. Schmeda-Hirschmann et al., Free 16. P. R. Moreno et al., Mutat. Res., 260, 145
Radic. Res., 37, 447 (2003). (1991).
14. R. Kubinova et al., Pharmazie, 56, 242 17. D. C. Tavares and C. S. Takahashi, Mutat.
(2001). Res., 321, 139 (1994).
15. M. Gotteland et al., Rev. Med. Chil., 123, 18. E. R. de Almeida et al., Phytother. Res.,
955 (1995). 14, 99 (2000).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BARNES; CLAUS; DE NAVARRE; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FERNALD;
FOSTER AND DUKE; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; LIST AND HO € RHAMMER; LUST; MCGUFFIN
1 & 2; TYLER 1; YOUNGKEN.
1. H. Wagner et al., Phytochemistry, 11, 9. H. Wagner et al., Arzneim.-Forsch., 35,
1504 (1972). 1069 (1985).
2. F. Bohlmann and M. Grenz, Chem. Ber., 10. A. Vollmar et al., Phytochemistry, 25, 377
110, 1321 (1977). (1986).
3. W. Herz et al., J. Org. Chem., 42, 2264 11. S. Habtemariam and M. Macpherson,
(1977). Phytother. Res., 14, 575 (2000).
4. F. Bohlmann et al., Phytochemistry, 16, 12. E. Rodriguez et al., Phytochemistry, 15,
1973 (1977). 1573 (1976).
5. X. A. Dominguez et al., Phytochemistry, 13. P. S. Benoit et al., Lloydia, 39, 160 (1976).
13, 673 (1974). 14. H. Wagner et al., Planta Med., 51, 139
6. M. D. Midge and A. V. R. Rao, Indian J. (1985).
Chem., 13, 541 (1975). 15. R. A Locock, Can. Pharm. J., 123, 229
7. K. H. Lee et al., Phytochemistry, 16, 1068 (1990).
(1977). 16. J. M. Sund et al., Agron. J., 49, 278 (1957).
8. E. O. Arene et al., Lloydia, 41, 186 (1978).
ornamental or potherb; naturalized in central, (see evening primrose), various Ribes spe-
eastern, and western Europe; established as a cies, and borage serve as GLA sources for
casual weed in the eastern United States. The dietary supplements, borage seed oil having
parts used are the nutlets (seeds), leaves, and the highest concentration.4 GLA is of poten-
flowers. tial therapeutic interest in treatments of atopic
eczema, premenstrual syndrome, diabetes, al-
coholism, inflammation, and prevention of
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
heart disease and stroke.8
A methanol extract of the leaves exhibited
Seeds, leaves, and flowers contain pyrrolizi-
antioxidant activity using the DPPH free rad-
dine alkaloids (PA);1 total alkaloid content
ical method. The major antioxidant was iden-
of the plant is less than 0.001%;2 mature seeds
tified as rosmarinic acid.9 Solvent extracts of
contain about 0.03% crude alkaloids.3 Leaves
the defatted seeds have shown in vitro antiox-
contain small amounts, including lycopsa-
idant activity in a meat model system10 and the
mine, intermedine, their acetyl derivatives,
DPPH free radical method.11
supinine, supinidine, and amabiline; also cho-
A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of
line (WREN); 9.1% fatty acids, including
borage seed oil (providing 1.4 g GLA/day)
a-linolenic acid (55%) and g-linolenic acid
in patients with active synovitis and rheuma-
(>4%); silicic acid (1.5%–2.2%); potassium,
toid arthritis found significant symptomatic
calcium, potassium nitrate (3%), acetic, lactic,
improvements in both tender and swollen
and malic acids; d-bornesitol, cyanogens;
joints.12 Compared to placebo, borage seed
fresh leaves contain up to 30% mucilage
oil also significantly attenuated heart and
hydrolyzing to glucose, galactose, arabinose,
blood pressure rates, decreased task perfor-
and allantoin (especially in seedlings). Seed
mance and the increase in skin temperature in
oil (28–38% lipids) is of recent interest as
humans in response to acute stress.13
a rich source of g-linolenic acid (GLA;
17–25%).2 Other seed fatty acids include li-
noleic (38%), oleic (14.5–23%), palmitic
TOXICOLOGY
(11%), and stearic (4.7%).3,4 Immature seeds
and flowers contain amabiline and the rare
The dried herb, tincture, and decoction fed to
nontoxic, saturated PA, thesinine;3 in mature
guinea pigs for 5 weeks produced no adverse
seeds contain a glucoside of thesinine (thesi-
effects except for fatty liver. The seed oil
nine-40 -O-b-D-glucoside5); thesinine and tox-
administered orally to mice (0.1 mL) was also
ic PA are absent from seed oil;6,7 roots contain
without toxic effects and only produced a mild
minor amounts of PA (supinine, intermedine,
laxative effect.6 Toxic PA in borage are ly-
lycopsamine, amabiline, 7-acetyllycopsa-
copsamine and intermedicine and their 7-ace-
mine, and 7-acetylintermedine).7
tyl derivatives and the only slightly toxic
alkaloid amabiline.2
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
ACTIVITIES
USES
Seed oil of interest for GLA content as a
prostaglandin precursor, especially for PGE1; Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
prostaglandins help regulate metabolic func- Borage extract used in skin care products
tions. Normal synthesis of GLA from linoleic (NIKITAKIS).
acid via d-6-desaturase may be blocked or
diminished in mammalian systems as the re- Food. Seldom used in flavoring; fresh flow-
sult of aging, diabetes, excessive carbohydrate ers with saline, cucumber-like flavor (free of
intake, or fasting. Seeds of Oenothera biennis toxic PA) used in salads.
112 Boronia absolute
REFERENCES
See the General References for AHPA; BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 1; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DUKE 2;
FOSTER; GLEASON AND CRONQUIST; GRIEVE; HARBOURNE AND BAXTER; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NIKITAKIS; STEINMETZ;
TUTIN 3; TYLER 1; UPHOF; WREN.
1. K. M. Larson et al., J. Nat. Prod. 47, 747 Medicinal Plants: Recent Advances in
(1984). Botany, Horticulture, and Pharma-
2. E. Roeder, Pharmazie, 50, 83 (1995). cology, Vol. 4, Oryx Press, Phoenix, AZ,
1989, p. 145.
3. C. D. Dodson and F. R. Stermitz, J. Nat.
Prod., 49, 727 (1986). 9. D. Bandoniene and M. Murkovic,
Biochem. Biophys. Methods, 53, 45
4. D. V. C. Awang, Can. Pharm. J., 121
(2002).
March (1990).
10. M. Wettasinghe and F. Shahidi, Food
5. M. Hermann et al., Phytochemistry, 60,
Chem., 67, 399 (1999).
399 (2002).
11. M. Wettasinghe and F. Shahidi, Food
6. P. A. G. M. De Smet in P. A. G. M. De Smet
Chem., 70, 17 (2000).
et al., eds., Adverse Effects of Herbal
Drugs, Vol. 2, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 12. L. J. Leventhal et al., Ann. Int. Med., 119,
1993, pp. 147–152. 867 (1993).
7. T. Langer and C. Franz, Sci. Pharm., 65, 13. D. E. Mills et al., J. Hum. Hypertens., 3,
321 (1997). 111 (1989).
8. J. Janick et al. in L. E. Craker and
J. E. Simon, eds., Herbs, Spices, and
(95%), with the rest being d-a-ionone peach) in most major categories of food pro-
(KARRER),2 eugenol, hydrocarbons (mostly ducts, including alcoholic and nonalcoholic
heptacosane), and others.3 beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked
goods, gelatins and puddings, meat and meat
products, and condiments and relishes. Use
TOXICOLOGY
levels are very low, with highest average
maximum of about 0.001% (11.6 ppm) re-
Its major constituents, ionones, are reportedly
ported in baked goods.
allergenic (MERCK).
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; GUPTA; MARTINDALE;
MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; TERRELL; USD 26th.
1. H. R. Maurer, Cell. Mol. Life Sci., 58, 1234 9. S. Kumakura et al., Eur. J. Pharmacol.,
(2001). 150, 295 (1988).
2. R. M. Heinicke, U.S. Pat. 3,002,891 10. L. L. Bolton and B. E. Constantine, Eur.
(1961). Pat. Appl. 194,647 (1986); through Chem.
3. T. Enomoto et al., Jpn. J. Pharmacol., 17, Abstr., 106, 201776 (1987).
331 (1967). 11. H. R. Maurer et al., Planta Med., 54, 377
4. S. Mineshita and Y. Nagai, Jpn. J. (1988).
Pharmacol., 27, 170 (1977). 12. R. E. Ryan, Headache, 4, 13 (1967).
5. W. M. Cooreman et al., Pharm. Acta 13. G. J. Zatucchini and D. Colombi, Obst.
Helv., 51, 73 (1976). Gynecol., 29, 275 (1967).
6. G. E. Felton, Hawaii Med. J., 36 (2), 39 14. E. Nitzschke and R. Leonhardt,
(1977). Orthop€ad. Praxis, 25, 111 (1989).
7. International Commission on Pharma- 15. W. Vogler, Natur-Ganzheits-Med., 1, 27
ceutical Enzymes, Farm. Tijdschr. (1988).
Belg., 54, 85 (1977). 16. A. P. Seltzer, Eye, Ear, Nose, Throat
8. S. J. Taussig and S. Batkin, J. Ethno- Mon., 43, 54 (1964).
pharmacol., 22, 191 (1988). 17. I. N. Moss et al., Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn.,
145, 166 (1963).
Common/vernacular names: Banal, broom Contains alkaloids, including the major alka-
tops, hogweed, Irish broom, scoparius, Scotch loids, sparteine (ca. 0.3%) and lupanine, and
broom. genisteine, sarothamnine, and others; simple
amines (tyramine, hydroxytyramine, epinine,
salsolidine, etc.)1,2; flavonoids, including sco-
GENERAL DESCRIPTION parin (scoparoside), spiraeoside, and others;
flavones (vitexin and others); isoflavones (ge-
Deciduous shrub with erect slender branches, nistein, orobol, sarothamnoside); pigments
up to about 3 m high; native to central and (e.g., taraxanthin and flavoxanthin); amino
southern Europe; naturalized in North America acids; volatile oil (containing 4-mercapto-4-
(invasive along the west coast from North methylpentane-2-one); coumarins, cafeic acid
California to British Columbia); also grows in derivatives; tannin; wax; fat; and sugars
Asia and South Africa; widely grown in Japan (KARRER; WICHTL).3 Essential oil of the fresh
as an ornamental. Parts used are the dried flowers contains alcohols, coumarins, eugenol,
flowering tops collected just before blooming. benzoic acid, guaiacol, fatty acids, and others.4
116 Broom tops
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1; DER
MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; GOSSELIN ET AL.; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; LUST; GRIEVE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; merck;
rose; terrell; tyler 1; APPLEQUIST; UPHOF.
1. G. Gresser et al., Z. Naturforsch., C-A, 51, 5. E. Yarnell and K. Abascal, Altern. Compl.
791 (1996). Ther., 125 June, (2003)
2. I. Murakoshi et al., Phytochemistry, 25, 6. K. Yovo et al., Planta Med., 50, 420
521 (1986). (1984).
3. K. Egger, Planta, 80, 65 (1968). 7. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 97 (1970).
4. T. Kurihara and M. Kikuchi, Yakugaku
Zasshi, 100, 1054 (1980).
Buchu 117
REFERENCES
See the General References for APhA; ARCTANDER; BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 1; CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN
AND BEUTLER; GUENTHER; LIST AND HO € RHAMMER; LUST; MARTINDALE; TERRELL; WICHTL; WREN; YOUNGKEN.
1. A. A. J. Fluck et al., J. Sci. Food Agric., 12, 8. K. Buckshee et al., Int. J. Gynecol.
290 (1961). Obstet., 57, 145 (1997).
2. E. Klein and W. Rojahn, Dragoco Rep., 9. M. Sarabia et al., Curr. Ther. Res. Clin.
14, 183 (1967). Exp., 62, 524 (2001).
3. E. Sundt et al., Helv. Chim. Acta, 54, 1801 10. A. N. Nicolaides, Angiology, 54(Suppl. 1),
(1971). S33 (2003).
4. K. L. J. Blommaert and E. Bartel, J. S. Afr. 11. G. Jantet, Angiology, 53, 245 (2002).
Bot., 42, 121 (1976); through Chem. 12. A. A. A. Ramelet, Angiology, 52
Abstr., 87, 58401u (1977). (Suppl. 1), S49 (2001).
5. D. Lamparsky and P. Schudel, Tetra- 13. J. R. Struckmann, J. Vasc. Res., 36
hedron Lett., 36, 3323 (1971). (Suppl. 1), 37 (1999).
6. R. Kaiser et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 23, 14. B. van Wyk et al., Medicinal Plants of
943 (1975). South Africa, Briza Publications, Pretoria,
7. M. Lis-Balchin et al., J. Pharm. 1997, p. 34.
Pharmacol., 53, 579 (2001). 15. D. Simpson, Scott. Med. J., 43, 189
(1998).
Source: Frangula alnus Mill. (syn. Rhamnus Shrub or small treewith shiny, dark green, short
frangula L.) (Family Rhamnaceae). oblong to obovate leaves 3–7 cm long; up to
6 m high; native to Europe, western Asia, and
Common/vernacular names: Alder buck- northern Africa; naturalized in North America.
thorn, arrow wood, black dogwood, frangula, Part used is the dried bark aged for 1 year to get
glossy buckthorn. rid of an emetic principle (see cascara).
Buckthorn, alder 119
REFERENCES
See the General References for APhA; BAILEY 2; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BRUNETON; FERNALD; LUST;
MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; STAHL; TERRELL; WICHTL; YOUNGKEN.
1. G. Matysik and E. Wojtasik, J. Planar 4. H. Auterhoff and E. Eujen, Dtsch. Apoth.
Chromatogr., 7, 34 (1994). Ztg., 112, 1533 (1972).
2. B. Kaminski and W. Grzesiuk, Farm. Pol., 5. H. Wagner and G. Demuth, Tetrahedron
33, 157 (1977). Lett., 49, 5013 (1972).
3. A. V. Gotsiridze and E. P. Kemertelidze, 6. M. Rosca and V. Cucu, Planta Med., 28,
Rast. Resur., 13, 64 (1977). 343 (1975).
120 Burdock
7. K. Savonius, Farm. Aikak., 82(9–10), 136 13. F. H. L. van Os, Pharmacology, 14 (Suppl.
(1973). 1), 7, 18 (1976).
8. M. Rosca and V. Cucu, Planta Med., 28, 14. F. A. Nelemans, Pharmacology, 14
178 (1975). (Suppl. 1), 73 (1976).
9. A. Bonati and G. Forni, Fitoterapia, 48, 15. S. M. Kupchan and A. Karim, Lloydia, 39,
159 (1977). 223 (1976).
10. G. Dermuth et al., Planta Med., 33, 53 16. G. Prosperio, Cosmet. Toilet., 91, 34
(1978). (1976).
11. M. Pailer and E. Haslinger, Monatsh. 17. S. Bader et al., Cosmet. Toilet., 96(10), 67
Chem., 103, 1399 (1972). (1981).
12. J. C. Dauguet and R. R. Paris, C. R. Acad. 18. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 34, 103 (1971).
Sci., Ser. D, 285, 519 (1977).
has been attributed to caffeoylquinic acid skin-cleansing properties (DE NAVARRE);29 used
derivates.18 Hepatoprotective activity against in hair tonic and antidandruff preparations.
acetaminophen- and carbon tetrachloride-in-
duced toxicity in mice was found from oral Food. Root is used in Asia as a food; Iro-
administration of a decoction of the root.19 quois Indians used the dried roots to make
Others have reported that root ameliorated soup and the young leaves were eaten cooked.
ethanol induced liver toxicity in rats.20
A methanol extract of the fruits inhibited Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Seeds
the in vitro formation of a marker of oxida- used in cold remedies; leaves used in teas,
tive stress in carcinogenesis (8-OH-dG).21 combination products, primarily as “blood
An ethanol extract of the fruits has shown purifier” for skin ailments (acne, psoriasis,
in vitro cytotoxicity against human hepato- etc.); root used as nutritive food (FOSTER AND
ma (HepG2) cells and activity against sar- DUKE).
coma 180 cells in mice. Acrtiin and arcti-
genin showed the most activity against Traditional Medicine. Root, leaves, and
Hep2G cells in vitro.22 In vitro differentia- seeds (fruits) of both species have been used
tion-inducing, antiproliferative activity and in treating cancers;30 decoctions or tea of the
phagocytic cell-increasing activity in mouse root have been used in treating rheumatism,
myeloid leukemia cells were found from catarrh, gout, and stomach ailments. The root
various lignans isolated from the fruit. Arc- is used as a diuretic, diaphoretic, and mild
tigenin was the most active.23 Chemo- laxative, among other uses. Decoctions and
preventive activity against heterocyclic teas of roots and leaves have been used both
amine-induced mammary carcinogenesis in externally and internally for skin problems
female rats was evident from the addition of (e.g., eczema and scaly skin) (FOSTER AND
arctiin to the diet at a concentration of as DUKE; LUST; TYLER 1). The Micmac Indians
little as 0.02%.24 used the roots and buds to treat sores, and a
In addition, hypoglycemic activity in rats tea made from the seeds or roots was used by
was reported from administration of burdock the Cherokee as a blood cleanser (MOERMAN).
fruit extracts,25 and a water extract of the seeds In Chinese medicine, roots collected are
inhibited the in vitro binding of platelet acti- from plants that are at least 2 years old.
vating factor to rabbit platelets.26 Dried and dried and roasted fruits of
A. lappa are widely used in Chinese medicine
to treat colds, sore throat, tonsillitis, coughs,
TOXICOLOGY measles, sores, and abscesses, among other
applications, usually in combination with oth-
A decoction of the leaves as 6.25% of the daily er drugs (JIANGSU; TU).
diet of mice for 28 days before a streptozoto-
cin-induced diabetes was found to aggravate
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
the condition.27 A methanol extract of the
fruits exhibited mutagenic activity in the
rec-assay and in the Ames test only after Crude and extracts. Crude root was formerly
enzymatic activation.28 official in N.F. and U.S.P. Strengths (see
glossary) of extracts are expressed in
weight-to-weight ratios.
USES
Regulatory Status. Regulated in the United
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. States as a dietary supplement and food. A
Used in some diuretic, laxative, and other German therapeutic monograph on burdock
preparations. Also reportedly useful in cos- root does not recommend use since efficacy is
metic and toiletry preparations for its alleged not confirmed (BLUMENTHAL 1; WICHTL).
122 Burdock
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 2; BISSET; BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FARNSWORTH
1–4; FERNALD; FOGARTY; FOSTER AND DUKE; GUPTA; GRIEVE;HONGKUI; JIANGSU; JIXIAN; KROCHMAL AND
KROCHMAL; LUST; MOERMAN; NANJING; ROSE; TERRELL; TYLER 1; YOUNGKEN.
1. T. Washino et al., Nippon Nogeikagaku 16. K. Morita et al., Mutat. Res., 129, 25
Kaishi, 60, 377 (1986) (1984).
2. K. E. Schulte et al., Arzneim.-Forsch., 17, 17. P. Duh, J.A.O.C.S., 7, 455 (1998).
829 (1967). 18. M. Yoshihiko et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
3. T. Washino et al., Agric. Biol. Chem., 50, 43, 2592 (1995).
263 (1986). 19. S. Lin et al., Am. J. Chin. Med., 28, 163
4. T. Washino et al., Agric. Biol. Chem., 51, (2000).
1475 (1987). 20. S. Lin et al., J. Biomed. Sci., 9, 401 (2002).
5. S. Obata et al., Nippon Nogeikagaku 21. H. Kasai et al., Food Chem. Toxicol., 38,
Kaishi, 44, 437 (1970). 467 (2000).
6. T. Washino et al., Nippon Nogeikagaku 22. S. Moritani et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 19,
Kaishi, 59, 389 (1985). 1515 (1996).
7. T. Kimura, Jpn. Kokai 76115,914 (1976). 23. K. Umehara et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.,
8. Y. Yamada et al., Phytochemistry, 14, 582 41, 1774 (1993).
(1975). 24. M. Hirose et al., Environ. Mol. Mutagen.,
9. A. Ichihara et al., Tetrahedron Lett., 44, 39, 271 (2002).
3961 (1976). 25. L. O. Lapinina and T. F. Sisoeva, Farm.
10. B. H. Han et al., Phytochemistry, 37, 1161 Zh. (Kiev), 19, 52 (1964).
(1994). 26. S. Iwakami et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 40,
11. H. Y. Wang and J. S. Yang, Yaoxue 1196 (1992).
Xuebao, 28, 911 (1993). 27. S. K. Swanston-Flatt et al., Diabetes Res.,
12. C. Wang et al., J. Plant Res. Environ., 11, 10, 69 (1989).
58 (2002). 28. I. Morimoto et al., Mutat. Res., 129, 25
13. K. Naya et al., Chem. Lett., 3, 235 (1972). (1984).
14. K. Morita et al., Agric. Biol. Chem., 42, 29. H. B. Heath, Cosmet. Toilet., 92, 19
1235 (1978). (1977).
15. K. Morita et al., Agric. Biol. Chem., 49, 30. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 31, 71 (1968).
925 (1985).
Cade oil 123
CADE OIL have shown that cade oil produces DNA ad-
duct formation in mouse and human skin
Source: Juniperus oxycedrus L. (Family and mouse lung tissue.5 Applied topically to
Pinaceae). psoriasis patients, cade oil produced sufficient
damage to DNA to be potentially carciono-
Common/vernacular names: Cade oil, juniper genic.7 The Cosmetic Ingredient Review
tar, oil of cade, oil of juniper tar. Expert Panel concluded that the data on the
safety of cade oil are not sufficient to support
its use in cosmetic products.5
GENERAL DESCRIPTION Acute oral LD50 in rats: 8014 mg/kg. Toxic
effects noted include GI irritation and signs
The source of cade oil is Juniperus oxycedrus of depression. Acute dermal toxicity in rab-
or ‘‘prickly cedar,’’ a shrub or small tree native bits: >5 g/kg. No skin irritation or phototox-
to the Mediterranean region, which grows up icity found from topical application of cade oil
to about 4 m in height. The volatile oil (cade in humans, mice, and swine.3
oil) is obtained by destructive distillation of
the branches and wood, usually in the form
of shavings or chips. The resultant distillate USES
separates into three layers of which the upper-
most dark brown viscous layer is cade oil. Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
Rectified cade oil (the vapor of juniper tar) is Cade oil is widely used in topical preparations
obtained by steam or vacuum distillation of for the treatment of parasitic skin diseases
crude cade oil. and eczema; in antiseptic wound dressings,
analgesic and antipruritic preparations, and
dermatologic creams and ointments; also in
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION antidandruff shampoos, among others. Recti-
fied cade oil is used as a fragrance component
The volatile oil contains the sesquiterpene d- in soaps, detergents, creams, lotions, and
cadinene as the major component (27.3%).1,2 perfumes. Maximum use level reported is
Other major components include p-cresol and 0.2% in perfumes.6 Maximum use concentra-
guaiacol (LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MARTINDALE). tion of cade oil in cosmetics ranges from 1%
to 5%.5
Has been considered as an allergen (SAX); and Regulatory Status. Regulated in the United
although other available data show it to be States as a dietary supplement. Cade oil (juni-
relatively nontoxic,6 recent in vivo studies per tar oil) is official in U.S.P.
124 Cajeput oil
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; CLAUS; DUKE 4; GUENTHER; LUST; MARTINDALE;
MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; ROSE.
1. J. C. Chalchat et al., Flav. Frag. J., 3, 19 5. W. Johnson Jr., Int. J. Toxicol., 20, 41
(1988). (2001).
2. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 14(3), 71 6. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 13
(1989). (Suppl.), 733 (1975).
3. J. C. Maruzzella and L. Liguori, J. Am. 7. B. Schoket et al., J. Invest. Dermatol., 94,
Pharm. Assoc., 47, 250 (1958). 241 (1990).
4. J. C. Maruzzella and P. A. Henry, J. Am. 8. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 288 (1970).
Pharm. Assoc., 47, 294 (1958).
M. linariifolia); however, other species may in a water-based gel was less effective than
qualify.2 a 5% benzoyl peroxide in a water-based lotion
because of slower onset of action. However,
clinical assessment and self-reporting of side
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL effects indicated that the tea tree oil prepara-
ACTIVITIES tion was better tolerated by facial skin, pro-
ducing less skin scaling, dryness, pruritus, and
Australian tea tree oil (M. alternifolia) exhi- irritation than a benzoyl peroxide preparation
bits a broad spectrum of in vitro antibacterial (TYLER 1–3).16 A study in 27 volunteers found
activity that includes laboratory strains of oral that topical application of tea tree oil inhibited
bacteria,4 methicillin-resistant Staphylococ- histamine-induced weal volume on the arm,
cus aureus,5 Propionbacterium acnes,6 and but not flare volume.17 In placebo-controlled
Escherichia coli.7 In vitro antifungal activity clinical studies, symptomatic improvement
from the oil is found against Malassezia of tinea pedis was found from topical use of
furfur, Candida albicans, and various other a 10% tea tree oil cream;18 reduced time
species of Candida.8–10 Among eight compo- before re-epithelization was reported in pa-
nents of the essential oil, greatest in vitro tients using a 6% tea tree oil gel topically on
antibacterial (11 species) and antifungal herpes labialis sores;19 and reduced itchiness
activities (C. albicans) were found from lin- and greasiness but not scaliness of dandruff
alool, followed by terpinen-4-ol, a-terpineol, after using a 5% tea tree oil shampoo.20
a-terpinene, and terpinolene.7 (Linalool oc-
curs in only trace amounts in the oil.2) The oil
has also shown in vitro activity against herpes TOXICOLOGY
simplex virus.11
Essential oils from the leaves of Melaleuca Use of tea tree oil for the topical treatment of
(M. armillaris, M. ericifolia, and M. leucaden- burn wounds is not recommended due to
dron ¼ M. cajuputi) have shown in vitro in vitro inhibition of human epithelial cell
antibacterial, antifungal (C. albicans), and and fibroblast viability from 24 h exposure to
antiviral activities (HIV-1); in vitro potentia- the oil.21,22 Application of the pure oil to the
tion of catalase, superoxide dismutase, and abraded skin of rabbits (Draize acute dermal
glutathione in erythrocytes; and in vitro inhi- irritation test) resulted in increased skin irri-
bition of lipid peroxidation.12 Both M. alter- tation, suggesting that the oil should not be
nifolia leaf oil and terpinen-4-ol induced applied in cases of dermatitis.23
differentiation of white blood cells in vitro in There are a number of case reports of
human myelocytic (HL-60) cells.13 contact dermatitis from topical use of tea tree
Contact hypersensitivity response and skin oil, including allergic contact dermatitis.23,24
swelling in mice were inhibited by topical No irritant effects were found in the skin
application of tea tree oil, a-terpineol, or sensitization test in guinea pigs from tea tree
terpinen-4-ol; however, ultraviolet B- or irri- oil. No skin irritation was visible from topical
tant-induced swelling was not suppressed.14 application of tea tree oil in a 30-day irritation
Antitussive activity against capsaicin- test in rabbits; no apparent signs of dermal
induced cough in guinea pigs was shown toxicity were found after 24 h exposure of
from oral administration of tea tree oil and the normal skin to a high concentration of the
from some of its main constituents (cineole, undiluted oil (2 g/kg). The healing of superfi-
terpinen-4-ol, a-pinene, and g-terpinene).15 cial dermal wounds in rabbits was neither
A clinical trial in 124 patients provided inhibited nor prolonged from topical applica-
evidence of the effectiveness of topical tion of tea tree oil. No in vitro mutagenic
M. alternifolia oil in the treatment of moderate activity was produced by tea tree oil in the
(noninflamed) acne vulgaris. A 5% tea tree oil Ames test.23
126 Cajeput oil
The acute oral LD50 of tea tree oil in rats is singly or with other ingredients, with a broad
1.9–2.6 mL/kg; similar to eucalyptus and oth- range of health claims, including treatments
er essential oils.23 for fungal infections, burns, sunburn, pimples,
Case reports of overdosing from ingestion boils, stings, ringworm, sore throat, oral infec-
of large amounts of undiluted tea tree oil noted tions, bronchial congestion, lice, scabies, cuts,
CNS toxicity. Similar effects have been re- abrasions, and vaginal infections (TYLER
ported in veterinary medicine from topical 1–3).26
applications of large amounts of tea tree oil.25
Traditional Medicine. Australian aborigines
used cajeput oil from M. cajuputi subsp.
USES cajuputi in treating pain. Vapors from the
crushed leaves were inhaled to treat bronchial
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. and nasal congestion. The same species
Cajeput oil has been used in expectorant has been a common household remedy in
formulations and antiseptic and pain-relieving Vietnam, India, Malaysia, and Indonesia for
liniments, mouthwashes, shampoos, body generations.1 They used an infusion of the
washes, deodorants, acne products, barrier macerated leaves of Melaleuca to treat the
creams, lip balms, sunscreens, toothpastes, common cold, sore throat, insect bites, fungal
insect repellents, veterinary products, and infections, skin wounds, and for delousing.23
others.1,25,26 The oil has been used in dentistry Cajuput oil has also been used to treat indolent
for relieving discomfort due to dry sockets; tumors.28
also used as a fragrance component in soaps,
detergents, creams, lotions, and perfumes, Others. In natural disinfectants.
with maximum use level of 0.4% in the last
category.27
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Food. Cajeput oil is used as a flavor compo-
nent in nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy Oil formerly officinal in U.S.P.
desserts, candy, baked goods, meat and meat
products, condiments, and relishes. Average Regulatory Status. Approved for food use as
maximum use level reported is very low (less a natural flavoring (§172.510). The essential
than 0.001% or 9.9 ppm). oil of M. viridiflora is the subject of a German
therapeutic monograph allowing a dose of
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Tea tree 0.2 g or less in the treatment of catarrhs of
oil is found in numerous product forms, either the upper respiratory tract (BLUMENTHAL 1).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ADA; ARCTANDER; FEMA; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; LEWIS AND ELVIN-
LEWIS; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MORTON 2; ROSE; TYLER 1; UPHOF; YOUNGKEN.
1. J. C. Doran, Med. Arom. Plants Ind. 4. S. Shapiro et al., Oral Microbiol. Immu-
Profiles, 9, 221 (1999). nol., 9, 202 (1996).
2. I. Soutwell, Med. Arom. Plants Ind. 5. C. F. Carson et al., J. Antimicrob.
Profiles, 9, 29 (1999). Chemother., 35, 421 (1995).
3. J. J. Brophy et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 6. C. F. Carson and T. V. Riley, Lett. Appl.
37, 1330 (1989). Microbiol., 19, 24 (1994).
Calamus 127
7. C. F. Carson and T. V. Riley, J. Appl. 18. M. M. Tong et al., Aust. J. Dermatol., 33,
Bacteriol., 78, 264 (1995). 145 (1992).
8. A. Hammer et al., J. Antimicrob. Chemo- 19. C. F. Carson et al., J. Antimicrob.
ther., 42, 591 (1998). Chemother., 48, 450 (2001).
9. P. Nenoff et al., Skin Pharmacol., 9, 388 20. A. C. Satchell et al., J. Am. Acad.
(1996). Dermatol., 47, 852 (2002).
10. S. D. Cox et al., J. Appl. Microbiol., 88, 21. J. Faoagali et al., Burns, 23, 349 (1997).
170 (2000). 22. T. A. Soderberg et al., Toxicology, 107, 99
11. P. Schnitzler et al., Pharmazie, 56, 343 (1996).
(2001). 23. R. Saller et al., Phytomedicine, 5, 489
12. R. S. Farag et al., Phytother. Res., 18, 30 (1998).
(2004). 24. T. M. Fritz et al., Ann. Dermatol.
13. S. Budhiraja et al., J. Manipulative Venereol., 128, 123 (2001).
Physiol. Ther., 22, 447 (1999). 25. F. Osborne et al., Can. Pharm. J., 42
14. C. Brand et al., Inflamm. Res., 51, 236 (1998).
(2002). 26. D. Priest, Med. Arom. Plants Ind. Profiles,
15. A. Saitoh et al., Nippon Nogeikagaku 9, 203 (1999).
Kaishi, 77, 1242 (2003). 27. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Chem. Toxicol.,
16. I. B. Bassett et al., Med. J. Aust., 153, 455 14, 701 (1976).
(1990). 28. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 288 (1970).
17. K. J. Koh et al., Br. J. Dermatol., 147,
1212 (2002).
Source: Acorus calamus L. (Family Araceae). The rhizome contains highly variable amounts
of volatile oil (up to 9%, but usually 2–6%),
Common/vernacular names: Calamus, sweet depending on sources. Asian (Pakistani,
cinnamon, sweet flag, sweet myrtle, sweet Japanese, Indian) plants yield more oil than
root, sweet sedge. the European plants, but the European oil is
considered superior in flavor and fragrance
qualities (JIANGSU).1–4 Constituents present in
GENERAL DESCRIPTION the oil include b-asarone (cis-isoasarone),
()-methyl isoeugenol, asarone, asarylalde-
Perennial herb growing in wet or swampy hyde, calamene, linalool, calamol, calameone,
areas with stiff, sword-shaped leaves; up to eugenol, methyl eugenol, azulene, pinene,
about 2 m high; native to Northern Hemi- cineole, camphor, and others, with b-asarone
sphere (North America, Europe, and Asia). being the major component (up to 76% of the
Part used is the stout aromatic rhizome after oil; 85% in Chinese oil) and the European
it is peeled and dried. The essential oil is type containing larger numbers of aromatic
obtained by steam distillation of both the fresh compounds (JIANGSU; MASADA).4,5 The essen-
and the dried unpeeled rhizome. Roots are tial oil from the rhizome of the North Ameri-
also used. can variety (A. calamus L. var. americanus
128 Calamus
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; BARNES; BISSET; CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN AND
BEUTLER; FARNSWORTH 3; FOGARTY; FOSTER; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; GUPTA; JIANGSU; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL;
LUST; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; MORTON 1; NANJING; ROSE; UPHOF; WICHTL.
Calendula 129
t-taraxasterol and lupeol); triterpenoidal provide good protection against acute derma-
monoesters;3 flavonoids (narcissin, rutin, and titis in women undergoing radiation therapy
others); trace amounts of essential oil; chloro- for postoperative breast cancer.15
genic acid (GLASBY 2; WREN); polysaccharides
including a rhamnoarabinogalactan and arabi-
nogalactans;4 flower yellow pigment is a mix- TOXICOLOGY
ture of b-carotene, lycopene, violaxanthin, and
other xanthophylls (CSIR II). Carotenoids in the No dermal irritation was produced by a 10%
flower petals are mainly flavoxanthin, luteox- aqueous extract of the flowers in rabbits.
anthin, and auroxanthin and while those in the Ocular irritation from a 10% aqueous extract
leaves and stems are mainly b-carotene and in the eyes of rabbits was minimal. No geno-
lutein. However, the major carotenoid in the toxic effects were found a ‘‘herbal’’ tea of the
dried flowers used to make herbal teas is lutein.5 flowers and none was found from six sapo-
nins isolated from the flowers.16 A fluid
extract of the flowers was non-mutagenic in
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL the mouse bone micronucleus and in the
ACTIVITIES Ames test (Salmonella/microsome assays).
However, in vitro genotoxic effects were
Flower, flower/herb preparations, and ex- found in Aspergillus nidulans.17 In rat liver
tracts have shown anti-inflammatory, immu- cell cultures, unscheduled DNA synthesis
nomodulating, and wound-healing activities; was inhibited by nanogram concentrations
stimulation of granulation at wound site; also of various solvent extracts of the flowers;
increasing glycoprotein, nucleoprotein, and genotoxic effects were only found from high
collagen metabolism at site; antibacterial; (g/mL) concentrations.18 No sensitizing ef-
antifungal, antiviral; antiparasitic (trichomo- fects were found in humans from occlusive
nacidal); stimulation of phagocytosis in vitro patches supplying cosmetics containing 1%
and in the carbon clearance test in mice; calendula extract; however, safety data to
choleretic activity; isolated polysaccharides support the use of the flowers in cosmetic
have shown in vitro and in vivo tumor- preparations are considered insufficient. The
inhibiting activity (ESCOP 3) and immunosti- acute oral LD50 of calendula flower extract in
mulating activity in the carbon clearance and rats: >4640 mg/kg.16
granulocytes tests.6 An ethanol extract of the
flowers enhanced the in vitro proliferation of
lymphocytes.7 USES
Wound-healing effects of the flowers have
been demonstrated in various animal tests.8 Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
From in vitro and animal tests, topical anti- Preparations of calendula flowers are used
inflammatory activity of the flowers is at- externally to treat dermal and mucous mem-
tributed to Y-taraxasterol,10–12 isorhamnetic brane inflammations, hard-to-heal wounds,
glycosides,13 and triterpenoidal fatty acid leg ulcers, dermatitis, mild burns, and sun-
esters;9 notably, faradiol monoester,9 which burn; internally for inflammatory lesions of
showed the same topical antiedematous ac- the oral and pharyngeal mucosa; also used as
tivity in the Croton oil-induced edema model an immunostimulant in treating skin inflam-
as indomethacin and at the same dose.9,11 mations and herpes zoster infections (ESCOP 3;
19
A butanolic extract of the flowers showed WICHTL).
potent in vitro antioxidant and radical scav- Used in diverse body care products, inc-
enging activity.14 luding face, body, and hand creams, lotions,
In a phase III clinical trial, a cream cont- night creams, ointments, shampoos, lipsticks,
aining an extract of calendula was found to deodorants, shaving creams, suntan products,
Calendula 131
baby products, eye makeup, and others mote healing; for gastric hemorrhage, ulcers,
(NIKITAKIS).16 Concentrations of calendula and spasms, glandular swelling, jaundice, anemia;
extracts thereof in cosmetic products are from externally for abscesses, wounds, bleeding,
0.1% to 5%.16 and eczema (BLUMENTHAL 1).
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Flow- Crude ligulate florets; flower heads; flower
ers in tincture (‘‘lotion’’) for external/internal and herb; tincture; ointment, and so on; crude
use; teas (FOSTER). formerly official in U.S.P. and N.F.
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BARNES; BISSET; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; CSIR II; DER
MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; ESCOP 3; FOSTER; GRIEVE; HARBOURNE AND BAXTER; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NIKITAKIS;
STEINMETZ; TUTIN 4; TYLER 1; UPHOF; WICHTL; WREN.
1. E. Vidal-Olliveier and G. Balansard, J. 11. K. Zitterl-Eglseer et al., J. Ethnophar-
Nat. Prod., 52, 1156 (1989). macol., 57, 139 (1997).
2. J. Pyrek et al., Pol. J. Chem., 53, 1071 12. M. Hamburger et al., Fitoterapia, 74, 328
(1979). (2003).
3. H. Neukirch et al., Phytochem. Anal., 15, 13. L. Bezakowa et al., Pharmazie, 51, 126
30 (2004). (1996).
4. J. Varljen et al., Phytochemistry, 28, 2379 14. C. A. Cordova et al., Redox Rep., 7, 95
(1989). (2002).
5. E. Bako et al., J. Biochem. Biophys. 15. P. Pommier et al., J. Clin. Oncol., 22, 1447
Methods, 53, 241 (2002). (2004).
6. H. Wagner et al., Arneim.-Forsch., 35, 16. Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert
1069 (1985). Panel, Int. J. Toxicol., 20(Suppl. 2), 13
7. Z. Amirghofran et al., J. Ethnopharma- (2001).
col., 72, 167 (2000). 17. A. Ramos et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 61,
8. S. C. Rao et al., Fitoterapia, 62, 508 49 (1998).
(1991). 18. J. I. Perez-Carreon et al., Toxicol. In
9. R. Della Loggia et al., Planta Med., 60, Vitro, 16, 253 (2003).
516 (1994). 19. ESCOP, Vol. 3. Proposals for European
10. T. Akihisa et al., Phytochemistry, 43, Monographs on Calendulae flos/Flos cum
1255 (1996). Herba.
132 Capsicum
Large tree with fragrant flowers; native to is- Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
lands of tropical Asia (Java, Malaysia, the Used as a fragrance component in soaps,
Philippines, the Moluccas, etc.). The oil is detergents, creams, lotions, and perfumes (es-
obtained by water distillation of the flowers. pecially men’s fragrances). Maximum use
A similar essentialoil,ylangylangoil (seeylang level reported is 0.8% in perfumes.2
ylang oil ), is obtained in a similar manner from
Canangium odoratum Baill. forma genuina. Food. Used as a flavor ingredient in alcoholic
and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy des-
serts, candy, baked goods, and gelatins and pud-
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION dings, with highest average maximum use level
of about 0.003% (32.3 ppm) in the last category.
Contains mainly b-caryophyllene, benzyl ac-
etate, benzyl alcohol, farnesol, a-terpineol, COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
borneol, geranyl acetate, methyl salicylate,
benzaldehyde, safrole, linalool, eugenol, iso- Oil official in F.C.C.
eugenol, limonene, and other minor compo-
nents totaling over 100 compounds (MASADA).1 Regulatory Status. GRAS (§ 182.20).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; FEMA; FURIA AND BELLANCA; GUENTHER; MASADA.
1. R. N. Duve et al., Int. Flav. Food Addit., 2. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
6, 341 (1975). 11, 1049 (1973).
Source: Capsicum frutescens L.; C. an- There has been much dispute and confusion
nuum L. and its varieties; C. chinense regarding the classification of Capsicum. All
Jacq. (syn. C. angulosum Mill.); C. peppers, hot and mild (not to be confused with
baccatum L. var. pendulum (Willd.) blackandwhitepepper),havebeenatonetimeor
Eshbaugh (syn. C. pendulum Willd.); another considered as fruits of a single species,
C. pubescens Ruiz & Pavon. (Family C.annuumand itsvarieties,oroftwospecies,C.
Solanaceae). annuum and C. frutescens, and their varieties
(ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; UPHOF). Currently, five
Common/vernacular names: Capsicum, major Capsicum species and their varieties are
cayenne pepper, paprika, red pepper, recognized: C. frutescens, C. chinense, C. bac-
Tabasco pepper, hot pepper, chili catum, C. pubescens, and C. annuum (DE SMET;
pepper. ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL).
Capsicum 133
Regulatory Status. Regulated in the United and prescription drug form in the United
States as a dietary supplement. Capsicum (red States.
pepper, cayenne pepper) and paprika are Standardized capsaicin products are ap-
GRAS as natural seasonings and flavorings proved in Germany for topical therapeutic use
(§182.10). Their essential oils, solvent-free in painful muscle spasms in the shoulders,
oleoresins and natural extractives are also arms, and spine. Low capsaicin-containing
GRAS (§182.20); paprika and paprika oleo- Capsicum products are the subject of a nega-
resin are also approved as color additives for tive German monograph; efficacy for diges-
food use exempt from certification (§73.340 tive disturbances, and supportive treatment of
and §73.345). Capsaicin-containing topical heart and circulatory functions has not been
products are approved in over-the-counter scientifically established (BLUMENTHAL 1).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BLUMENTHAL 1 & 2; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; FOSTER; FUGH-
BERMAN; JIANGSU; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; LUST; MARSH; MCKENNA; NANJING; ROSENGARTEN; STAHL; USD 26th.
1. J. G. Vaughan and C. Geissler, The 14. M. J. Caterina and D. Julius, Annu. Rev.
New Oxford Book of Plants, Oxford Neurosci., 2, 487 (2001).
University Press, New York, 1997, pp. 15. R. H. Chichewicz and P. A. Thorpe,
138–139. J. Ethnopharmacol., 52, 61 (1996).
2. J. A. Maga, CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. 16. A. Sanchez-Escalante et al., J. Sci. Food
Nutr., 6, 177 (1975). Agric., 83, 187 (2003).
3. S. I. Balbaa et al., Lloydia, 31, 272 17. Y. J. Suhr, Food Chem. Toxicol., 40, 1091
(1968). (2002).
4. J. Jurenitsch and W. Kubelka, Planta 18. T. Ochi et al., J. Nat. Prod., 66, 1094
Med., 33, 285 (1978). (2003).
5. C. E. C. Lord and A. S. L. Tirimanna, 19. H. Tsuchiya, J. Ethnopharmacol., 75, 295
Mikrochim. Acta, 1, 469 (1976). (2001).
6. B. Camara and R. Moneger, Phyto- 20. R. S. Gupta et al., Phytother. Res., 16, 273
chemistry, 17, 91 (1978). (2002).
7. D. Hornero-Mendez and M. I. Mınguez- 21. Y. Monsereenusorn, Quart. J. Crude Drug
Mosquera, J. Agric. Food Chem., 46, Res., 18, 1 (1980).
4087 (1998).
22. S. Horie et al., Scand. J. Gastroenterol.,
8. J. Deli and P. Molnar, Curr. Org. Chem., 39, 303 (2004).
6, 1197 (2002).
23. H. Frerick et al., Pain, 106, 59 (2003).
9. T. Maoka et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 49,
24. G. McCleane, Eur. J. Pain, 4, 355 (2000).
1601 (2001).
25. M. Bortolotti et al., Aliment. Pharmacol.
10. M. Materska et al., Phytochemistry, 63,
Ther., 16, 1075 (2002).
893 (2003).
26. J. B. Van Rijswijk et al., Allergy, 58, 754
11. L. W. Haymon and L. W. Aurand, J. Agric.
(2003).
Food Chem., 19, 1131 (1971).
27. C. Zheng et al., Acta Oto-Laryngol., 120,
12. K. Iwai et al., Agric. Biol. Chem., 41
62 (2000).
(1873), 1877 (1977).
13. W. Robbins, Clin. J. Pain, 16(Suppl. 2), 28. M. A. Cerruto et al., Urodinamica, 12, 29
S86 (2000). (2002).
136 Caramel color
29. M. Lazzeri et al., Urol. Int., 72, 145 38. Y. J. Surh and S. S. Lee, Food Chem.
(2004). Toxicol., 34, 313 (1996).
30. M. De Seze et al., J. Urol., 171, 251 39. S. Marques et al., Mutat. Res., 517, 39
(2004). (2002).
31. S.Soontrapaetal.,J.Med.Assoc. Thailand, 40. V. E. Archer and D. W. Jones, Med.
86, 861 (2003). Hypoth., 59, 450 (2002).
32. T. Forst et al., Acta Diabetol., 39, 1 41. S. Chanda et al., Mutat. Res. Genet.
(2002). Toxicol. Environ. Mutagen., 557, 85
33. M. Pappagallo and E. J. Haldey, CNS (2004).
Drugs, 17, 771 (2003). 42. E. Ernst and J. Barnes, Side Effect Drugs
34. S. Rodriguez-Stanley et al., Aliment. Ann., 21, 489 (1998).
Pharmacol. Ther., 14, 129 (2000). 43. T. Glinsukon et al., Toxicon, 18, 215 (1980).
35. T. Snyman et al., Forensic Sci. Int., 124, 44. A. Szallasi and P. M. Blumberg,
43 (2001). Pharmacol. Rev., 51, 159 (1999).
36. E. J. Olajos and H. Salem, J. Appl. 45. K. Kanki et al., Food Chem. Toxicol., 41,
Toxicol., 21, 355 (2001). 1337 (2003).
37. C. A. Reilly et al., Toxicol. Sci., 73, 170 46. C. A. Reilly et al., J. Forensic Sci., 46, 502
(2003). (2001).
characteristic pleasant flavor but little tincto- beer, gravies, baked goods (III), pet foods,
rial power. soups, and soft drinks (IV).1
Caramel color is one of the most commonly
used food colors and produces pale yellow to
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
dark brown colors in products intended for
drug, cosmetic, and food uses. Formerly, ex-
Many of the higher molecular weight constitu-
tracts produced by the botanical industry were
ents in caramel colors are still unknown.
mostly dark due to the antiquated technology
Among the low molecular substances identified
used; for a time, it became the tradition since
are pyrroles, pyrazines, pyridines, and imida-
to add caramel color to lighter extracts that
zoles. Other types of compounds reported to be
were produced by modern methods to obtain
present in certain caramel colors include anhy-
the same color effects, as it was generally
drosugars, oligosaccharides, furanoid com-
believed that a light extract means low
pounds,1 about 50% digestible carbohydrate,
strength. Furthermore, caramel color is used
25% nondigestiblecarbohydrate, and25%mel-
directly in practically every category of food
anoidins. Minor components include ammonia
product, including baked products, cola bev-
(0.2–2.0%), iron, and copper.5,6 Available data
erages, root beers, wines, gravies, jams, pre-
also show the presence of substituted imida-
pared meats, frozen desserts, and confections.
zoles such as 4-methylimidazole (0.005–0.1%)
Its ubiquitous presence in foods is matched
and other nitrogenous compounds.6–9
perhaps only by salt or sugar. Highest average
maximum use levels of caramel color are
TOXICOLOGY reported in gravies (5.4%) and reconstituted
vegetables (4.8%).
The four caramel colors have undergone ex-
tensive testing for toxic effects in animal and
in vitro studies, including genotoxicity stud- COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
ies, and were found safe at dosage levels far in
excess of those used in foods.10–20 Various types (acid proof, beer, spirit, bakers,
and confectioners, etc.); also powdered form.21
Official in N.F. and F.C.C.
USES
Regulatory Status. GRAS as a multiple pur-
Pharmaceutical, Cosmetic, and Food. Typ- pose food substance (§182.1235); also ap-
ical uses of the four caramel colors include proved as a color additive exempt from
desserts, distilled spirits, spice blends (I),1 ice certification, to be used in foods and drugs
creams, brandies, liqueurs, vermouths (II),12 (§73.85 and §73.1085, respectively).
REFERENCES
8. R. A. Wilks et al., J. Chromatogr., 87, 411 15. K. M. MacKenzie et al., Food Chem.
(1973). Toxicol., 30, 417 (1992).
9. M. Komoto et al., Seito Gijutsu Kenkyu- 16. G. F. Houben and A. H. Penninks, Toxi-
kaishi, 25, 25 (1975). cology, 91, 289 (1994).
10. J. A. Allen et al., Food Chem. Toxicol., 17. G. F. Houben et al., Fundam. Appl.
30, 389 (1992). Toxicol., 20, 30 (1993).
11. K. Adams et al., Food Chem. Toxicol., 30, 18. A. Thuvander and A. Oskarsson, Food
397 (1992). Chem. Toxicol., 32, 7 (1994).
12. K. M. MacKenzie et al., Food Chem. 19. G. F. Houben et al., Food Chem. Toxicol.,
Toxicol., 30, 397 (1992). 30, 749 (1992).
13. D. J. Brusick et al., Food Chem. Toxicol., 20. G. F. Houben et al., Food Chem. Toxicol.,
30, 403 (1992). 30, 427 (1992).
14. K. M. MacKenzie et al., Food Chem. 21. M. Berdick, Cosmet. Toilet., 92, 26
Toxicol., 30, 431 (1992). (1977).
inducing the detoxifying enzyme glutathione Food. Caraway is widely used as a domestic
S-transferase (GST) in several mouse target spice. It is also extensively used in commercial
tissues. Compounds that induce an increase in food products particularly baked goods (rye
the activity of GST detoxification are consid- bread, etc.) and meat and meat products,
ered potential inhibitors of carcinogenesis.17 among others. Caraway oil is used in all major
categories of foods, including alcoholic and
nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts,
TOXICOLOGY candy, baked goods, gelatins and puddings,
meat and meat products, condiments and
Caraway seeds showed no mutagenic activity relishes, and others. Highest average maxi-
in the Ames test.18 The acute oral LD50 of mum use level is reported to be about 0.02%
caraway oil in rats is 6.68 g/kg and 3.5 mL/kg. (225 ppm) in baked goods.
The acute dermal LD50 of the oil in rabbits is
1.78 mL/kg.19 Carvone showed no mutagenic Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Oil and
activity in the Ames test, although it did extract are used as ingredients in some pro-
produce chromosomal aberrations in CHO ducts as spasmolytic aids to digestion (FOSTER;
cells and induced sister chromatid changes; WREN).
however, no carcinogenic activity was found
in mice of either sex administered carvone Traditional Medicine. Used as an antispas-
by gavage daily (375 or 750 mg/kg/day, modic, antiflatulent, carminative, expectorant,
5 days/week) for 2 years.20 Other toxicity and stomachic for dyspepsia; also used to treat
studies have found that at 1% of the diet of incontinence and indigestion;6,27 relieving
rats for 16 weeks, carvone produced testicular menstrual discomforts, promoting milk secre-
atrophy and retarded growth; at 0.1% and tion, and others (WICHTL; WREN).
0.25% of the diet of rats for 28 weeks it had
no deleterious effects; and that based on a
12-week study, the maximum acceptable daily COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
intake of carvone in rats was 1 mg/kg.19
Fruit and oil; official in N.F. and F.C.C.;
formerly official in U.S.P.
USES
Regulatory Status. GRAS as a spice, natural
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. flavoring, or seasoning (§182.10); essential
Used in some carminative, stomachic, and oil, oleoresin, and natural extractives are also
laxative preparations. Caraway oil is widely GRAS (§182.20). Both essential oil and fruits
used in Europe in combination with pepper- are subjects of German therapeutic mono-
mint oil (see peppermint) and other oils in the graphs. Essential oil (in daily dose of 3–6
treatment of dyspepsia;6,20–26 also used as a drops); spasmolytic, antimicrobial; for dys-
flavor in pharmaceuticals and as a fragrance peptic complaints such as mild gastrointesti-
component in cosmetic preparations including nal spasm, bloating, and fullness. Seed used
toothpaste, mouthwash, soaps, creams, lo- similarly, though therapeutic use not recom-
tions, and perfumes, with maximum use level mended since efficacy is not well documented
of 0.4% reported in perfumes. (BLUMENTHAL 1).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; BARRETT; BISSET; BLUMENTHAL 1; CLAUS; FEMA; FOSTER; GRIEVE;
GUENTHER; JIANGSU; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; LUST; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; USD 26th; WREN.
140 Cardamom
Source: Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton Perennial reed-like plant with lance-shaped
var. cardamomum (syn. E. cardamomum leaves borne on long sheathing stems, up to
var. miniscula Burkill) (Family Zingibe- about 4 m high; native to tropical Asia; now
raceae). cultivated extensively in tropical regions, par-
ticularly India (Malabar coast), Sri Lanka
Common/vernacular names: Cardamom, car- (Ceylon), Laos, Guatemala, and El Salvador.
damom seed. Parts used are the dried, nearly ripe fruits with
Cardamom 141
seeds from which an essential oil is obtained Alcohol and aqueous extracts of various plant
by steam distillation. The long wild native parts of E. cardamomum inhibited the in vitro
cardamon of Sri Lanka is obtained from growth of a human pathogenic strain of Sal-
E. cardamomum var. major Thwaites (syn. monella typhi.10
E. cardamomum var. miniscula Burkill), An aqueous extract of the seeds increases
which has comparatively more elongated trypsin activity in buffer solution.11
fruits (up to approximately 4 cm) than var.
cardamomom, and dark brown pericarps with
coarse striations, the oil of the which is used as TOXICOLOGY
a natural flavoring in liqueurs.
Available data indicate cardamom oil to be
nontoxic.12 No mutagenic activity was found
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION from cardamom in the Ames test.13
China as a carminative, stimulant, and to treat Regulatory Status. Use of the seed as a spice,
urinary problems, among other conditions. natural flavoring, and natural seasoning
The cardamom used in China for these (§182.10), and the essential, natural extrac-
purposes is the fruit of Amomum cardamo- tive, and solvent-free oleoresins of the seed are
mum L., which is considered in Chinese med- GRAS (§182.20). Fruits subject of a German
icine to be superior to that of Elettaria therapeutic monograph in medium daily dose
cardamomum (JIANGSU). Amomum carda- of 1.5 g for treatment of dyspeptic disorders
moms are from Java and Siam (WICHTL). (BLUMENTHAL 1).
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BARRETT; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; FEMA; GREIVE; GUENTHER;
GUPTA; JIANGSU; LUST; MASADA; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NANJING; ROSENGARTEN; STAHL; TERRELL; UPHOF; WICHTL.
1. M. Miyazawa and H. Kameoka, 8. H. al-Zuhair et al., Pharmacol. Res., 34,
Yukagaku, 24, 22 (1975). 79 (1996).
2. J. S. T. Chou, Koryo, 106, 55 (1974). 9. I. Kubo et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 39,
3. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 14, 87 1984 (1991).
(1989). 10. L. Daswani and A. Bohra, Adv. Plant Sci.,
4. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 16, 39 16, 87 (2003).
(1991). 11. Y. Kato, Koryo, 113, 17 (1975).
5. M. Gopalakishnan et al., J. Agric. Food 12. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
Chem., 38, 2133 (1990). 12(Suppl.), 837 (1974).
6. Y. S. Lewis et al., 6th International Cong- 13. B. A. Al-Bataina et al., J. Trace Elem.
ress of Essential Oils (Pap.), 1974, p. 65. Med. Biol., 17, 85 (2003).
7. J. Haginiwa et al., Yakugaku Zasshi, 83,
624 (1963).
Carob pods are believed to be the locusts a diet containing 15% carob gum lost weight
consumed by St. John the Baptist, hence the compared with control animals and showed
name St. John’s bread. Seeds were used in decreases in blood glucose, plasma cholester-
ancient times as weight units for gold from ol, and insulin levels, along with an increase in
which the term carat is reportedly derived. glucose tolerance.13
An infusion of the pods inhibited the
in vitro proliferation of mouse hepatocellular
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION tumor (T1) cells and induced apoptosis in the
cells.14 The crude polyphenol fraction of car-
Pod pulp contains 30–40% total fiber,1 ob pods exhibits in vitro lipid peroxidation-
30–60% (usually 40–50%) sugars mainly inhibiting, antioxidant, and free radical
composed of sucrose (up to 26% in pulp), scavenging activities.15
fructose (13%), xylose, maltose, dextrose, Selective in vitro binding to peripheral
inositols, among others; proteins; amino acids benzodiazepine receptors was found from a
(alanine, proline, valine, etc.); gallic acid; fats; methanol extract of the pods, as well as an
starch; abscisic acid (a plant growth inhibitor); extract of the leaves.16
and others.1–5 Carob pods also contain high In a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
quantities of dietary fiber1 and polyphenols, in patients diagnosed with hypercholesterol-
including proanthocyanidins,6 catechin, ()- emia, a preparation of carob pulp rich in
epicatechin gallate, ()-epigallocatecin gal- insoluble fiber (15 g/day) significantly low-
late, gallic acid, quercetin, and ellagic acid. ered total and LDL-cholesterol levels. How-
The fiber component (derived from the water- ever, triglyceride levels were only lowered in
insoluble fraction of the pods) contains 3.94% the female patients and total cholesterol levels
polphenols (dry weight), including gallotan- decreased by 4% in the females versus only
nins, cinnamic, ferulic, gallic (1.65%), p-cou- 1% in the male patients.17
maric, and syringic, acids; flavones (luteolin, Infants aged 3–21 months diagnosed with
apigenin, and chrysoeriol), flavanones (genis- acute diarrhea treated with a carob pod
tein, isoflavone, and naringenin), flavonols powder containing 40% tannins (1.5 g/kg/day)
(isorhamnetin, kaempferol, myricetin, and showed a significant increase in normal defe-
quercetin), and flavonol glycosides (quercetin cation and a faster return to normal body
arabinoside and others).7 temperature and weight and the cessation of
The seeds contain protein, a high content of vomiting compared to placebo.18
essential fatty acids (mostly oleic, linoleic,
and palmitic acids), tannins, gum (a galacto-
mannan), and others.3,8–10 The protein is lo- TOXICOLOGY
calized in the embryo and cotyledons while
the gum is present mainly in the endosperm The addition of carob bean gum (9.5 g) to the
(LIST AND HÖRHAMMER). normal daily diet of healthy humans (ages
19–25 years) was found to significantly reduce
the absorption of iron, calcium, and zinc, but
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL not copper.19
ACTIVITIES
(carob syrup, etc.) have been used as food for products containing carob include brownies,
centuries. Currently, the flour is popular in carob chip cookies, candy bars, bits, creams,
health foods and as a cocoa substitute, for fudge, carob-flavored milk, and so on.20
which roasted kibbles are used, while carob
extracts are widely used as flavor ingredients Traditional Medicine. The dried seed ker-
(e.g., butterscotch, imitation chocolate, and nels (GHAZANFAR) and carob flour has long
vanilla) in all kinds of food products, including been used as an antidiarrheal by people of the
alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen Mediterranean and Aegean regions.21 The
dairy desserts, candy, baked goods, gelatins and ancient Egyptians used the pods in topical
puddings, meat and meat products, condiments treatments of wounds and eye conditions,
and relishes, fruit and ices, sweet sauces, grav- and internally in other conditions (MANNICHE).
ies, imitation dairy, and many others. Highest A decoction of the pods has been used for
average maximum use levels reported are in catarrhal infections (UPHOF).
imitation dairy (0.50%), fruit and ices (0.50%),
gravies (0.46%), sweet sauces (0.46%), and
condiments and relishes (0.42%). Carob seed
is also the source of locust bean gum (galacto- COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
mannan) that is widely used in foods to increase
viscosity. Roasted and unroasted crude (kibbles), syr-
up, and extracts; extracts usually come in
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Carob specific flavor strengths, depending on users’
flour is widely used in health food products, requirements.
including weight-loss formulations, ‘‘energy’’
bars, tea formulations, and other products, Regulatory Status. Essential oil, solvent-free
primarily as a chocolate substitute. oleoresin, and natural extractives of
Use of carob in the United States is largely carob bean/St. John’s bread are GRAS
as a chocolate substitute; imitation chocolate (§182.20).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; FEMA; UPHOF.
1. B. Haber, Cereal Foods World, 47, 365 9. J. Artaud et al., Ann. Falsif. Expert.
(2002). Chim., 69(737), 23 (1976).
2. T.G.Loo,PublicR.Trop.Inst.Amsterdam, 10. I. Orhan and B. Sener, J. Herbal
288 (1969). Pharmacother., 2, 29 (2002).
3. Y. Vardar et al., Qual. Plant. Mater. Veg., 11. K. Perez-Olleros et al., J. Sci. Food Agric.,
21, 367 (1972). 79, 173 (1999).
4. M. A. Joslyn et al., J. Sci. Food Agric., 19, 12. P. Wuersch, J. Nutr., 109, 685 (1970).
543 (1968). 13. A. M. Forestieri, Phytother. Res., 3, 1,
5. B. H. Most et al., Planta, 92, 41 (1970). (1989).
6. R. Avallone et al., Food Comp. Anal., 10, 14. L. Corsi et al., Fitoterapia, 73, 674
166 (1997). (2002).
7. R. W. Owen et al., Food Chem. Toxicol., 15. S. Kumazawa et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
41, 1727 (2003). 50, 373 (2002).
8. J. Artaud et al., Ann. Falsif. Expert. 16. R. Avallone et al., Fitoterapia, 73, 390
Chim., 70(749), 39 (1977). (2002).
Carrageenan 145
17. H. J. F. Zunft et al., Eur. J. Nutr., 42, 235 20. J. Ott, The Cacahuatl Eater: Ruminations
(2003). of an Unabashed Chocolate Addict,
18. H. Loeb et al., J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Natural Products, Co., Vashon, WA,
Nutr., 8, 480 (1989). 1985.
19. A. E. Harmuth-Hoene et al., Z. Ernahru- 21. S. Aksit et al., Paediatr. Perinat. Epide-
ngswiss., 21, 202 (1982). miol., 12, 176 (1998).
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Carrageenan is a sulfated, straight-chain poly-
Carrageenan is a seaweed gum (hydrocolloid) galactan composed of residues of D-galactose
obtained from various red algae growing along and 3,6-anhydro-D-galactose with a molecular
the Atlantic coast of Europe and North Amer- weight usually of 100,000–500,000. It con-
ica, with C. crispus (Irish moss) as its major tains a high content of sulfate (20–40% dry
source. It occurs in the intercellular matrix and weight basis). The number and position of
cell walls of the algae and constitutes 60–80% the sulfate groups and the ratio of galactose
of their salt-free dry weight.1–3 Its primary use to 3,6-anhydrogalactose vary greatly. Carra-
is as a food stabilizer. geenan generally contains two major frac-
In the manufacture of carrageenan, the tions: a gelling fraction called k-carrageenan
dried seaweed is first cleaned with cold water and a nongelling fraction called l-carrageen-
and mechanical devices to remove salt and an; k-carrageenan contains D-galactose, 3,6-
other extraneous materials. It is then extracted anhydro-D-galactose and ester sulfate groups,
with hot water containing calcium or sodium while l-carrageenan contains D-galactose and
hydroxide. The extract is clarified by filtration, its monosulfate and disulfate esters. Other
its pH adjusted to slightly basic, and carra- types of carrageenan include i-carrageenan,
geenan is obtained either by direct drum or roll which is composed mainly of monosulfates
drying of the filtrate or by precipitation with of D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-D-galactose
alcohol (e.g., ethyl or isopropyl), depending (FURIA).2,6,7
on the type or purity desired.4,5 The United l-Carrageenan is readily soluble in cold
States and European countries (e.g., Denmark, water to form a viscous solution regardless of
France, and Spain) are the major carrageenan the cations present, whereas k-carrageenan is
producers, with the United States being by far precipitated by potassium ions. The potassium
the largest. salt of carrageenan, however, is soluble in
Carrageenan comes in many types with water on heating and forms an elastic gel on
different solubilities and gel characteristics, cooling; the elasticity or rigidity of the gel
146 Carrageenan
At high doses the degraded form of carrageen- Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Carra-
an (poligeenan) shows various toxic effects, geenan is used in various weight-loss
Carrot oils 147
formulations; also in drinks, especially aloe grades and types to meet specific end use
vera, fruit juice, and herbal drinks. requirements. Official in F.C.C. and N.F.
REFERENCES
See the General References for FEMA; FURIA; GLICKSMAN; GRIEVE; LAWRENCE; LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS; LUST;
MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; UPHOF; WHISTLER AND BEMILLER; WREN; YOUNGKEN.
1. E. L. McCandless et al., Can. J. Bot., 55, and Their Roles, AVI, Westport, CT,
2053 (1977). 1969, p. 73.
2. D. J. Stancioff and D. W. Renn, ACS 7. S. M. Cohen and N. Ito, Crit. Rev.
Symp. Ser., 15, 282 (1975). Toxicol., 32, 413 (2002).
3. R. L. Whistler and C. L. Smart, Polysa- 8. J. E. Sawicki and P. J. Catanzaro, Int.
ccharide Chemistry, Academic Press, Arch. Allergy Appl. Immunol., 49, 709
New York, 1953, p. 218. (1975).
4. C. T. Blood in L. W. Codd et al., eds., 9. C. J. Morris, Methods Mol. Biol., 225, 115
Chemical Technology: An Encyclopedic (2003).
Treatment, Vol. 5, Barnes & Noble, 10. E. E. Deschner et al., Clin. Gastro-
New York, 1972, p. 27. enterol., 10, 755 (1981).
5. K. B. Guiseley in A. Standen, ed., Kirk- 11. F. Arnal-Peyrot and J. Adrian, Med. Nutr.,
Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical 13, 49 (1977).
Technology, Vol. 17, 2nd ed., Wiley–
12. A. Trius and J. G. Sebranek, Food Sci.
Interscience, New York, 1968, p. 763.
Nutr., 36, 69 (1996).
6. R. L. Whistler in W. H. Schultz et al., eds.,
Symposium on Foods: Carbohydrates
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; BARNES; CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER;
FEMA; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; HUANG; JIANGSU; JIXIAN; LUST; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NANJING; TERRELL.
1. R. M. Siefert et al., J. Sci. Food Agric., 19, 10. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 15, 4, 63
383 (1968). (1990).
2. L. N. Chelovskaya and A. G. Nikolaev, 11. R. A. Momin and M. G. Nair, J. Agric.
Mezhdunar. Kongr. Efirnym Maslam Food Chem., 50, 4475 (2002)
(Mater.), 4th (Pub. 1972), 2 227, (1968). 12. T. Kobayashi et al., J. Plant Physiol., 160,
3. H. Strzelecka and T. Soroczynska, Farm. 713 (2003).
Pol., 30, 13 (1974). 13. V. Mazzoni et al., Flav. Fragr. J., 14, 268
4. J. Kuleska et al., Riechst., Aromen, (1999).
K€orperpflegem., 23, 34 (1973). 14. R. A. Momin et al., Phytother. Res., 17,
5. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 976 (2003).
14, 705 (1976). 15. M. Friedman et al., J. Food Prot., 65,
6. J. B. Harborne et al., Phytochemistry, 8, 1545 (2002).
1729 (1969). 16. G. E. Bergonzelli et al., Antimicrob.
7. G. V. Pigulevskii and V. I. Kovaleva, Rast. Agents Chemother., 47, 3240 (2003).
Resur., 2, 527 (1966). 17. C. Batt et al., J. Food Sci., 48, 762 (1983).
8. A. S. Cheema et al., Riechst., Aromen, 18. S. K. Garg and V. S. Mathur, J. Reprod.
K€orperpflegem., 25, 138 (1875). Fertil., 31, 143 (1972).
9. J. W. Hogg et al., Cosmet. Perfum., 89, 64 19. J. Kulesza et al., An. Acad. Bras. Cienc.,
(1974). 44(Suppl.), 412 (1972).
CASCARA SAGRADA and age for 1 year before use, as the fresh
bark has an emetic principle that is destroyed
Source: Frangula purshiana (D C.) J. G. on prolonged storage or by heating. This emet-
Cooper (syn. Rhamnus purshiana D C.) ic principle is now generally considered to
(Family Rhamnaceae). be composed of monoanthrones and their
O-glycosides that are oxidized to nonemetic
Common/vernacular names: Cascara, cascara anthraquinones or anthrone C-glycosides on
sagrada, chittem bark, sacred bark. storage or heat treatment.1
Small- to medium-size, deciduous tree with Contains 6–10% (usually ca. 8%) anthragly-
reddish brown bark and hairy twigs; up to cosides as its active principles that consist
about 13 m high; native to the Pacific Coast primarily (60% or more) of C-glucosides
of North America (northern California, (cascarosides) A, B, C, D, E, and F and
Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, Idaho, barbaloin and chrysaloin), with minor con-
and Montana). Part used is the bark, which is centrations of O-glycosides (e.g., frangulin)
removed from trees with trunk diameter of also present. Other constituents include free
about 10 cm or more; it is then allowed to dry anthraquinones (e.g., emodin, aloe-emodin,
150 Cascara sagrada
isoemodin, and chrysophanol, also known as Food. Only the bitterless extract is repor-
chrysophanic acid), resins, tannins, and lipids, tedly used as a flavor component in foods,
among others (STAHL).1–6 including nonalcoholic beverages, frozen
Cascarosides account for 60–70% of the dairy desserts, and candy and baked goods.
total anthraglycosides (anthracene deriva- Average maximum use level is below 0.008%
tives) present; the remainder (10–20%) con- (75 ppm).
sists mostly of anthraquinone-O-glucosides
(e.g., frangulaemodin- and aloe-emodin- Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Crude
8-O-glucoside), aglycones of chrysophanol, aged bark used in laxative and detoxicant teas;
frangulaemodin, aloe-emodin, and physcion), extracts in herbal formulas (capsules, tablets,
and small amounts of hetero- and isodian- drinks, etc.) for the laxative and alleged
thrones (WICHTL). Cascarosides A and B are detoxicant effects.
O-glucosides of barbaloin, while cascarosides
C and D are O-glucosides of chrysaloin. Mild Traditional Medicine. Bark infusion used
acid hydrolysis of cascarosides yields aloins, by various North American Indian tribes as
which, however, can be broken down to their a laxative and purgative; also taken for arthri-
aglycones only by strong oxidative hydrolysis. tis and rheumatism, as a treatment for worms
in children, and used topically for sores
(MOERMAN); reportedly used in treatments of
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL cancer.13
ACTIVITIES
REFERENCES
See the General References for APhA; BAILEY 1; BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND
BEUTLER; ESCOP 1; FEMA; FUGH-BERMAN; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; LUST; MARTINDALE; STAHL; WICHTL;
YOUNGKEN.
Cascarilla bark 151
types and men’s fragrances), with maximum Traditional Medicine. Used in the treat-
use level of 0.4% reported in perfumes.13 The ment of fevers,14 malaria, dysentery, dyspep-
oil is used by compounders, especially for sia (DUKE 2), and as digestive,3 aromatic
men’s fragrances, because of its power and bitter, aromatic stimulant, and body tonic
tenacity.5 (AYENSU).
Food. Extract is mainly used as a tobacco Others. Used in flavoring smoking tobacco.
additive4 and in alcoholic (bitters and li-
queurs) and nonalcoholic beverages, with av-
erage maximum use levels of 0.01% and about COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
0.08% (775 ppm), respectively. Essential oil
is used as a flavor ingredient in most major Crude, extracts, and essential oil; oil is official
categories of food products, including alco- in F.C.C.
holic and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen
dairy desserts, candy, baked goods, and con-
diments and relishes. Highest average maxi- Regulatory Status. Essential oil, solvent-free
mum use level is 0.007% (72.1 ppm) reported oleoresin, and natural extractives are GRAS
for the last category. (§182.20).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; AYENSU; BAILEY 2; FEMA; GUENTHER; GRIEVE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
MERCK; TERRELL; UPHOF; YOUNGKEN.
1. C. D. Adams, Flowering Plants of 8. A. Claude-LaFontaine et al., Bull. Soc.
Jamaica, University of the West Indies, Chim. Fr., 1–2, 88 (1976).
Mona, Jamaica, 1972, p. 414. 9. O. Motl and A. Trka, Parf€um. Kosmet.,
2. C. Vigor et al., Phytochemistry, 57, 1209 54, 5 (1973).
(2001). 10. O. Motl et al., Phytochemistry, 11, 407
3. G. Appendino et al., J. Agric. Food (1972).
Chem., 51, 6970 (2003). 11. J. C. Maruzzella and N. A. Sicurella,
4. E. Fattorusso et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., J. Am. Pharm. Ass., 49, 692 (1960).
50, 5131 (2002). 12. J. C. Maruzzella and L. Liguori, J. Am.
5. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flavor., 2(1), 3 Pharm. Ass., 47, 250 (1958).
(1977). 13. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
6. M. L. Hagedorn et al., Flav. Fragr. J., 6, 14, 707 (1976).
193 (1991). 14. W. B. Mors et al., Medicinal Plants of
7. A. Claude-LaFontaine et al., Bull. Soc. Brazil, Reference Publications, Algonac,
Chim. Fr., 9–10, 2866 (1973). MI, 2000.
CASSIE ABSOLUTE
Common/vernacular names: Cassie absolute,
Source: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. huisache, popinac absolute, and sweet
(Family Leguminosae or Fabaceae). acacia.
Cassie absolute 153
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; CSIR I; DUKE 1; DUKE 2; GUENTHER; GUPTA; JIANGSU;
LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MORTON 2; ROSE; UPHOF.
1. C. D. Adams, Flowering Plants of 3. M. S. Karawaya et al., Bull. Fac. Pharm.
Jamaica, University of the West Indies, Cairo Univ., 13, 183 (1974).
Mona, Jamaica, 1972, p. 336. 4. A. El-Hamidi and I. Sidrak, Planta Med.,
2. E. Demole et al., Helv. Chim. Acta, 52, 24 18, 98 (1970).
(1969).
154 Castor oil
locomotor disturbances, impaired vision, been used to treat asthma (Haiti). Other uses of
abnormal posture, growth depression, anemia the oil include intestinal colic (Iran), vomiting,
with significant increases in serum sorbitol prolapse of the rectum, hemorrhoids (Brazil),
dehydrogenase, glutamic dehydrogenase, glu- diarrhea (South Africa), and as a purgative
tamic oxaloacetic transaminase, potassium, (Italy, Indonesia, Philippines, Mexico, Argen-
and total hepatic and cardiac lipids. Decreases tina, Columbia, and Brazil). Topical uses
in hepatic vitamin A, serum protein totals, and include bone deformities, limb paralysis
manganese were also observed.7 Other animal (Algeria), bedsores (Nigeria), bronchial catarrh
studies on the seeds have reported fever, (Guatemala), flatulence in children, mastitis
perspiration, vomiting, diarrhea, and eventual during breastfeeding (Indian and Pakistan),
death.5 tinea or seborrhea of the scalp (Ethiopia),
scabies (Angola), sedative (East and South
Africa), warts, old age spots, ulcerated feet
USES (Columbia), scalds (Brazil), burns, eczema
(Russia), conjunctivitis (India), sties, and red-
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. dening and irritation of the eyes (Columbia).
Used as a cathartic, particularly in the treat- Theoil hasalso been instilledintothe ear totreat
ment of food poisoning and in evacuation of otitis (Sri Lanka) and earache (Italy).5
the bowel before X-ray examination; as a
solvent or vehicle in some parenteral and Others. The seed oil was used by the ancient
ophthalmic preparations; as an ingredient in Egyptians for embalming in mummification;9
lipsticks, hair-grooming products, ointments, however, by far the largest use of castor oil
creams, lotions, transparent soaps, supposito- is as its dehydrated or partially dehydrated
ry bases, and others. form in industrial lubricants, coatings, paints,
varnishes, and others; also in synthesis of
Food. Castor oil is used as an antisticking urethanes, foams, plastics, and certain per-
and release agent in hard candy production fume chemicals, among others.1,2,10 Sulfonat-
and as a component of protective coatings in ed castor oil (Turkey red oil) is widely used
tablets (vitamins, minerals, etc.); as a flavor in the textile and printing industry as a
component (e.g., butter and nut flavors) in surfactant.11
major categories of foods such as nonalcohol-
ic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy,
baked goods, and meat and meat products, COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
with highest average maximum use level of
0.055% reported for frozen dairy desserts. No. 1 and no. 3 quality oils. Castor oil is
official in U.S.P. and F.C.C.
Traditional Medicine. Castor oil has been
used for centuries in India, Egypt, and China Regulatory Status. Castor oil is approved for
as a cathartic and externally for sores and use in foods as a natural flavoring substance
abscesses, among others; seeds also reportedly (§172.510) and as a diluent in color additive
used as an oral contraceptive in Algiers8 and mixtures for finished foods in a concentration
India.5 A teaspoon of the oil with parsley has of not more than 500 ppm (§73.1).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 2; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DUKE
4; FEMA; GRIEVE; JIXIAN; BRUNETON; JIANGSU; HUANG; LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS; GRIEVE; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN
1 & 2; MERCK; NANJING; UPHOF; USD 26th; YOUNGKEN.
156 Castoreum
TOXICOLOGY
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Few tests (primarily dermatological) using
Contains 1–2% volatile oil; 0.33–2.5% cas- castoreum tincture have indicated it to be
torin (a waxy crystalline substance separated nontoxic.3
Catechu (black and pale) 157
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; FEMA; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MARTINDALE; POUCHER.
1. E. Shiftan in A. Standen, ed., Kirk-Othmer 2. Z. Valenta et al., Experientia, 17, 130
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, (1961).
Vol. 14, 2nd ed., Wiley–Interscience, 3. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
New York, 1967, p. 717. 11, 1061 (1973).
Fed to rats as part of the normal diet (0.1%), Others. As a source of tannic acid used for
Indian catechu (‘‘katha’’) was found to de- tanning and dyeing.
crease liver and blood levels of niacin by 43%
and 48%, respectively.7 Also, at 0.5% of the
diet, the minimum daily requirement of niacin COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
was increased and niacin content of liver,
blood, and muscle was decreased.8 Crude and extracts (e.g., tincture). Black cat-
echu was formerly official in U.S.P., while
pale catechu was official in N.F.
USES
Regulatory Status. Black catechu is ap-
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. proved for food use as a natural flavoring
Both black and pale catechus are used (§172.510).
Catnip 159
REFERENCES
See the General References for CLAUS; EVANS; FEMA; GRIEVE; KARRER; JIANGSU; MARTINDALE; MERCK;
NANJING; TERRELL.
1. W. Gardner, Chemical Synonyms and 6. J. S. K. Sham et al., Planta Med., 50, 177
Trade Names, 6th ed., The Technical (1984).
Press, London, 1968, p. 182. 7. P. N. Chaudhari and V. G. Hatwalne,
2. L. Merlini et al., Tetrahedron, 23, 3129 J. Vitaminol., 17, 105 (1971).
(1967). 8. P. N. Chaudhari and V. G. Hatwalne,
3. C. Cardani, Corsi Semin. Chim., 11, 131 J. Vitaminol., 17, 125 (1971).
(1968). 9. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 97 (1970).
4. L. Merlini et al., Phytochemistry, 11, 10. D. Ojha et al., Int. J. Lepr. Other
1525 (1972). Mycobact. Dis., 37, 302 (1969).
5. K. C. Chan, Tetrahedron Lett., 30, 3403 11. A. Jain et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 90, 171
(1968). (2004).
withdrawn cats respond poorly. Nepetalactone Food. The leaves and flowering tops have
or catnip oil elicit the response when applied been used as a flavoring in sauces and cooked
as an odor,2 but not when administered orally foods; dried in mixtures for soups, stews, and
or by i.p. injection.7 Acute doses of catnip so on (DUKE 2).
in mice (10% of diet) increased locomotion
frequencies, rearing, and susceptibility to in-
duced seizures and decreased sodium pento- Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Tops in
barbital-induced sleeping time. Short-term teas; pleasant-tasting, mint-like characteristic
effects were ‘‘amphetamine-like,’’ whereas (FOSTER).
long-term administration produced tolerance
with adaptative changes.8 Traditional Medicine. American Indian
Diethyl ether extract of plant and nepeta- uses include colds, fever, colic, sedative, sleep
lactones have shown in vitro antibacterial and aid, headaches, constipation, diarrhea, rheu-
antifungal activities.9,10 Vapors of nepetalac- matism and pains in babies, and tea; also used
tone have shown repellent activity in 13 fami- as a diaphoretic; majority of uses in infants
lies of insects.11 The essential oil and the two (MOERMAN). Used in Europe in the treatment of
isomers of nepetalactone have shown insect colds, fever, headaches, insanity, restlessness,
repellent activity to subterranean termites nervousness, flatulence; bruised leaves in
(Reticulitermes spp)12 and to male German ointment for hemorrhoids; also diaphoretic,
cockroaches (Blattella germanica); E,Z-nepe- antispasmodic, and mild stimulant; children’s
talactone showed greaterrepellent activitythan remedy (GRIEVE).
DEET (N,N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide).13
REFERENCES
See the General References for CSIR VII; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DUKE 2; GUENTHER; HARBOURNE
AND BAXTER; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; GRIEVE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; SIMON, STEINMETZ; TUTIN 3; TYLER 1–3; uphof;
wren.
Cedar leaf oil 161
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; FEMA; GUENTHER; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; LUST;
GRIEVE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; merck; terrell; uphof; wren; youngken.
1. A. C. Shaw, Can. J. Chem., 31, 277 6. N. Beuscher and L. Kopanski, Planta Med.,
(1953). 52, 111P (1986).
2. R. M. Ideda et al., J. Food Sci., 27, 455 7. T. Vomel, Arzneim.-Forsch., 35II, 1437
(1962). (1985).
3. D. V. Banthorpe et al., Planta Med., 23, 64 8. H. Wagner and A. Proksch, in N.
(1973). Farnsworth, N. H. Hikino, and H. Wagner,
4. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 12 eds., Economic and Medicinal Plant
(Suppl.), 843 (1974). Research, Vol. 1, Academic Press, New
York, 1985, p. 113.
5. S. Simard et al., J. Wood Chem. Technol., 8,
561 (1988). 9. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 288 (1970).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; FERNALD; GUENTHER; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL;
MARTINDALE; POUCHER; SAX.
1. R. P. Adams, Econ. Bot., 41, 48 (1987). 11. D. R. Adams et al., Tetrahedron Lett., 44,
2. J. A. Wenninger et al., J. Assoc. Offic. 3903 (1974).
Anal. Chem., 50, 1304 (1967). 12. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
3. W. D. Fordham in L. W. Codd et al., eds., 14, 709 (1976).
Chemical Technology: An Encyclopedic 13. S. Abe et al., Jpn. J. Med. Mycol., 44, 285
Treatment, Vol. 5, Barnes & Noble, (2003).
New York, 1972, p. 1. 14. M. Lahlou, Pharm. Biol., 41, 207 (2003).
4. D. V. Banthorpe et al., Planta Med., 23, 64 15. D. Kagawa et al., Planta Med., 69, 637
(1973). (2003).
5. G. C. Kitchens et al., Givaudanian, 1, 3 16. S. Dayawansa et al., Auton. Neurosci.
(1971). Basic Clin., 108, 79 (2003).
6. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 17. A. Sano et al., Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci.,
12(Suppl.), 845 (1974). 52, 133 (1998).
7. J. A. Marshall et al. in W. Herz et al., eds., 18. F. J. C. Roe and W. E. H. Field, Food
Progress in the Chemistry of Organic Cosmet. Toxicol., 3, 311 (1965).
Natural Products, Vol. 31, Springer-
19. H. Franz et al., Contact Dermatitis, 38,
Verlag, Vienna, 1974, p. 283.
182 (1998).
8. G. C. Kitchens et al., Ger. Offen.
20. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 288 (1970).
2,202,249 (1972).
21. I. C. Hay et al., Arch. Dermatol., 134,
9. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
1349 (1998).
14, 711 (1976).
10. A. S. Pfau and P. Plattner, Helv. Chim.
Acta, 17, 129 (1934).
Celery seed 165
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; BARNES; BISSET; DER MARDEROSIAN AND
BEUTLER; FEMA; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; GUPTA; HUANG; JIANGSU; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; LUST; MARTINDALE;
NEWALL: ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL; UPHOF; WICHTL; WREN.
Centaury 167
1. A. K. Jain et al., Planta Med., 52, 246 12. M. W. Whitehouse et al., Inflammoph-
(1986). armacology, 9, 201 (2001).
2. J. Kitajima et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 13. M. W. Whitehouse et al., Inflammoph-
64, 1003 (2003). armacology, 7, 89 (1999).
3. R. A. Momin and M. G. Nair, Phyto- 14. A. Singh and S. S. Handa, J. Ethnoph-
medicine, 9, 312 (2002). armacol., 49, 119 (1995).
4. G. Zheng et al., Nutr. Cancer, 19, 77 15. B. Ahmed et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 79,
(1993). 313 (2002).
5. M. M. Ahuja and S. S. Nigam, Riechst., 16. S. R. Yu et al., Yaoxue Xuebao, 23, 656
Aromen, K€ orperpflegem., 21, 281 (1971). (1988).
6. S. I. Balbaa et al., Egypt. J. Pharm. Sci., 17. S. R. Yu et al., Acta Pharmacol. Sin., 9,
16, 383 (1976). 385 (1988).
7. L. F. Bjeldanes and I. Kim, J. Org. Chem., 18. S. R. Yu et al., Yaoxue Tongbao, 20, 187
42, 2333 (1977). (1985).
8. D. H. R. Barton and J. X. De Vries, 19. Y. Saito et al., Eiyo To Shokuryo, 29, 505
J. Chem. Soc. (London), 1916 (1963). (1976).
9. H. J. Gold and C. W. Wilson III, J. Org. 20. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
Chem., 28, 985 (1963). 12(Suppl.), 849 (1974).
10. R. M. Ideda et al., J. Food Sci., 27, 455 21. R. M. Adams, in J. B. Lippincott, ed.,
(1962). Occupational Contact Dermatitis, Phila-
11. F. Destaillats and P. Angers, Lipids, 37, delphia, PA, 1969, p. 190.
527 (2002).
lactone, etc.), xanthones (decussatin, eustomin, Europe to increase gastric secretions for
desmethyleustomin, methylbellidifolin, etc.), dyspeptic discomfort and loss of appetite
sterols (sitosterol, campesterol, etc.),fatty acids (BLUMENTHAL 1; WICHTL). Also reportedly used
(palmitic and stearic acids, etc.), n-alkanes in some cosmetic and toiletry preparations
(nonacosaneandheptacosane,etc.),wax,amino for its alleged soothing and astringent
acids, and others (WICHTL).1–13 properties.18
REFERENCES
See the General References for BARNES; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BISSET; BLUMENTHAL 1; DER MARDEROSIAN
AND BEUTLER; FEMA; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; LUST; MCGUFFIN1 & 2; STAHL; TUTIN ET AL. 3; UPHOF.
1. K. Sakina and K. Aota, Yakugaku Zasshi, 5. F. Rulko, Pr. Nauk. Akad. Med.
96, 683 (1976). Wroclawiu, 8, 3 (1976).
2. S. S. Popov et al., Dokl. Bulg. Akad. 6. M. Hatjimanoli and A. M. Debelmas,
Nauk, 25, 1225 (1972). Ann. Pharm. Fr., 35, 107 (1977).
3. D. W. Bishay et al., Planta Med., 33, 422 7. V. Bellavita et al., Phytochemistry, 13,
(1978). 289 (1974).
4. F. Rulko and K. Witkiewicz, Diss. Pharm. 8. J. H. Zwaving, Pharm. Weekbl., 101, 605
Pharmacol., 24, 73 (1972). (1966).
Chamomile (german and roman) 169
9. N. Marekov and S. Popov, C. R. Acad. 14. P. Valent~ao et al., Phytomedicine, 10, 517
Bulg. Sci., 20, 441 (1967). (2003).
10. R. Lacroix et al., Fitoterapia, 5, 213 15. T. Berkan et al., Planta Med., 57, 34
(1983). (1991).
11. P. Valent~ao et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 16. R. Lacroix et al., Tunisie Med., 51, 327
50, 460 (2002). (1973).
12. B. Nikolova-Damyanova and N. 17. M. Mroueh et al., Phytother. Res., 18, 431
Handjieva, Phytochem. Anal., 7, 140 (2004).
(1996). 18. H. B. Heath, Cosmet. Toilet., 92, 19
13. R. Petlevski et al., Farm. Glasnik, 58, 119 (1977).
(2002). 19. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 32, 153 (1969).
CHAMOMILE (GERMAN led to great confusion over the past two dec-
AND ROMAN) ades. The currently accepted scientific name
is Matricaria recutita, though Chamomilla
Source: German chamomile Matricaria recutita and, to a lesser extent, Matricaria
recutita L. (syn. Matricaria chamomilla chamomilla are still commonly seen in the
L., Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert) literature.1
(Family Compositae or Asteraceae); Roman chamomile is a strongly fragrant,
Roman chamomile Chamaemelum nobile hairy, half-spreading, and much-branched
(L.) All. (syn. Anthemis nobilis L.) (Family perennial, with mostly white ligulate flower-
Compositae or Asteraceae). heads up to 3 cm across; up to about 0.3 m
high; native to southern and western Europe;
Common/vernacular names: Chamomile, naturalized in North America; cultivated in
German chamomile, Hungarian chamomile, England, Belgium, the United States, Argen-
manzanilla, matricaria, sweet false chamo- tina, and other countries. Parts used are the
mile, wild chamomile (M. recutita); English dried expanded flowerheads.
chamomile, garden chamomile, Roman cham-
omile (C. nobile); camomile.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
chamomile, has been implicated in a case of deodorant and stimulative to skin metabolism
allergic contact dermatitis of the nipple.43 (BLUMENTHAL 1).1
The acute oral LD50 of German or Roman
chamomile in rats is >5 g/kg; oral LD50 of Food. The essential oils and extracts of
German chamomile oil in mice is 2.5 mL/kg. both German and Roman chamomiles are used
The oil of Roman chamomile lacks phototoxic as flavor components in most major food
effects in animals, and neither oil showed categories, including alcoholic (bitters, ver-
irritating nor sensitizing effects on human skin mouths, Benedictine liqueurs, etc.) and non-
(NEWALL).44,45 Long-term oral toxicity studies alcoholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts,
of German chamomile in dogs and rats found candy, baked goods, and gelatins and pud-
no toxicity and no changes in pups from dings. Average maximum use levels reported
prenatal dosing; also, no teratogenic effects are usually less than 0.002% for the oils.
in rats after long-term administration; no tox-
icity from 3-week topical application on rab- Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Ger-
bits; no toxic effects from the oil applied to the man chamomile and to a lesser extent Roman
backs of hairless mice and limited irritation chamomile crude flower heads or extracts are
applied for 24 h to the skin of rabbits.1 one of the most widely used herb tea ingre-
dients, singly or in combination with other
ingredients. Topical products are used in cos-
USES metics against inflammation. Tinctures and
extracts are used as mild sleep aids, antispas-
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. modics, and digestive aids (FOSTER).
Both German chamomile and Roman cham-
omile extracts are used in pharmaceutical Traditional Medicine. An infusion of Ger-
preparations, with the former more fre- man chamomile is used in Turkish folk medi-
quently used; they are used in antiseptic cine to treat bronchitis and as a laxative and
ointments, creams, and gels to treat cracked digestive. A compress containing the infusion
nipples, sore gums, inflammations, irritation is applied to treat eye strain and to clean the
of the skin and mucosa, respiratory tract eyes and face of babies.37 Since ancient times,
inflammation, and for wound healing. The German chamomile has been used in treating
volatile oils are used in carminative, anti- colic, diarrhea, malarial symptoms, depres-
spasmodic, and tonic preparations, among sion, indigestion, flatulence, insomnia, infan-
others. An infusion or tincture of the flower- tile convulsions in teething, mouth sores,
heads is used for gastrointestinal spasms, toothache, bleeding and swollen gums, sore
inflammatory conditions of the gastrointes- throat, and other ailments, usually in the
tinal tract, and peptic ulcers, menstrual form of an infusion, decoction, or tincture.
disorders, in addition to mild sleep disor- Also used for sciatica, gout, lumbago, skin
ders, especially in children (BRADLY; problems, and inflammation in the form of
ESCOP 1; WICHTL).
1
compresses.1
Extracts of both German and Roman cha- Roman chamomile is used essentially for
momiles are used in cosmetics and body care the same purposes (WICHTL). Both German
products including bath preparations, hair dye and Roman chamomiles have reportedly been
formulas (for blond hair), shampoos, sun- used against cancers.46
screen preparations, mouthwashes, and others.
The oils are used as fragrance components or
active ingredients in soaps, detergents, creams, COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
lotions, and perfumes. Use levels reported
range from a low of 0.0005% in detergents to Crude, extracts, and volatile oils. German
a maximum of 0.4% in perfumes; considered chamomile was formerly official in N.F., and
Chamomile (german and roman) 173
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1 & 2; ESCOP
1; FEMA; FOSTER; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS; LUST; MASADA; MCKENNA; STAHL; TERRELL;
TYLER 1–3; UPHOF; WICHTL.
1. C. Mann and E. J. Staba in L. E. Craker 12. G. Verzar-Petri et al., Herba Hung., 15, 69
and J. E. Simon, eds., Herbs, Spices, (1976).
and Medicinal Plants: Recent Advances 13. G. Verzar-Petri et al., Herba Hung., 12,
in Botany, Horticulture, and Pharma- 119 (1973).
cology, Vol. 1, Oryx Press, Phoenix,
14. L. Z. Padula et al., Planta Med., 30, 273
AZ, 1986, p. 235.
(1976).
2. R. Carle and K. Gomma, Br. J.
15. O. Isaac et al., Dtsch. Apoth. Ztg., 108,
Phytother., 2, 147 (1991–1992).
293 (1968).
3. A. G. Gorin and A. I. Yakovlev, Sb.
16. O. Motl et al., Arch. Pharm. (Weinheim),
Nauchn. Tr., Ryazan Med. Inst., 50, 9
311, 75 (1978).
(1975); through Chem. Abstr., 84,
79626z (1976). 17. M. Holub and Z. Samek, Collect. Czech.
Chem. Commun., 24, 1053 (1977).
4. J. H€olzl and G. Demuth, Planta Med., 27,
37 (1975). 18. A. Carnat et al., Fitoterapia, 75, 32
(2004).
5. C. Redaelli et al., Planta Med., 42, 288
(1981). 19. S. I. Balbaa et al., Egypt J. Pharm. Sci.,
16, 161 (1975).
6. Y. Ganeva et al., Pharmacia, 50, 3 (2003).
20. Y. Chretien-Bessiere et al., Riv. Ital.
7. V. Svehlikova et al., Phytochemistry, 65,
Essenze, Profumi, Piante Office,
2323 (2004).
Aromi, Saponi, Cosmet., Aerosol, 52,
8. J. H€olzl et al., Z. Naturforsch., 30, 853 211 (1970).
(1975).
21. G. M. Nano et al., 6th International
9. J. Reichling and H. Becker, Dtsch. Apoth. Congress of Essential Oils (Pap.), 1974,
Ztg., 117, 275 (1977). p. 114
10. O. Motl et al., Arch. Pharm. (Weinheim), 22. G. M. Nano et al., Essenze Deriv. Agrum.,
310, 210 (1977). 46, 171 (1976).
11. H. Schilcher, Planta Med., 23, 132 (1973). 23. R. Bauer, Q. Am. Herb Assoc., 9, 4 (1992).
174 Chaparral
24. R. Carle et al., Planta Med., 56, 456 36. R. Saller et al., Eur. J. Pharmacol., 183,
(1990). 728 (1990).
25. M. T. Kayyal et al., Arzneim.-Forsch., 51, 37. C. Kupfersztain et al., Clin. Exp. Obstet.
545 (2001). Gynecol., 30, 203 (2003).
26. Y. Kobayashi et al., Phytomedicine, 10, 38. G. M. Konig et al., Planta Med., 64, 612
657 (2003). (1998).
27. M. E. Aggag and R. T. Yousef, Planta 39. B. M. Hausen in P. A. G. M. De Smet et al.,
Med., 22, 140 (1972). eds., Adverse Effects of Herbal Drugs,
28. A. Grochulski and B. Borkowski, Planta Vol. 1, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1992,
Med., 21, 289 (1972). p. 243.
29. M. Szalontai et al., Parf€um Kosmet., 58, 40. E. Tuzlaci and P. E. Aymaz, Fitoterapia,
121 (1977). 72, 323 (2001).
30. O. Isaac and K. Thiemer, Arzneim.- 41. D. V. C. Awang, Leung’s (Chinese) Herb
Forsch., 25, 1352 (1975). News, 40, 2 (2003).
31. H. Wirth, Am. Perfum. Cosmet., 82, 81 42. B. M. Hausen et al., Planta Med., 50, 229
(1967). (1984).
32. N. R. Farnsworth and B. M. Morgan, 43. C. Bruce et al., Contact Dermatitis, 24,
J. Am. Med. Assoc., 221, 410 (1972). 139 (1991).
33. A. Tubaro et al., Planta Med., 50, 359 44. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
(1984). 12(Suppl.), 853 (1974).
34. T. Miller et al., Planta Med., 62, 60–61 45. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
(1996). 12(Suppl.), 851 (1974).
35. H. J. Glowania et al., Z. Hautkrank., 62, 46. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 31, 71 (1968).
1262 (1987).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Erect to prostrate evergreen shrub, 1–3 m high;
resinous, distinctively aromatic leaves, lance- Lignans dominate chemistry of resin, stems,
olate to curved, 18 mm long, 8.5 mm wide; and leaves, especially nordihydroguaiaretic
flowers solitary in axils, yellow, five-petaled, acid (NDGA), at 1.6–6.55%2 and 10–15%
twisted or propeller-like; 2.5 cm wide; domi- of the dried leaves;3 plus dihydroguaia-
nant shrub of desert scrub in much of the arid retic acid, mesodihydroguaiaretic acid, 30 -
western United States (southwest Utah to methoxyisoguaiacin, 30 -demethoxyisoguaia-
Chaparral 175
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Dried preparations, alone and combined with leaves
leaves, stems and twigs in loose, powder, and (MOERMAN); widely used popular folk remedy
extract forms in capsules, tablets, teas, and for cancer (in the United States) for facial,
other products (MOORE 1).11 stomach, liver, lung, kidney, skin cancers,
melanoma, and leukemia.30
Traditional Medicine. A decoction of chap-
arral leaves has been taken internally by south-
west American Indian tribes in the treatment COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
of rheumatism, sores, gonorrhea, tuberculosis,
bowel complaints, cramps, stomachaches, Crude herb; extracts.
sore gums (gargle), and as an emetic to bring
down high fevers; externally for rheumatism,
arthritis, sore body parts,, sores on animals; Regulatory Status. NDGA is prohibited from
leaf infusion taken internally to treat colds, use in human foods (§189.165); herb consid-
dysuria, asthma, and congestion and used ered unsafe by the F.D.A;27 oral forms volun-
externally against arthritis, rheumatism, tarily removed from U.S. market in 1992, but
sprains, aching bones, infected skin, dandruff, continue to be sold.11 Class 2b (not to be used
and impetigo sores; stems also used in various during pregnancy).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BARNES; DER MARDEROSIAN AND LIBERTI; DE SMET ET AL. ; DUKE 2; GLASBY 1;
HARBOURNE AND BAXTER; HICKMAN; HUANG; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2 ; MOORE 1; NIKITAKIS; STEINMETZ; TYLER 1;
TYLER 3; UPHOF.
1. D. M. Porter, Taxon, 23, 339 (1974). 11. Institute of Medicine and National
2. J. L. Valentine et al., Anal Lett., 17, 1617 Research Council, National Academies,
(1984). Prototype Monograph on Chaparral.
Dietary Supplement Ingredient Proto-
3. W. R. Obermeyer et al., Proc. Soc. Exp.
type Monographs, The National Acade-
Biol. Med., 208, 6 (1995).
mies Press, Washington, DC, 2004.
4. F. R. Fronczek et al., J. Nat. Prod., 40, 497
12. C. Konno et al., Proceedings of
(1987).
International Congress on Natural
5. O. Gisvold and E. Thaker, J. Pharm. Sci., Products, 2, 328 (1987).
63, 1905 (1974).
13. M. Angeles Verastegui et al., J. Ethno-
6. C. Konno et al., J. Nat. Prod., 52, 1113 pharmacol., 52, 175 (1996).
(1989).
14. L. Y. Zang et al., Mol. Cell. Biochem., 196,
7. C. Konno et al., J. Nat. Prod., 53, 396 157 (1999).
(1990).
15. D. G. Tang and K. V. Honn, J. Cell.
8. M. Sakakibrara et al., Phytochemistry, Physiol., 172, 155 (1997).
15, 727 (1976).
16. T. Seufferlein et al., Br. J. Cancer, 86,
9. J. T. Mabry et al., eds., Creosote Bush, 1188 (2002).
Biology and Chemistry of Larrea in New
17. N. Sathyamoorthy et al., Cancer Res., 54,
World Deserts, Dowden, Hutchinson and
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Ross, Stroudsburg, PA, 1977.
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10. C. F. M. T. J. Bohnsted, Rev. Latinoamer.
(1997).
Quim., 10, 128 (1979).
Chaste-tree 177
19. F. Romanelli et al., Life Sci., 63, 255 26. M. Blumenthal, HerbalGram, 28, 38
(1998). (1993).
20. B. R. Hsu et al., Cell Transplant., 10, 255 27. FDA, HHS News (December 10, 1992);
(2001). FDA Talk Paper (December 11, 1992);
21. S. Whitman et al., J. Med. Chem., 45, Food Drug Cosmet. Law Rep., 1577;
2659 (2002). §43,127 (December 28, 1992).
22. Z. Y. Wang et al., Mutat. Res., 261, 153 28. Centers for Disease Control and Pre-
(1991). vention, Morb. Mort. Weekly, 41, 812
(1992).
23. C. R. Smart et al., Rocky Mt. Med. J., 67,
39 (1970). 29. S. Heron and E. Yarnell, J. Altern.
Complement. Med., 7, 175 (2001).
24. D. Pritchard et al., In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol.
Anim., 30a, 91 (1994). 30. F. Brinker in E. K. Alstat, ed., Eclectic
Dispensatory of Natural Therapeutics,
25. M. Katz Miriam and F. Saibil, J. Clin.
Vol. 1, Eclectic Medical Publications,
Gastroenterol., 12, 203 (1990).
Portland, OR, 1989.
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 1 & 2; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER;
FELTER AND LLOYD; FOSTER; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MCKENNA; STEINMETZ; TUTIN 3; UPHOF; WEISS; WICHTL.
1. J. Liu et al., Phytomedicine, 11, 18 (2004). 11. W. Wuttke et al., Phytomedicine, 10, 348
2. H. Jarry et al., Planta Med., 69, 945 (2003).
(2003). 12. A. S. Chawala et al., J. Nat. Prod., 55, 163
3. G. Hahn et al., Notabene Med., 16, 233, (1992).
297 (1986). 13. M. Saden-Krehula et al., Short Reports of
4. E. Wollenweber and K. Mann, Planta Short Lectures and Poster Presentations,
Med., 48, 126 (1983). Bonn BACANS Symposium, P1 77, July
17–22, 1990, p. 59.
5. R. Hansel and H. Rimpler, Arch. Pharm.
(Wienhiem), 296, 598 (1963). 14. K. Ohyama et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 26,
10 (2003).
6. C. S. Gomaa et al., Planta Med., 52, 277
(1978). 15. J Liu et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 49, 2472
(2001).
7. R. Hansel and E. Winder, Arzneim.-
Forsch, 9, 180 (1959). 16. A. Antolic and Z. Males, Acta Pharm.
(Zagreb), 47, 207 (1997).
8. K. Gorler et al., Planta Med., 51, 530
(1985). 17. D. Propping, Therapiewoche, 38, 2992
(1988).
9. A. Kuruuzum-Uz et al., Phytochemistry,
63, 959 (2003). 18. D. Propping and T. Katzorke, Z. Allg., 63,
932 (1987).
10. E. Winder and R. Hansel, Arch. Pharm.
(Weinheim), 293, 556 (1960). 19. F. Alakbarov, HerbalGram, 57, 40 (2003).
America; naturalized and cultivated world- kidney and liver damage, temporary deafness,
wide. Part used is the fresh aboveground and circulatory collapse, among others. Ef-
flowering and fruiting plant, from which the fects may be cumulative. Cases of death have
volatile oil (with a disagreeable odor and bitter also been reported. (GOSSELIN; MARTINDALE).4
taste) is obtained by steam distillation. Major
producing countries include India, China,
Brazil, and the United States. Due to its high
USES
ascaridole (a peroxide) content, chenopodium
oil may explode when heated or treated with
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
acids and should be handled with caution.
Now seldom (if at all) used in pharmaceutical
preparations as it is largely replaced by syn-
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION thetic anthelmintics such as piperazine and
other compounds. Major use is as a fragrance
Contains variable amounts of ascaridole component in soaps, detergents, creams,
(17–90%, usually 60–80%), l-limonene, myr- lotions, and perfumes, with maximum use
cene, p-cymene, a-terpinene, saturated hydro- level of 0.4% reportedly used in perfumes.4
carbons (C21 to C31 with C29 predominant),
triacontyl alcohol, a-spinasterol, and others Food. The leaves and seeds of C. ambro-
(JIANGSU; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER).1–4 sioides are used in Mexican cooking as
a carminative flavoring with bean dishes
(MOORE 1).
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
ACTIVITIES Traditional Medicine. Used as an anthel-
mintic for roundworms, hookworms, and
Ascaridole, the active principle of the oil, has dwarf tapeworms, among others. Leaf, root,
anthelmintic properties, particularly against and plant of C. ambrosioides have been used
roundworms (Ascaris); it is also effective in tumors.5 In China, the fresh root is used to
against hookworms and dwarf tapeworms but treat articular rheumatism.
not large tapeworms.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
TOXICOLOGY
Essential oil. It was formerly official in N.F.
The oil is considered as very toxic. Toxic and U.S.P.
effects include irritation of skin and mucous
membranes, vomiting, headache, vertigo, Regulatory Status. Not permitted in foods.
REFERENCES
See the General References for FERNALD; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; MOORE 1; NANJING; TYLER 3; USD
26th; YOUNGKEN.
1. L. Bauer et al., Rev. Bras. Farm., 54, 240 4. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
(1973). 14, 713 (1976).
2. G. S. Gupta and M. Behari, J. Indian Chem. 5. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 31, 71 (1968).
Soc., 49, 317 (1972).
3. G. S. Gupta and M. Behari, Indian Perfum.,
18(Pt. 2), 40 (1975).
Cherokee rosehip 181
Regulatory Status. Although essential oil U.S. regulatory status of Rosa laevigata is not
solvent-free oleoresins and natural extractives established.
of other Rosa spp. are GRAS (§182.20), the
REFERENCES
See General References for BAILEY 2; CHEUNG AND LI; CHP; FOSTER AND DUKE; IMM-3; JIANGSU; JIXIAN; LU
AND LI; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2.; NATIONAL.
1. T. Yoshida et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 37, 4. X. Li, Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi/
920 (1989). Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi, 22, 298 (1997).
2. T. Yoshida et al., Phytochemistry, 28, 2451 5. X. She et al., Acta Hort. Sin., 15, 240 (1988).
(1989). 6. X. B. Ni, Zhongcaoyao, 22, 429 (1991).
3. J. Fang et al., Phytochemistry, 30, 3383 7. L. Sun et al., Jiangxi Yixueyuan Xuebao,
(1991). 30(3), 5 (1990).
Bark contains condensed tannins,1 prunasin (d- Hydrocyanic acid, present in bark extracts
mandelonitrile glucoside); emulsin; eudesmic (MARTINDALE), is a lethal poison.
acid (3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoic acid); p-couma-
ric acid; scopoletin; sugars; and others (KARRER).
Fruit skin contains capulin anthocyanins.2 USES
Prunasin is a cyanogenic glucoside that
is hydrolyzed by the enzyme prunase into Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
hydrocyanic acid (HCN, prussic acid), Extracts used extensively in cold and cough
Cherry laurel leaves 183
preparations in the form of syrups, particularly In China, the stem bark and root of a related
in formulations based on White Pine Prunus species (P. armeniaca L., the apricot)
Compound. has been used for centuries in treating apricot
kernel poisoning. Recent clinical reports
Food. Extracts used in most major food have substantiated this usage. Decoctions of
products as a flavoring substance, including the fresh bark were used to treat 80 cases of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen apricot kernel poisoning; all patients were
dairy desserts, candy, baked goods, gelatins reported to recover completely within 4 h
and puddings, processed fruits, and others. (JIANGSU).
Highest average maximum use level of the
extract (strength and type unspecified)
reported is 0.06% in alcoholic beverages.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Used
in cough syrups or bronchial formulations; Crude and extracts. Crude and syrup were
tea ingredient (FOSTER AND DUKE). formerly official in U.S.P., and fluid extract
was official in N.F. The crude comes in two
Traditional Medicine. Bark used by a num- types: thin and thick with the former being
ber of American Indian tribes for colds and considered superior in quality. Strengths (see
coughs; by the Cherokee Indian to treat laryn- glossary) of extracts are expressed in weight-
gitis and as a wash for sores and ague; by to-weight ratios; extracts may contain detect-
the Delaware to treat diarrhea and women’s able amounts of prunasin or its hydrolysis
diseases; by the Iroquois in a poultice for product, HCN.
headaches (MOERMAN). Also reportedly used
against cancers.5 Used by Canadian Indians Regulatory Status. Essential oil, solvent-free
(Delaware, Iroquois, Malecite, and Ojibwa) in oleoresin and natural extractives GRAS
treatments of diabetes and its complications.6 (§182.20); no HCN limits are specified.
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 2; CLAUS; FEMA; FERNALD; FOSTER AND DUKE; GRIEVE; KARRER;
MARTINDALE; UPHOF; USD 26th; YOUNGKEN.
1. L. Buchalter, J. Pharm, Sci., 58, 1272 4. E. F. Santamour, Phytochemistry, 47, 1537
(1968). (1998).
2. A. Ordaz-Galindo et al., Food Chem., 65, 5. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 34, 103 (1971).
201 (1999). 6. L. M. McCune and T. Johns, J.
3. D. M. Smeathers et al., Agron. J., 65, 775 Ethnopharmacol., 82, 197 (2002).
(1973).
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Food. Cherry laurel oil (FFPA) is used as a
The leaves contain variable amounts (usually flavor component in numerous food products,
ca. 1.5%) of prunasin (d-mandelonitrile glu- including alcoholic (liqueurs such as cordials,
coside), with the young and small leaves etc.) and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen
containing the highest concentrations. During dairy desserts, candy, and baked goods. High-
isolation, prunasin is partially converted to its est average maximum use level reported is
isomer sambunigrin (l-mandelonitrile gluco- 0.014% in candy.
side), resulting in a racemic mixture of the two
isomers known as prulaurasin (dl-mandeloni-
Traditional Medicine. Leaves used in treat-
trile glucoside). Other constituents present
in the leaves include 1% ursolic acid, wax, ing coughs, insomnia, stomach and intestinal
tannin, emulsin, and others (KARRER).2–4 spasms, vomiting, and other ailments; also
The oil, like bitter almond oil, is composed reportedly used in cancers.5
almost entirely of benzaldehyde and HCN,
with small amounts of benzyl alcohol.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Cherry laurel oil (FFPA) for food use
should not contain HCN.
Cherry laurel oil (FFPA).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; FEMA; GRIEVE; LIST AND
HÖRHAMMER; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MARTINDALE; MERCK; UPHOF.
1. A. Puech et al., Trav. Soc. Pharm. Montp., 2. M. Henriet et al., J. Pharm. Belg., 29, 437
36, 101 (1976). (1974).
Chervil 185
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 2; FEMA; LUST; ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. J. H. Zwaving et al., Pharm. Weekbl., 106, 4. J. B. Harborne and C. A. Williams,
182 (1971). Phytochemistry, 11, 1741 (1972).
2. J. Van Loon, Z. Lebensm. Unters. Forsch., 5. S. Fejes et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 69, 259
153, 289 (1973). (2000).
3. S. O. Brown et al., Phytochemistry, 14,
2726 (1975).
REFERENCE
See the General References for BAILEY 2; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1; FEMA; FERNALD;
KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; STAHL; UPHOF; WEISS; WREN.
1. L. K. Rieske et al., Environ. Entomol., 32,
359 (2003).
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DUKE 2; FOSTER AND DUKE;
GRIEVE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; STEINMETZ; TUTIN 1; TYLER 1; UPHOF; WEISS; WREN.
1. G. G. Tsotsoriua et al., Kromatogr. 8. G. R. Jamieson and E. H. Reid,
Metody. Farm., 172 (1977). Phytochemistry, 10, 1575 (1971).
2. J. Budzianowski and G. Pakulski, Planta 9. A. M. Rizk, The Phytochemistry of the
Med., 57, 290 (1991). Flora of Qatar, Scientific and Applied
3. G. M. Kitanov, Pharmazie, 47, 470 Research Centre, University of Qatar,
(1992). Doha, 1987, p. 26.
4. J. L. Guil et al., Plant Foods Hum. Nutr., 10. A. Pieroni et al., Phytother. Res., 16, 467
51, 99 (1997). (2002).
5. J. Hohmann et al., Fitoterapia, 67, 381 11. P. M. Guarrera, Fitoterapia, 74, 515
(1996). (2003).
6. M. L. Salo and T. Makinen, Maataloust. 12. F. Kuginuki and T. Nanba, Jpn. J.
Aikakousk, 37, 127 (1965). Pharmacol., 47, 182 (1993).
7. R. Nawaz and H. Sorenson, Phyto-
chemistry, 16, 599 (1977).
Refined chicle for use in chewing gums Food. The primary use of chicle is as the
does not contain the water-soluble constitu- ‘‘gum’’ base in chewing gum; its use level in
ents present in crude chicle. However, data on chewing gum is about 20%. The rest of the
its precise chemical composition are limited. chewing gum is sugar and corn syrup, with
small amounts of flavorings. This ‘‘gum’’ is
not a true gum (see glossary) but is close in
TOXICOLOGY chemical and physical nature to natural rubber
and resins; hence it is soft and plastic when
Limited available data indicate chicle to be chewed and is reportedly not soluble in
nontoxic.10 saliva.13
REFERENCES
See the General References for HORTUS 3rd; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TERRELL; UPHOF;
YOUNGKEN.
1. B. L. Archer and B. G. Audley in L. P. 7. E. Anderson and H. D. Ledbetter, J. Am.
Miller, ed., Phytochemistry, Vol. 2, Pharm. Assoc., 40, 623 (1951).
Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 8. Y. Tanaka et al., J. Nat. Rubber Res., 3,
1973, p. 310. 177 (1988).
2. P. D. Strausbaugh and E. L. Core in 9. Y. Sato et al., J. Jpn. Soc. Food Sci.
D. N. Lapedes et al., eds., McGraw-Hill Technol., 38, 595 (1991).
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology,
10. T. Shoji et al., Shokuhin Eiseigaku Zasshi,
Vol. 3, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1977,
6, 27 (1965).
p. 63.
11. E. M. Mendez, U.S. Pat. 3,453,361
3. F. W. Stavely et al., Rubber Chem.
(1969).
Technol., 34, 423 (1961).
12. M. Fujiwara, Jpn. Kokai 72 47,665
4. E. Azpeitia et al., Can. J. Chem., 39, 2321
(1972).
(1961).
13. H. W. Conner in D. N. Lapedes et al., eds.,
5. Y. Tanaka and H. Sato, Polymer, 17, 113
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science
(1976).
and Technology, Vol. 5, McGraw-Hill,
6. G. G. S. Dutton and S. Kabir, Carbohydr. New York, 1977, p. 447.
Res., 28, 187 (1973).
level reported for the extract (type unspecified) digestive formulations (FOSTER). Inulin is tak-
is about 0.61% (6116 ppm) in frozen dairy en in tablets as a sugar replacement, dietary
desserts, though use level in instant coffee fiber, and prebiotic.22
substitutes could be much higher.
Ground roasted root is increasingly more
used admixed with coffee to impart ‘‘richer’’ Traditional Medicine. Both root and herb
flavor and to decrease the caffeine content of reportedly used as bitter tonics to increase
the resulting coffee formulation. This use is appetite and to treat digestive problems, usu-
very common in Europe. ally in the form of tea or as juice. Also used as
Chicory leaf buds known as ‘‘chicons,’’ diuretics and in treating gallstones, liver ail-
usually obtained from the Witloof variety, are ments (e.g., hepatitis), and cancers, among
used as a vegetable and salad.20 others (JIANGSU).23
Chicory inulin has 10% of the sweetness of
sugar and is used as a fat and sugar replace-
ment, fiber, and prebiotic in dairy products, COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
frozen desserts, fruit preparations, breads and
baked goods, and dietetic products; also as Crudes (both roasted and unroasted) and their
a fat replacement in table spreads, salad extracts; strengths (see glossary) of extracts
dressings, meat products, and fillings; as a are either expressed in weight-to-weight ratios
fiber and prebiotic in breakfast cereals; sugar or in terms of flavor potencies.
replacement and fiber in chocolate; also used
to provide form stability, moisture retention, Regulatory Status. Essential oil, natural
texture improvement, texture, crispness, and extractive, and solvent-free oleoresin are
mouthfeel in diverse foods.21 GRAS (§182.20). Chicory inulin is confirmed
GRAS.22 Root and herb subject of a combined
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. The positive German therapeutic monograph for
root and leaves reportedly used as a flavor mild dyspeptic disorders and loss of appetite
component in herb teas; also in diuretic and (BLUMENTHAL 1).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 2; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1; FEMA; FERNALD;
FOSTER; GRIEVE; JIANGSU; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; LUST.
1. M. P. J. Kierstan, Biotechnol. Bioeng., 20, 8. G. F. Fedorin et al., Rast. Resur., 10, 573
447 (1978). (1974).
2. S. I. Balbaa et al., Planta Med., 24, 133 9. V. G. Dem’yanenko et al., USSR, 577, 033
(1973). (1977).
3. J. Promayon et al., Cafe, Cacao, The, 20, 10. H. Schmidtlein and K. Herrmann,
209 (1976). Z. Lebesm. Unters. Forsch., 159, 255
4. M. Blanc, Lebensm. Wiss. Technol., 11, (1975).
19 (1978). 11. H. Shin et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 51,
5. A. Sannai et al., Agric. Biol. Chem., 46, 6726 (2003).
429 (1982). 12. B. Pool-Zobel et al., Br. J. Nutr.,
6. S. Kawabata and M. Deki, Kanzei Chuo 87(Suppl. 2), S273 (2002).
Bunsekishoho, 17, 63 (1977). 13. H. S. Taper and M. B. Roberfroid, Br. J.
7. A. Proliac and M. Blanc, Helv. Chim. Nutr., 87(Suppl. 2), S283 (2002).
Acta, 59, 2503 (1976).
192 Chirata
14. M. B. Roberfroid et al., J. Nutr., 128, 11 19. C. A. Roy, Indian J. Ind. Med., 42, 217
(1998). (1996).
15. G. R. Gibson et al., Gastroenterol., 108, 20. J. Swabey in L. W. Codd et al., eds.,
975 (1995). Chemical Technology: An Encyclopedic
16. J. L. Causey et al., Nutr. Res., 20, 191 Treatment, Vol. 7, Barnes & Noble,
(2000). New York, 1975, p. 287.
17. J. C. Mitchell in V. C. Runeckles, ed., 21. A. Franck, Br. J. Nutr., 87(Suppl. 2), S287
Recent Advances in Phytochemistry, (2002).
Vol. 9, Plenum Press, New York, 1975, 22. R.A.A.Coussement,J.Nutr.,129(Suppl.),
p. 119. 7S, 1412S (1999).
18. R. M. Adams, Occupational Contact 23. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 31, 71 (1968).
Dermatitis, J. B. Lippincott, Philadel-
phia, 1969, p. 188.
USES
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
Used in certain bitter tonic preparations. Limited availability as crude
Food. Reportedly used in alcoholic (bitters)
Regulatory Status. Approved for use as a
and nonalcoholic beverages. Average maxi-
natural flavoring substance in alcoholic bev-
mum use levels reported are 0.0016% and
erages only (§172.510).
0.0008%, respectively.
REFERENCES
See the General References for CSIR I; FEMA; GRIEVE; GUPTA; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; UPHOF; YOUNGKEN.
1. A. K. Chakravarty et al., Indian J. Chem., 11. I. V. M. L. R. Sirish Kumar et al.,
33B, 405 (1994). Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol., 25,
2. R. K. Asthana et al., Phytochemistry, 30, 573 (2003).
1037 (1991). 12. A. Kar et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 84, 105
3. K. K. Purushothaman et al., Leather Sci. (2003).
(Madras), 20, 132 (1973). 13. B. C. Sekar et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 21,
4. M. Komatsu et al., Jpn. Kokai, 7127,558 175 (1987).
(1971). 14. M. B. Bajpai et al., Planta Med., 57, 102
5. S. Ghosal et al., J. Pharm. Sci., 62, 926 (1991).
(1973). 15. A. M. Saxena et al., Indian J. Exp. Biol.,
6. L. Bennaroche et al., C. R. Acad. Sci. Ser. 29, 674 (1991).
D, 280, 2493 (1975). 16. A. M. Saxena et al., Indian J. Exp. Biol.,
7. L. Bennaroche et al., Plant. Med. 31, 178 (1993).
Phytother., 8, 15 (1974). 17. C. L. Malhotra and B. Balodi, J. Econ.
8. H. Goyal et al., J. Res. Ayur. Siddha, 2, Taxon. Bot., 5, 841 (1984).
286 (1981). 18. A. K. Goel and B. S. Aswal, J. Econ.
9. H. Hikino et al., Shoyakugky Zasshri, 38, Taxon. Bot., 14, 185 (1990).
359 (1984). 19. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 32, 153 (1969).
10. S. Mandal et al., Fitoterapia, 63, 122
(1992).
194 Cinchona (red and yellow)
Source: Red cinchona: Cinchona officinalis Cinchona has astringent and bitter tonic prop-
L.,C.pubescensM.Vahl.(syn.C.succirubra erties; also reportedly has analgesic and local
Pavón ex Klotzsch) and its hybrids; Yellow anesthetic properties, among others (GOODMAN
cinchona: Cinchona calisaya Weddell, C. AND GILMAN; JIANGSU; NANJING).
ledgeriana Moens ex Trimen, and their hy- Quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, cinchoni-
brids with other Cinchona species (Family dine, and cinchonicinol have shown in vitro
Rubiaceae). inhibitory activity against the cytotoxicity of
polyorphonuclear leucocytes.5 Potent mono-
Common/vernacular names: Red bark, red amine oxidase inhibiting activity in vitro was
Peruvian bark, cinchona rubra (C. pubescens); found from quinine, cinchonicinol, and cinch-
yellow bark, calisaya bark, ledger bark, brown onaminone derived from C. succirubra.6
bark, cinchona flava (C. calisaya and C. led- The alkaloids of cinchona have antimalari-
geriana); Jesuit’s bark, Peruvian bark, China al and antipyretic activities, with quinine be-
bark, cortex chinae, and fever tree. ing the most potent. Certain strains of malarial
parasites, particularly those of Vietnamese
GENERAL DESCRIPTION origin that have become resistant to synthetic
antimalarials, are still susceptible to quinine
Evergreen shrubs or trees, up to about 30 m treatment.7
high; C. calisaya being the tallest, while A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of
C. pubescens reaching about 24 m and quinine in the treatment of nocturnal cramps
C. ledgeriana only up to 6 m; native to moun- found significant reductions in the pain, inten-
tains of tropical America (Bolivia, Costa Rica, sity, and frequency of cramps.8
Ecuador, Guatemala, Peru, etc.) between alti-
tudes of about 900 and 3400 m; extensively TOXICOLOGY
cultivated in Central and South America,
Southeast Asia (India, Java, Sumatra, China, Use of the bark is contraindicated in pregnan-
etc.), and Africa. Part used is the dried bark. cy and ulcers, intestinal or gastric, and if
taken concomitantly with anticoagulants can
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION increase their effects (WICHTL). For some in-
dividuals, even low doses of quinine, such as
Contains up to about 16% (average 6–10%) those found in tonic and gin drinks, can elicit
total quinoline alkaloids that consist mainly of thrombocytopenia with purpura (‘‘cocktail
quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, and cinchoni- purpura’’); usually a self-limited and benign
dine, with quinine usually in major concen- syndrome provided immediate cessation of
tration. Other alkaloids in minor amounts quinine.8 Quinidine and quinine have cardi-
include quinamine, epiquinamine, epiquinine, ac-depressant properties, with quinidine being
hydroquinine, hydroquinidine, and many twice as active as quinine (GOODMAN AND
others, totaling over three dozen. Contents of GILMAN; MARTINDALE; USD 26th). High plasma
the total alkaloids vary, depending on the levels of quinine (16 mg/L) are strongly asso-
sources, with C. ledgeriana generally contain- ciated with cardiac arrhythmias.9
ing a higher amount than C. pubescens. Other Quinine has been reported to cause a hyper-
constituents present include norsolorinic acid sensitivity reaction known as ‘‘black water
(an anthraquinine), quinovic acid, quinovin A, fever,’’ which consists of hemolysis, hemo-
B, and C (bitter glycosides), quinic acid, globinuria, and hemoglobinemia and can ad-
b-sitosterol, tannins, starch, resin, wax, and vance to renal failure. The syndrome is more
others (JIANGSU; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MORTON commonly reported in patients with G6PD
3; NANJING; STAHL; USD 26th).1–4 deficiency, pregnant women, and those with
Cinchona (red and yellow) 195
malaria.9 Ground cinchona bark and quinine Food. Quinine and extracts of cinchona
have been reported to cause urticaria, contact (mostly red cinchona) are extensively used as
dermatitis, and other hypersensitivity reac- a bitter in tonic water,9 alcoholic bitters, li-
tions in some individuals (GOODMAN AND queurs, and soft drinks (bitter lemon drinks);
GILMAN; MARTINDALE; USD 26th; WICHTL). amounts in commercial soft drinks are approx-
Cinchona alkaloids are toxic. Poisoning imately 61–67 mg/L.10
(cinchonism) is usually due to overdosage or Other food products in which red cinchona
hypersensitivity, with symptoms including extract has been reportedly used include
blindness, deafness, severe headache, tinnitus, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked goods,
delirium, vasodilation, abdominal pain, diar- and condiments and relishes. Use levels re-
rhea, convulsions, paralysis, and collapse. ported are lower than those reported in
Cinchonism has resulted from as little as a beverages.
single dose of 4 g quinine. A single oral dose
of 8 g quinine may be fatal to an adult (GOOD-
9 Traditional Medicine. Cinchona is used in
MAN AND GILMAN; MARTINDALE; USD 26th).
treating malaria, fevers, indigestion, and for
mouth and throat problems, usually in the
form of an infusion; has been used in China
USES to treat hangovers; also reportedly used in
cancers.11 An infusion of yellow cinchona
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. was used by the Cherokee Indians as a tonic
In European phytomedicine, the dried bark is and treatment for impotence (MOERMAN).
seldom used alone. Extracts are ingredients of
herbal formulas (WICHTL) used to stimulate
saliva and gastric secretions in the treatment COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
of loss of appetite and dyspeptic discomfort
(BLUMENTHAL 1). Available as crude and extracts (fluid extract,
The current use of quinine, apart from solid extract, etc.). Both red and yellow
treating malaria, is primarily in the form of cinchonas were formerly official in U.S.P. and
the sulfate salt in preparations for treating N.F.; quinine sulfate and quinidine sulfate
cold and flu and nocturnal leg cramps, mostly and gluconate are official in U.S.P.; quinine
as prescription drugs (MARTINDALE). Besides hydrochloride and sulfate are also official in
being used as an antimalarial, quinine has F.C.C.
been used for treating various conditions,
including hemorrhoids and varicose veins Regulatory Status. Both red and yellow cin-
(as hardening agent), and in eye lotions for chona barks have been approved for use in
its astringent, bactericidal, and anesthetic beverages only, with the limitation that the
effects. total cinchona alkaloids do not exceed 83 ppm
Quinidine is used in prescription prepara- (0.0083%) in the finished beverage (§172.510
tions mainly for treating cardiac arrhythmias. and §172.575). Concentration must be de-
In cosmetics, extracts of cinchona are clared on the label; in China, quinine is not
primarily used in hair tonics, reportedly for permitted for use in beverages.10 Crude drug
stimulating hair growth and controlling oili- subject of a positive. German therapeutic
ness (DE NAVARRE). monograph (BLUMENTHAL 1).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BLUMENTHAL 1; FEMA; GOSSELIN; GUPTA; JIANGSU; LUST; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
MERCK; NANJING; TERRELL; UPHOF; YOUNGKEN.
196 Cinnamon (and cassia)
yflavan-3,4-diol units;1 large amounts of ca- acid, syringic acid, choline, protocatechuic
techins and proanthocyanidins (condensed acid, condensed tannins (proanthocyanidins),
tannins)2 and procyanidins; resins; mucilage; procyanidins, resins, sugars, calcium oxalate,
gum; sugars; calcium oxalate; two insecticidal coumarin, mucilage, and minerals, notably
compounds (cinnzelanin and cinnzelanol);3 manganese (LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; NANJING;
15
coumarin (lowest concentration in Ceylon RAVINDRAN).
cinnamon); and others (LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; Cassia bark oil grown in Australia contains
1,3–5
RAVINDRAN). mainly cinnamic aldehyde (87%), whereas the
C. verum cinnamon bark oil contains as its bark oil from trees grown in China contains
major component cinnamic aldehyde (usually mostly (E)-cinnamic aldehyde (65.5%). Other
60–80%); other major constituents include major constituents present in Australian bark
sesquiterpenoids (4–5%) (e.g., a-humulene oil are benzaldehyde (4.7%), 2-phenylethanol
and b-caryophyllene that make up 3–4% of (2.5%), and 3-phenylpropanol (2.0%); others
the total, limonene, and others), eugenol, eu- found in lesser amounts include cuminalde-
genol acetate, cinnamyl acetate, cinnamyl hyde, coumarin, eugenol, linalool, ethyl
alcohol, methyl eugenol, benzaldehyde, cu- cinnamate, chavicol, and others. In Chinese
minaldehyde, benzyl benzoate, monoterpenes cassia bark oil, the other major constituents are
(e.g., linalool, pinene, phellandrene, and cym- coumarin (8.7%), cinnamyl acetate (3.6%),
ene), carophyllene, safrole, and others (LIST and 2-methoxycinnamaldehyde (2.7%); others
6–10
AND HÖRHAMMER; MASADA; RAVINDRAN). found in lesser amounts include benzyl benzo-
C. verum leaf oil contains high concentra- ate, cinnamyl alcohol, 2-phenylethyl acetate,
tions of eugenol (Ceylon type 80–88%; eugenyl acetate, (Z)-cinnamic aldehyde, and
Seychelles type 87–96%); it also contains others. Eugenol occurs in trace amounts (JIANG-
9
many of the major constituents present in SU; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; NANJING; RAVINDRAN).
cinnamon bark oil (e.g., benzyl benzoate The leaf oil of C. cassia grown in Australia
(6%), cinnamaldehyde, cinnamyl acetate, contains mostly cinnamic aldehyde (77.2%),
eugenol acetate, benzaldehyde, linalool, a-ter- coumarin (15.3%), cinnamyl acetate (3.6%),
pinene, and others), as well as other minor benzaldehyde (1.2%), and in lesser amounts,
compounds, including a-humulene, b-caryo- 4-ethylguaiacol, ethyl cinnamate, 2-pheny-
phyllene, a-ylangene, methyl cinnamate, and lethyl acetate, a-terpineol, terpinen-4-ol, and
cinnamyl acetate (MASADA; RAVINDRAN).5,6,10 others. The leaf oil of China-grown trees
The bark of C. burmanii yields 1.32% oil contains mostly cinnamic aldehyde (74.1%),
containing 1,8-cineole (51.4%), a-terpineol 2-methoxycinnamaldehyde (10.3%), cinna-
(12.5%), camphor (9.0%), terpinen-4-ol myl acetate (6.6%), coumarin (1.2%), and
(8.5%), borneol (1.8%), a-pinene (1.6%), lesser amounts of benzaldehyde (1.1%), sal-
b-caryophyllene (1.6%), p-cymene (1.0%), icyaldehyde, cinnamyl alcohol, 2-phenylethyl
and lesser amounts of myristicin, a-humu- acetate, a-pinene, and others (RAVINDRAN).
lene, b-eudesmol, and others. The leaf oil
contains mostly 1,8-cineole (28.5%) and bor-
neol (16.5%) with lesser amounts of a-terpin- PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
eol (6.4%), p-cymene (6.1%), spathulenol ACTIVITIES
(5.8%), terpinen-4-ol (4.1%), b-caryophyl-
lene (2.9%), and others. Eugenol is absent in Extracts of the dried bark of C. verum have
both the bark and leaf oils (RAVINDRAN). shown in vitro inhibitory activity against
Cassia bark (C. cassia) contains 1–2% of Candida albicans.16 The essential oil of the
volatile oil and other constituents, including bark inhibits the growth of human pathogenic
glycosides (cassioside, cinnamoside),11 diter- fungi (Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans,
penes (cinnacassiol B and D1),12,13 20 -hydox- Rhizopus oligosporus) and various bacteria
ycinnamaldehyde,14 cinnamic acid, vanillic (Escherichia coli, Enterobacter cloacae,
198 Cinnamon (and cassia)
Micrococcus luteus, Staphylococcus aureus, 29 different human cancer cell lines.36 Cinna-
Streptococcus faecalis, and others).17 A meth- maldehyde induced apoptotic cell death in
anol extract exhibited significant in vitro nem- human leukemia cells in vitro.37 A methanol
aticidal activity against Toxocara canis.18 extract of the bark inhibited the in vitro growth
Extracts of the bark have also shown signifi- of human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2
cant insulin-like activity in vitro (increased cells.38 Glycosides (cassioside, cinnamoside,
glucose oxidation and uptake,19,20 and insulin and a b-D-glucopyranoside) isolated from an
receptor kinase activation and inhibition of aqueous extract of the dried stem bark are
insulin receptor dephosphorylation activi- attributed to antiulcerogenic activity.11
ty);21,22 insulin activity potentiating activities In mice with influenza-induced fever, an
are attributed to a methylhydroxychalcone aqueous extract of the dried stem bark (p.o.)
polymer23 and polyphenol type A polymers showed antipyretic activity and suppressed
isolated from korintje cinnamon from Suma- the production of interleukin-1a. Solvent
tra (C. burmannii) consisting of oligomeric fractions were also active. Active constituents
procyanidins.20 were identified as acetic acid cinnamylester,
Rats fed a high-fat diet containing 10% cinnamic acid ethylester, 7-hydroxycoumarin,
C. verum bark powder showed significant and 4-allylanisole, which were active by the
decreases in heart and liver levels of hydro- oral route.39
peroxides and significantly increased levels of A randomized placebo-controlled clinical
antioxidant enzymes (catalase, glutathione, study of powdered C. cassia bark in type 2
glutathione S-transferase, and superoxide dis- diabetics taking sulfonylurea drugs and main-
mutase) in the same organs.24 Anti-inflamma- taining their usual diets found that daily
tory and pain-inhibiting activities were found supplementation with the bark immediately
in mice orally administered an ethanolic ex- after each of three daily meals produced
tract of the bark.25 significant decreases in triglyceride, LDL, and
Extracts of the dried stem bark of C. cassia total serum cholesterol levels and serum
have shown in vitro growth inhibition of hu- glucose levels.40
man intestinal bacteria (Bacteriodes fragilis
and Clostridium perfringens), an effect attrib-
uted to cinnamaldehyde.26 Extracts of the bark TOXICOLOGY
have also shown in vitro insulin-like activi-
ty,19 protective activity against glutamate- No significant chronic (90 days) or acute
induced toxicity to rat cerebellar granule (500 mg, 1 g, or 3 g/kg p.o.) mortality was
cells,27 antioxidant,28,29 free radical scaveng- found in mice administered an ethanol extract
ing activity, and inhibition of HMG-CoA re- of C. verum bark. No change in body weight
ductase,30,31 cyclooxygenase-2, and inducible was found from chronic dosing; liver weight
nitric oxide synthase.32 An aqueous extract33 and hemoglobin levels were reduced, and
and diterpenes from the bark (cinnacassiol B reproductive organ weights, sperm counts,
and D1) have shown anticomplement and sperm motility were increased without
activity.12,13In vitro stimulation of human spermatotoxic effects.41 Allergic skin reac-
lymphocyte proliferation, interleukin-1, and tions to C. verum are common (WICHTL).
immunoglobulin G production by an infusion Cinnamaldehyde can cause dermatitis in
of the bark was attributed to glycoproteins.34 humans and allergic reactions have occurred
Cinnamaldehydes (20 -benzoxycinnamalde- from contact with products (foods, tooth-
hyde and 20 -hydroxycinnamaldehyde) derived pastes, ointments, mouthwashes) containing
from the bark inhibited in vitro proliferation either cinnamaldehyde or cinnamon oil
of lymphocytes and induced in vitro T-cell (DE SMET ET AL.). Cinnamon may cause allergic
differentiation.35 20 -Hydroxycinnamaldehyde reactions in some people who are allergic to
(HCA) inhibited the in vitro growth of balsam of Peru.42 Cassia oil causes mucous
Cinnamon (and cassia) 199
membrane and dermal irritation, both effects a spice in domestic cooking and for flavoring
being attributed to cinnamaldehyde (DE SMET processed foods, is tan in color; used as an
ET AL; RAVINDRAN). ingredient of curry powders, mulled wines,
An alcoholic extract of cinnamon, cinna- baked products, candies, desserts, beverages,
mon oil, and cassia oil have shown in vitro chewing gum, sauces, soups, pickles, canned
mutagenic activity (DE SMET ET AL.). However, fruits; added to chocolate in Mexico and
a recent test of the essential of C. cassia found Spain. The bark oil is more commonly used
no mutagenic activity in the Ames test.43 in the food industry than the bark powder
Cinnamaldehyde is also reported to have owing to the more uniform flavor it imparts;
mutagenic44 and both in vitro45,46 (Ames test, less expensive leaf oil also used in flavor
micronucleus test, and bone marrow chromo- industry; eugenol derived from the leaf oil
somal aberration assay) and in vivo antimuta- used to prepare synthetic vanillin (RAVINDRAN).
genic activities.47 Microencapsulated trans- Chinese cassia has a more powderful aroma
cinnamaldehyde failed to produce neoplasms than cinnamon and is reddish-brown; used as
in rats after 2 years of exposure to 1000, 2100, an ingredient of Chinese five-spice powder
and 4100 ppm in their feed. Reductions in and in flavoring beverages, confectioneries,
body weights were seen in rats exposed to meat dishes, bakery products, sauces, and
4100 ppm and in mice from 2100 ppm.48 The pickles. The cassia oil of commerce (made
oral LD50 of cinnamaldehyde in mice is from the leaves, stalks, and twigs) is widely
2225 mg/kg.49 used for the same purposes as the powdered
bark and is also widely used for flavoring soft
drinks and liqueurs (RAVINDRAN).
USES
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Ground
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. bark widely used as flavor ingredient in nu-
Cassia, cinnamon, and their bark oils have merous herbal tea formulations and herbal
been used either as flavors or as carminative, tonics; also in digestive and stimulant in cap-
stomachic, tonic, or counterirritants in phar- sulated, tableted products, tinctures, and so on.
maceutical and cosmetic preparations, includ- (DUKE 2).
ing liniments, suntan lotions, nasal sprays,
mouthwashes or gargles, and toothpaste, Traditional Medicine. Both cassia and cin-
among others. namon bark have been used for several thou-
In European phytomedicine, cassia and sand years in Eastern and Western cultures in
cinnamon bark (2.0–4.0 g daily) or the essen- treating chronic diarrhea, flatulence, dyspep-
tial oils (0.05–0.2 g daily) are used in teas and sia, vomiting, rheumatism, colds, abdominal
other galenicals as antibacterial, carminative, and heart pains, kidney troubles, hypertension,
fungistatic; also as gastrointestinal remedies female disorders (amenorrhea, cramps, men-
for loss of appetite and dyspeptic disturbances orrhagia, etc.), and cancer, among others (BIAN-
(BLUMENTHAL 1; WICHTL). CHINI AND CORBETTA; FARNSWORTH 1; FOGARTY;
51
Sri Lankan cinnamon leaf oil is used as a JIANGSU; NADKARNI; NANJING; RAVINDRAN).
fragrance component in soaps, detergents,
creams, lotions, and perfumes, with highest Others. A major use of cinnamon leaf oil is
reported maximum use level of 0.8% in per- for the isolation of eugenol.
fumes.50 Cinnamon bark oil and Chinese cassia
oil find limited use in perfume industries owing
to their skin sensitizing properties (RAVINDRAN). COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Food. The dried inner bark of cinnamon Bark, extracts, and oils; oils are of various types
(C. burmannii and C. verum), widely used as and qualities. Cassia oil (Chinese cinnamon
200 Cinnamon (and cassia)
oil) is official in N.F., where it is simply the same species are GRAS, while only those
monographed as cinnamon oil; it is also offi- of the leaves of Sri Lankan, Chinese, or Viet-
cial in F.C.C. Sri Lankan cinnamon bark oil nam cinnamon are GRAS (§182.20). Both
and cinnamon leaf oil (both Sri Lankan and cassia and cinnamon bark are subjects of
Seychelles types) are official in F.C.C. positive German therapeutic monographs in-
dicated for treatment of loss of appetite and
Regulatory Status. Indonesia cassia or cin- dyspeptic discomfort such as mild gastroin-
namon (C. burmanni), Sri Lankan (C. verum), testinal spasms. Cinnamon flowers are the
and Chinese or Vietnam (C. cassia) are GRAS subject of a neutral monograph, since efficacy
as spices, natural flavorings, and seasonings is not established, and risks (allergic skin
(§182.10). Essential oils, solvent-free oleor- reactions and mucosal irritation) outweigh
esins, and natural extractives of the barks of benefits (BLUMENTHAL 1).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BLUMENTHAL 1; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DUKE 2;
FURIA; GOSSELIN; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; KARRER; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MARTINDALE; RAVINDRAN;
ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. L. Buchalter, J. Pharm. Sci., 60, 144 13. T. Nohara et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 28,
(1971). 2682 (1980).
2. J. M. Schulz and K. Herrmann, Z. 14. B. Kwon et al., Planta Med., 62, 183
Lebensm. Unters. Forsch., 171, 278 (1996).
(1980). 15. Y. Mino and N. Ota, Chem. Pharm. Bull.,
3. A. Isogai et al., Agric. Biol. Chem., 41, 38, 709 (1990).
1779 (1977). 16. J. M. Quale et al., Am. J. Chin. Med., 24,
4. Y. S. Lewis et al., Curr. Sci., 46, 832 103 (1996).
(1977). 17. S. C. Chao et al., J. Essent. Oil Res., 12,
5. J. E. Angmor et al., Planta Med., 21, 416 639 (2000).
(1972). 18. F. Kiuchi et al., Jpn. J. Pharmacogn., 43,
6. R. O. B. Wijeskera et al., J. Sci. Food 353 (1989).
Agric., 25, 1211 (1974). 19. C. L. Broadhurst et al., J. Agric. Food
7. M. S. F. Ross, J. Chromatogr., 118, 273 Chem., 48, 849 (2000).
(1976). 20. R. Anderson et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
8. J. S. Chou, T’ ai-wan Ko Hsueh, 31(2), 8 52, 65 (2004).
(1977). 21. L. F. Berrio et al., Horm. Res., 37, 225
9. A. Herisset et al., Plant. Med. Phytother., (1992).
6, 11 (1972). 22. J. Imparl-Radosevich et al., Horm. Res.,
10. A. Bhramaramba and G. S. Sidhu, 50, 177 (1998).
Perfum. Essent. Oil Records, 54, 732 23. K. J. Jarvill-Taylor et al., J. Am. Coll.
(1963). Nutr., 20, 327 (2001).
11. Y. Shiraga et al., Tetrahedron, 44, 4703 24. J. N. Dhuley, Indian J. Exp. Biol., 37, 238
(1988). (1999).
12. T. Nohara et al., Tetrahedron Lett., 21, 25. A. H. Atta and A. Alkofahi, J.
2647 (1980). Ethnopharmacol., 60, 117 (1998).
Citronella oil (ceylon and java) 201
26. H. S. Lee and Y. J. Ahn, J. Agric. Food 39. M. Kurokawa et al., Eur. J. Pharmacol.,
Chem., 46, 8 (1998). 348, 45 (1998).
27. Y. Shimada et al., Phytother. Res., 14, 466 40. A. Khan et al., Diabetes Care, 26, 3215
(2000). (2003).
28. H. Lee et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 50, 41. A. H. Shah et al., Plant Foods Hum. Nutr.,
7700 (2002). 52, 231 (1998).
29. C. Lin et al., Phytother. Res., 17, 726 42. A. Niinimaki, Contact Dermatitis, 33, 78
(2003). (1995).
30. N. Kim et al., Korean J. Pharmacogn., 31, 43. H. Park, Korean J. Pharmacogn., 33, 372
190 (2000). (2002).
31. R. Kim et al., Nat. Prod. Sci., 6, 49 (2000). 44. M. Ishidate Jr. et al., Food Chem.
32. C. H. Hong et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 83, Toxicol., 22, 623 (1984).
153 (2002). 45. T. Ohta et al., Mutat. Res., 107, 219
33. H. Nagai et al., Jpn. J. Pharmacol., 32, (1983).
813 (1982). 46. T. Ohta et al., Mutat. Res., 117, 135
34. B. E. Shan et al., Int. J. (1983).
Immunopharmacol., 21, 149 (1999). 47. N. Sharma et al., Mutat. Res., Fund. Mol.
35. W. S. Koh et al., Int. J. Mech. Mutagen, 480–481, 179 (2001).
Immunopharmacol., 20, 643 (1998). 48. M. J. Hooth et al., Food Chem. Toxicol.,
36. W. L. Lee et al., Planta Med., 65, 263 42, 1757 (2004).
(1999). 49. M. Harada and Y. Ozaki, Yakugaku
37. H. Ka et al., Cancer Lett., 196, 143 Zasshi, 92, 135 (1972).
(2003). 50. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
38. K. J. Park et al., Pharm. Biol., 40, 189 13, 545 (1975).
(2002). 51. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 32, 247 (1969).
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Both Ceylon and Java citronella oils contain
Cymbopogon nardus (citronella) and C. win- citronellal, citronellol, and geraniol and as
terianus (Java citronella) are both perennial the major components, with the Java type
202 Citronella oil (ceylon and java)
having a higher concentration of these con- in a 2-day closed patch test. The LD50 of
stituents than the Ceylon type; the relative citronella oil in rats was over 5 g/kg p.o.21
proportions of these components vary greatly,
depending on the sources (ARCTANDER; LIST
AND HÖRHAMMER; MARTINDALE; MASADA; USES
1–9
YOUNGKEN).
Other constituents include esters (acetates, Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
propionates, etc.) of geraniol, citronellol, and Both oils are used as a component in certain
linalool; monoterpenes (limonene, pinene, insect repellent formulations. Major current
camphene, etc.); sesquiterpenes and alcohols use is as a fragrance component in soaps,
(bourbonene, caryophyllene, elemol, farnesol, brilliantines, disinfectants, and perfumes,
etc.); phenols (eugenol, methyl eugenol, etc.); among others. Maximum use levels reported
and free acids, among others. Java citronella for the Ceylon oil were 0.6% in soaps and
oil contains higher amounts of sesquiterpenes, 0.8% in perfumes.21
while the Ceylon type contains much larger
amounts of monoterpenes (ARCTANDER; LIST Food. The Ceylon oil is reportedly used as
1,2,4–6,8
AND HÖRHAMMER). Other major constit- flavor ingredient in numerous food products,
uent monoterpenes of Ceylon citronella oil including alcoholic and nonalcoholic bev-
are cis-sabinene hydrate, and g-terpineol, erages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked
and among sesquiterpenes, nerolidol, b-car- goods, gelatins and puddings, and breakfast
yophyllene, and germacrene-ol.10 cereals. Highest average maximum use level
reported is about 0.005% in candy and baked
goods (45.9 and 47.6 ppm, respectively).
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
ACTIVITIES Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Essen-
tial oil of citronella widely available in health
Citronella oil has shown antibacterial and food stores, primarily used as an insect repel-
antifungal activities in vitro,11–13 the Ceylon lent for humans and pets (ROSE).
oil being as active as penicillin against certain
Gram-positive bacteria.14,15 The most active Traditional Medicine. Leaves of Ceylon cit-
volatile constituents of Ceylon oil against the ronella are used in medicinal and aromatic teas,
growth of Aspergillus, Eurotium, and Penicil- as vermifuge, febrifuge, stomachic, diaphoret-
lium species were citronellal and linalool.16 ic, diuretic, emmenagogue, antispasmodic,
Java citronella oil also displays in vitro nem- and stimulant in various cultures (LIST AND
aticidal activity.17 Both types of citronella oil HÖRHAMMER; ROSE). The oil is used as a rubifa-
have mosquito-repellent activity.18,19 Ceylon cient and is reputed to be carminitive, diapho-
oil has shown mosquito larvicidal activity retic, stimulant, and antispasmodic (KIRTIKAR).
against Culex quinquefasciatus larvae. The
most active constituent in the monoterpene
fraction was myrcene.20 COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; GUENTHER; MASADA;
MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; ROSE; TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. W. D. Fordham in L. W. Codd et al., eds., 11. V. G. de Billerbeck et al., Can. J.
Chemical Technology: An Encyclopedic Microbiol., 47, 9 (2001).
Treatment, Vol. 5, Barnes & Noble, 12. K. K. Aggarwal et al., J. Med. Aromatic
New York, 1972, p. 1. Plant Sci., 22(1B), 544 (2000).
2. R. O. B. Wijesekera et al., Phyto- 13. A. Dikshit et al., Fitoterapia, 55, 171
chemistry, 12, 2697 (1973). (1984).
3. E. Guenther, Am. Perfum. Cosmet., 83, 57 14. C. K. Kokate and K. C. Varma, Sci. Cult.,
(1968). 37, 196 (1971).
4. B. C. Gulati and Sadgopal, Indian Oil 15. B. G. V. N. Rao and P. L. Joseph, Riechst.,
Soap J., 37, 305 (1972). Aromen, K€orperpflegem., 21, 405 (1971).
5. T. K. Razdan and G. L. Koul, Indian 16. K. Nakahara et al., JARQ, 37, 249 (2003).
Chem. J., 8, 27 (1973).
17. N. K. Sangwan et al., Nematologica, 31,
6. H. S. Singh et al., Indian Perfum., 20(1B), 93 (1985).
77 (1976).
18. M. A. Ansari and R. K. Razdan, Indian J.
7. B. L. Kaul et al., Indian J. Pharm., 39, 42 Malariol., 32, 104 (1995).
(1977).
19. A. Tawatsin et al., J. Vector Ecol., 26, 76
8. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 2(2), 3 (2001).
(1977).
20. S. S. Ranaweera, J. Natl. Sci. Council Sri
9. R. M. Ideda et al., J. Food Sci., 27, 455 Lanka, 24, 63 (1996).
(1962).
21. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
10. V. S. Mahalwal and M. Ali, Flav. Fragr. 11, 1067 (1973).
J., 18, 73 (2003)
Limited available data indicate civet (abso- Traditional Medicine. Used in Chinese
lute) to be nontoxic.7 medicine for centuries to relieve pain and as
cardiac and neural; sedatives, among others
(JIANGSU).
USES
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; FEMA; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; YOUNGKEN.
1. E. Shiftan in A. Standen, ed., Kirk-Othmer 4. C. L. Fischbeck, Am. Perfum. Cosmet.,
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 82(12), 45 (1967).
Vol. 14, 2nd ed., Wiley–Interscience, 5. Y. Ohno and S. Tanaka, Bunseki Kagaku,
New York, 1976, p. 717. 26, 232 (1977).
2. The Larousse Encyclopedia of Animal Life, 6. D. A. Van Drop et al., Recl. Trav. Chim.
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967, p. 564. Pays-Bas, 92, 915 (1973).
3. R. F. Ewer, The Carnivores, Cornell 7. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1972, p. 400. 12(Suppl.), 863 (1974).
Source: Salvia sclarea L. (Family Labiatae Erect biennial or perennial aromatic herb with
or Lamiaceae). large hairy leaves and stout hairy stem; up to
about 1 m high; native to southern Europe;
Common/vernacular names: Clary, clary cultivated worldwide (e.g., Mediterranean
wort, muscatel sage, clear eye, see bright, and region, central Europe, Russia, the United
eyebright. Kingdom, and the United States). Parts used
Clary sage 205
are the flowering tops and leaves, from which the DPPH radical scavenging assay.13 The oil
an essential oil is obtained by steam distilla- has also shown activity against the growth of
tion and an absolute obtained by solvent Trichomonas vaginalis14 and anticonvulsive
extraction (ARCTANDER; POUCHER).1 activity in animals; it also potentiated the nar-
cotic effects of Evipam and chloral hydrate.15
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
TOXICOLOGY
Essential oil, which largely contains a-terpin-
eol, a-terpinyl, linalool, linalyl acetate, ger- Except for being moderately irritating to rab-
anyl acetate, germacrene D, b-caryopyllene, bit skin, available data indicate clary sage oil
nerol, neryl acetate, myrcene, and the diter- to be generally nontoxic.16 The essential oil
pene alcohols, manool, and sclareol, is ob- failed to show in vitro DNA-damaging acti-
tained from the flowering tops and leaves.2–5 vity.17 The oral LD50 of the essential in rodents
The oil of the leaves contains high amounts of was over 5 g/kg (TISSERAND AND BALAZS).
germacrene D.4 The essential oil and flowers
contain 1-methoxyhexane-3-thiol, one of the
most potent odorants known, having a unique USES
odor profile described as alliaceous, herba-
ceous-green, and perspirant.6 Some commer- Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
cial and genuine samples of the essential oil Both oil and absolute are used as fragrance
contain trans-anethole.7 The yield of the vol- components in soaps, detergents, creams,
atile oil and the relative concentrations of its lotions, and perfumes (e.g., eau de cologne).
components vary with the sources (MASADA; Maximum use level reported for the oil is
8–11
POUCHER). An acetone extract of the 0.8% in perfumes.16
whole plant collected in Turkey contained
various diterpenes (candidissiol, ferruginol, Food. While clary sage is reportedly used
manool, microstegiol, 7-oxoroyleanone, only in beverages (e.g., wines and liqueurs
sclareol, 7-oxoferruginol-18-al, and 2,3-dehy- with muscatel flavor), clary sage oil is used
drosalvipisone), sesquiterpenes (caryophyl- rather extensively in major food products such
lene oxide and spathulenol), and flavonoids as alcoholic (vermouths, etc.) and nonalcohol-
(apigenin, 40 -methylapigenin, 6-hydroxy ic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy,
apigenin-7,40 -dimethyl ether, luteolin, and baked goods, gelatins and puddings, and con-
6-hydroxyluteolin-6).12 diments and relishes. Highest average maxi-
mum use level reported is about 0.016%
(155 ppm) for the oil in alcoholic beverages.
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
ACTIVITIES Traditional Medicine. The flowering tops
and leaves have been used to treat catarrh and
Clary sage oil has shown in vitro antimicrobial as an antiseptic and emmenagogue (BOULOS);
(Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, herb also used as a stomachic in digestive
and S. epidermis) and antifungal activities disorders, as an antispasmodic, and powdered
(Candida albicans). Active constituents were to serve as a snuff to treat headache (UPHOF)
identified as linalool and a-terpineol.3 Other and in kidney diseases. Mucilage of seeds is
antimicrobial compounds obtained from the used in tumors and in removing dust particles
whole plant include caryophyllene oxide, from the eyes, among others.18
2,3-dehydrosalvipisone, and 7-oxoroylea-
none.12 A methanolic extract of the dried leaves Others. After the essential oil is removed
and stems showed high antioxidant activity in by distillation, the crude material is used as
206 Clover tops, red
a source of sclareol, which can be solvent Regulatory Status. GRAS as a natural sea-
extracted from the plant and converted to soning or flavoring (§182.10). Essential oil,
sclareolide; both are used in flavoring tobac- solvent-free oleoresin, and natural extractive
cos. Sclareolide is also used in the production also GRAS (§182.20).
of an ambergris substitute.1
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; FEMA; GRIEVE; GUENTHER;
MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; POUCHER; TERRELL.
1. S. E. Allured, Cosmet. Perfum., 90(4), 69 10. G. Petri Verzar and M. Then, Herba
(1975). Hung., 13, 51 (1974).
2. C. Souleles and N. Argyriadou, Int. J. 11. A. I. Karetnikova et al., Maslo Zhir.
Pharmacogn., 35, 218 (1997). Prom., 7, 29 (1974).
3. A. T. Peana et al., Planta Med., 65, 752 12. A. Ulubelen et al., Phytochemistry, 36,
(1999). 971 (1994).
4. A. Carrubba et al., Flav. Fragr. J., 17, 191 13. G. Miliauskas et al., Food Chem., 85, 231
(2002). (2004).
5. D. Lorenzo et al., Flav. Fragr. J., 19, 303 14. C. Viollon et al., Fitoterapia, 68, 279
(2004). (1996).
6. M. Van de Waal et al., Helv. Chim. Acta, 15. S. Atanasova-Shopova and K. S. Rusinov,
85, 1246 (2002). Izv. Acad. Nauk. Inst. Fiziol., Bulg., 13,
7. J. Fiori et al., J. Sep. Sci., 25, 703 89 (1970); through Chem. Abstr., 74,
(2002). 123533m (1971).
8. H. B. Heath, Cosmet. Toilet., 92(1), 19 16. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
(1977). 12(Suppl.), 865 (1974).
9. S. Chorbadzhiev et al., paper given at the 17. F. Zani et al., Planta Med., 57, 237 (1991).
4th Mezhdunar. Kongr. Efirnym Maslam 18. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 32, 247 (1969).
(Mater.), 1968.
in hot flush frequency or any significant except in jams and jellies, where it is about
improvement in quality-of-life scores.32 0.053% (525 ppm).
A larger year-long study of the same design
using the same extract and dosage also failed Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Whole
to find significant effects on menopausal or ground flowering tops used as an herb tea
symptoms and frequency of hot flushes. The ingredient; also in capsules, tablets, tinctures,
study also found that in contrast to standard and so on, primarily as an ‘‘alterative’’ (blood
hormone replacement therapies, the red clover purifier) used for skin ailments, such as psori-
extract did not increase mammographic breast asis, eczema; ingredient in unconventional
density.33 In postmenopausal women and men anticancer formulas including the Hoxsey for-
with normal blood pressure, a RDPC trial of mula (FOSTER AND DUKE).
an isoflavone-rich extract of red clover was
found to significantly improve total vascular Traditional Medicine. Dried inflorescence
resistance and arterial stiffness.34 In postmen- and whole herb are used in both Eastern and
opausal women with type 2 diabetics, a ran- Western cultures as diuretic, sedative, and
domized double-blind crossover trial of a red antitussive and in treating whooping cough,
clover extract significantly lowered diastolic asthma, bronchitis, eczema, psoriasis, and
and systolic blood pressure and improved burns, among others, usually in the form of
endothelial function.35 a tea, infusion, or salve (BARNES; DUKE 1);
flowers used in the form of a cold tea by
Iroquois women for ‘‘the change of life’’
(MOERMAN). The whole plant or its various
TOXICOLOGY
parts (leaves, flowers, roots, etc.) have also
been extensively used in treating cancers.37
Mice fed diets containing 20% and 40% red
clover showed no significant changes in sper-
matocytes or the diameter of seminiferous
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
tubules. The LD50 was 4237 mg/kg i.p.36
Crude and extracts (solid, fluid, etc.); crude
and fluid extract were formerly official in N.F.
USES Strengths (see glossary) of extracts are ex-
pressed in weight-to-weight ratios.
Food. The solid extract is reportedly used as
a flavor ingredient in many food products, Regulatory Status. Trifolium species are
including nonalcoholic beverages, frozen GRAS as natural flavorings and seasonings
dairy desserts, candy, baked goods, gravies, (§182.10). Essential oils, solvent-free oleor-
and jams and jellies. Average maximum use esins and natural extractives of Trifolium
levels reported are usually below 0.002%, species are also GRAS (§182.20).
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BARNES; BARRETT; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DUKE 1;
FEMA; FOSTER AND DUKE; GRIEVE; HORTUS 3rd; HUANG; JIANGSU; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; LUST; MCGUFFIN
1 & 2; ROSE; UPHOF; WREN; YOUNGKEN.
1. Q. Wu et al., J. Chromatogr. A, 1016, 195 3. G. Schultz, Deut. Tieraerztl. Wochenschr.,
(2003). 74, 118 (1967).
2. Z. Rolinski, Ann. Univ. Mariae Curie 4. N. S. Kattaev et al., Khim. Prir. Soedin., 6,
Sklodowska, Sect. DD, 24, 165 (1970). 806 (1972).
Cloves 209
valuable than stem and leaf oils in flavor properties of noneugenol clove constituents
applications. such as eugenyl acetate, methyl eugenol (see
sweet bay), and caryophyllene, which are
often present in relatively large amounts in
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION cloves and clove derivatives. Aqueous extracts
of cloves, clove oil, eugenol, eugenyl acetate,
Clove buds yield 15–18% volatile oil; clove and methyl eugenol all have trypsin-potenti-
stems yield 4–6%; and clove leaves yield ating activity (see cinnamon).
2–3%. Eugeniin exhibited strong antiviral activity
Other constituents present in clove buds against herpes simplex virus.3
include glucosides of sterols (sitosterol, stig-
masterol, and campesterol), crategolic acid
TOXICOLOGY
methyl ester, oleanolic acid, quercetin,
eugeniin, kaempferol, rhamnetin, about 6%
Clove oil is reported to cause skin irritation
protein, 20% lipids, 61% carbohydrates, vita-
and sensitization in humans.7,8 Despite its
mins, and others (JIANGSU; MARSH).1–3
possible toxicity in high dosage levels, euge-
Clove bud oil contains 60–90% eugenol,
nol (and presumably cloves and clove deriva-
2–27% eugenol acetate, and 5–12% b-caryo-
tives) is considered nontoxic at normal use
phyllene, with minor constituents such as
levels.5
methyl salicylate, methyl eugenol, benzalde-
hyde, methyl amyl ketone, a-ylangene, and
chavicol also present (ARCTANDER; MASADA).4,5 USES
Clove stem oil usually contains 90–95%
and clove leaf oil 82–88% eugenol (ARCTAN- Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
DER; MASADA); they contain little or no eugenyl Clove bud oil (or eugenol) is used for the
acetate. Naphthalene (not present in the bud symptomatic relief of toothache; the oil is
oil) is reportedly present in both oils in trace applied directly without pressure on the cari-
amounts; also many of the minor constituents ous tooth with a small piece of cotton. It is also
in the bud oil are absent or present in much extensively used as a major component in
smaller concentrations in the leaf and stem preparations for the treatment of postextrac-
oils.5 tion alveolitis (dry socket) and in dental ce-
ments and fillings, among others.
Clove bud and stem oils are used exten-
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL sively as fragrance components in dentifrices,
ACTIVITIES soaps, detergents, creams, lotions, and per-
fumes. Maximum use levels reported for the
A tincture of cloves (15% in 70% alcohol) has bud and stem oils are, respectively, 0.15% and
been reported to be effective in treating ring- 0.25% in soaps and 0.7% and 1.0%, respec-
worms such as athlete’s foot (JIANGSU). Clove tively, in perfumes.7,8 Clove leaf oil is primar-
oil has antihistaminic and spasmolytic (mus- ily used in soaps and low-cost perfumes, and
culotropic) properties, the latter probably due to a much lesser extent than the other oils
to its content of eugenyl acetate (see balm).6–8 (ARCTANDER).
Clove oil (due to its eugenol) has anodyne
and mildly antiseptic properties, exhibiting Food. Cloves, clove bud oil, clove stem oil,
broad antimicrobial activities (against clove leaf oil, and eugenol are widely used in
Gram-positive, Gram-negative, and acid-fast flavoring many food products, with cloves and
bacteria, and fungi),5,7–10 as well as anthel- clove bud oil by far the most used. Clove bud
mintic and larvicidal properties.11 No data are extract and oleoresin are also used, though to
available that correlate the pharmacological a lesser scale. Major food products in which
Cloves 211
cloves and their derivatives are used include A large portion of the world’s clove pro-
alcoholic (bitters, vermouths, etc.) and nonal- duction goes to Indonesia for use in Kretak
coholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, can- cigarettes, which consist of a mixture of two
dy, baked goods, gelatins and puddings, meat parts tobacco and one part ground cloves and
and meat products, condiments and relishes, when smoked produce a crackling noise
and gravies, among others. Highest average (ROSENGARTEN).
maximum use level reported for cloves is Clove extracts and oil have been demon-
0.236% in condiments and relishes, that for strated to have strong antioxidative proper-
the oils is 0.06% of clove stem oil in alcoholic ties.12–14 Clove oil (also eugenol) and clove
beverages, and that for clove bud oleoresin aqueous extract also markedly increase tryp-
is about 0.078% (775 ppm) in alcoholic sin activity.15 These properties could be useful
beverages. in food and drug applications.
REFERENCES
See the General References for ADA; ARCTANDER; BARNES; BARRETT; BISSET;BRUNETON; DUKE 2; FEMA; FURIA
AND BELLANCA; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; LUST; MARTINDALE; MASADA; MCGUFFIN; ROSENGARTEN; USD 26th.
1. C. H. Brieskorn et al., Phytochemistry, 7. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
14, 2308 (1975). 13, 761 (1975).
2. B. Voesgen and K. Herrmann, Z. 8. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
Lebensm. Unters. Forsch., 170, 204 13, 765 (1975).
(1980). 9. N. G. Martinez Nadal et al., Cosmet.
3. M. Takechi and Y. Tanaka, Planta Med., Perfum., 88(10), 37 (1973).
42, 69 (1981). 10. F. M. Ramadan et al., Chem. Mikrobiol.
4. E. Cerma and B. Stancher, Paper given Technol. Lebensm., 1, 96 (1972).
at the 4th Atti Conv. Reg. Aliment., 1st 11. K. Oishi et al., Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi,
Conv. Naz. Qual., Trieste, 1965. 40, 1241 (1974).
5. Anon., Fed. Regist., 42(146), 38613 12. Y. Saito et al., Eiyo To Shokuryo, 29, 505
(1977). (1976).
6. A. M. Debelmas and J. Rochat, Plant. 13. H. Fujio et al., Nippon Shokuhin Kogyo
Med. Phytother. 1, 23 (1967). Gakkaishi, 16, 241 (1969).
212 Coca
14. F. Hirahara et al., Eiyogaku Zasshi, 32, 1 16. Monograph Caryophylli flos, Bunde-
(1974). sanzeiger, no. 223 (November 30, 1985).
15. Y. Kato, Koryo, 113, 17, 24 (1975).
although they have yet to be characterized significant increases in heart rate, oxygen up-
for all four varieties.15 For example, om- take, and respiratory exchange, whereas the
buin-3-O-rutinoside was found in the leaves decrease in plasma insulin and glucose induced
of both varieties of E. novogranatense, but not by exercise appeared to be prevented by the
in either variety of E. coca. Flavonoids found coca chewing. No evidence was found of acute
in the leaves of all four species are kaempferol coca leaf use increasing tolerance to
3-O-glucoside and quercetin 3-O-glucosi- exercise.25
de.16E. novogranatense (variety not stated) The pharmacological activity and toxicity
alsocontainsprocyanidinsB1 andB3,acatechin of coca is generally attributed to cocaine. In
rhamnopyranoside,17 and a procyanidin glyco- addition to its local anesthetic, central nervous
side (catechin 3-O-rhamnosyl-(4a ! 8)- system stimulant, and addictive (similar to
catechin).18 amphetamines) properties, cocaine has many
other activities (GOODMAN AND GILMAN; LIST AND
HÖRHAMMER; MARTINDALE; MORTON 3). Little is
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL known of the effects of the other alkaloids
ACTIVITIES present in coca leaf.26
REFERENCES
See the General References for FEMA; GOODMAN AND GILMAN; GRIEVE; HORTUS 3rd; HUANG; MORTON 3;
NANJING; TERRELL; UPHOF; USD 26th.
1. T. Plowman, in G. T. Prance and 6. G. H. Anilian et al., J. Pharm. Sci., 63,
J. A. Kallunki, eds, Ethnobotany in the 1938 (1974).
Neotropics, New York Botanical Garden, 7. G. Espinel Ovalle and I. Guzman Parra,
New York, NY, 1984, p. 62. Rev. Colomb. Cienc. Quim. Farm., 1, 95
2. J. M. Moore and J. F. Casale, J. (1971); through Chem. Abstr., 76, 89994s
Chromatogr. A, 674, 165 (1994). (1972).
3. J. M. Moore et al., J. Chromatogr. A, 659, 8. E. Machado, Raymondiana, 5, 5 (1972).
163 (1994). 9. M. Sauvain et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 56,
4. J. R. Ehleringer et al., Nature, 408, 311 179 (1997).
(2000). 10. T. Plowman and L. Rivier, Ann. Bot.
5. B. Holmstedt et al., Phytochemistry, 16, (London), 51, 641 (1983).
1753 (1977).
Cocillana bark 215
11. J. F. Casale and J. M. Moore, J. Forensic 22. H. Spielvogel et al., J. Appl. Physiol., 80,
Sci., 39, 1537 (1994). 643 (1996).
12. M. Novak and C. A. Salemink, Planta 23. R. Favier et al., J. Appl. Physiol., 80, 650
Med., 53, 113 (1987). (1996).
13. J. A. Duke et al., Bot. Mus. Leafl. Harv. 24. H. Spielvogel et al., Eur. J. Appl. Physiol.
Univ., 24, 113 (1975). Occup. Physiol., 75, 400 (1997).
14. E. L. Johnson, Z. Naturforsch. C, 48, 863 25. R. Favier et al., J. Appl. Physiol., 81, 1901
(1993). (1996).
15. E. L. Johnson et al., Biochem. Syst. Ecol., 26. M. Novak et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 10,
26, 743 (1998). 261 (1984).
16. B. A. Bohm et al., Syst. Bot., 7, 121 27. J. L. Valentine et al., Vet. Hum. Toxicol.,
(1982). 7, 21 (1988).
17. M. Bonefeld et al., Phytochemistry, 25, 28. J. A. Bedford et al., Pharmacol. Biochem.
1205 (1986). Behav., 17, 1087 (1982).
18. H. Kolodziej et al., Phytochemistry, 30, 29. J. E. Hamner Jr. and O. L. Villegas, Oral
1255 (1991). Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol., 28, 287
19. G. L. Vee et al., Pharmacol. Biochem. (1969).
Behav., 18, 515 (1983). 30. T. R. Kosten, Drug Alcohol Depend., 49,
20. J. A. Bedford et al., Pharmacol. Biochem. 133 (1998).
Behav., 14, 725 (1981). 31. R. K. Siegel et al., JAMA, 255, 40 (1986).
21. C. Rerat et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 56, 32. L. Grinspoon and J. B. Bakalar, J.
173 (1997). Ethnopharmacol., 3, 149 (1981).
Source: Guarea rusbyi (Britt.) Rusby (syn. Chemical studies on cocillana are limited.
Sycocarpus rusbyi Britt.) and closely relat- Cocillana bark is reported to contain small
ed species (Family Meliaceae). amounts (0.003–0.023%) of alkaloid(s) (rus-
byine) of which the chemical structure(s) has
Common/vernacular names: Cocillana bark, not been determined. It also contains b-sitos-
grape bark, guapi, trompillo, and upas. terol, a volatile oil, tannin, anthraquinones,
flavonols, terpenoids, and others (LIST AND
1
HÖRHAMMER).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
Trees native to the South American Andes. ACTIVITIES
Part used is the dried bark. The original co-
cillana bark is believed to be derived from Cocillana is reported to have expectorant and,
G. rusbyi. However, there is evidence that the in higher doses (1.3–3.0 g), emetic properties
current drug is obtained from other closely similar to those of ipecac (BRADLY; LIST AND
1
related Guarea species and is not the same as HÖRHAMMER). These properties are based on
the cocillana first introduced into modern findings reported at the end of the last century.
medicine (USD 23rd).1 The bark is collected No recent pharmacological or toxicological
in Haiti and Bolivia (EVANS). data on cocillana are available.
216 Cocoa (cacao)
REFERENCE
See the General References for EVANS; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; YOUNGKEN.
1. E. B. Ritchie and J. W. Steel, Planta Med.,
14, 247 (1966).
which time the pulp surrounding the seeds is 22% but not less than 10%, and low-fat cocoa
decomposed and removed and flavor precur- must contain less than 10% cacao fat. Alka-
sors develop in the seeds. The dried beans, lized cocoa must be labeled ‘‘processed with
now called raw cocoa containing about 6–8% alkali,’’ and so on.
moisture, are roasted to produce the required Cocoa butter (also called cacao butter and
flavor, aroma, and color and to facilitate the theobroma oil) is produced commonly by
removal of the seed coat (shell); temperatures three methods: hydraulic pressing, extrusion
vary from 100 to 150 C, depending on the or expeller pressing, and solvent extraction.
types of beans and the products to be made. Cocoa butter produced by the first two meth-
Beans for manufacturing cocoa butter or ods has a faint chocolate flavor and aroma that
chocolate are roasted at lower temperatures, can be removed by steam distillation under
while those for cocoa powder production are vacuum; it is brittle at temperatures below
roasted at higher temperatures. After roasting, 25 C and melts at 34–35 C.1,2
the shell and hypocotyl are separated from the Cocoa extracts are generally prepared by
cotyledons (called nibs). extraction of the roasted seeds (nibs) with
The nib, containing about 55% cocoa but- hydroalcoholic solvents; an essential oil is
ter, is ground while hot to a liquid mass called also produced by steam distillation.
cocoa or chocolate liquor, from which variable
amounts of the cocoa butter is removed by
hydraulic pressing. The cocoa cake left on the CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
filter is cooled and then ground to a fine
powder under controlled cool temperatures to Cocoa contains more than 300 volatile com-
yield cocoa powder that has cocoa fat contents pounds, including hydrocarbons, monocarbo-
of up to 22% or more. nyls, pyrroles, pyrazines, esters, lactones, and
Currently, most cocoa powders are pro- others.
duced by the so-called Dutch or alkalized The important flavor components are re-
process, in which the nib is treated with a ported to be aliphatic esters, polyphenols,
warm aqueous solution of up to three parts of unsaturated aromatic carbonyls, pyrazines,
anhydrous potassium carbonate to 100 parts of diketopiperazines, and theobromine.3–5 Co-
nib (or equivalent amounts of other alkalis coa also contains about 18% proteins (ca.
such as potassium bicarbonate and hydroxide; 8% digestible);2,6,7 fats (cocoa butter); amines
carbonates, bicarbonates, and hydroxides of and alkaloids, including theobromine
sodium, magnesium, and ammonium; or their (0.5–2.7%), caffeine (ca. 0.25% in cocoa;
combinations). After the alkali is completely 0.07–1.70% in fat-free beans, with forasteros
absorbed, the nib is processed as in the above containing less than 0.1% and criollos contain-
method to yield alkalized cocoa powder. ing 1.43–1.70%),8–10 tyramine, dopamine,
Alkalized cocoa is considered to have im- salsolinol,11,12 trigonelline, nicotinic acid, and
proved dispersibility, color, and flavor over free amino acids;9 tannins; phospholipids;13
unalkalized cocoa. starch and sugars;2 minerals (particularly high
Cacao nibs, cocoa powder, and certain in sodium or potassium in alkalized cocoa);
other cocoa products (e.g., chocolates) are and others (MARTINDALE; MORTON 3; WATT AND
14
governed by standards of identity set forth in MERRILL).
the Code of Federal Regulations (21 CFR The characteristic bitter taste of cocoa is
§§163.110–163.155). For example, cacao nibs reported to be due to the diketopiperazines
used for cocoa manufacture are required to (especially those containing phenylalanine)
have no more than 1.75% cacao shell. Break- reacting with the theobromine present during
fast cocoa (or high-fat cocoa) must have at roasting.5
least 22% cacao fat (cocoa butter), cocoa Cocoa butter contains mainly triglycerides
(or medium-fat cocoa) must contain less than of fatty acids that consist primarily of oleic
218 Cocoa (cacao)
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 2; BLUMENTHAL 1; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; HORTUS 3rd; KARRER;
MARTINDALE; TERRELL; USDA.
1. R. J. Clarke and J. W. Drummond in 13. L. Biino and E. Clabot, Atti Soc.
L. W. Codd et al., eds., Chemical Peloritana Sci. Fis. Mat. Natur., 16,
Technology: An Encyclopedic Treatment, 257 (1970).
Vol. 7, Barnes & Noble, New York, 1975, p. 14. T. M. Kenyhercz and P. T. Kissinger,
645. Lloydia, 41, 130 (1978).
2. B. D. Powell and T. L. Harris in A. Standen, 15. R. F. Looney in L. W. Codd et al., eds.,
ed., Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology: An Encyclopedic
Chemical Technology, Vol. 5, Wiley– Treatment, Vol. 8, Barnes & Noble,
Interscience, New York, 1964, p. 363. New York, 1975, p. 1.
3. D. Reymond, Chemtech, 7, 664 (1977). 16. Y. Asamoa and J. Wurziger, Gordian, 74,
4. P. G. Keeney, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 49, 280 (1974).
567 (1972). 17. H. Chaveron, Choc. Confiserie Fr., 273,
5. W. Pickenhagen et al., Helv. Chim. Acta, 12 (1971).
58, 1078 (1975). 18. T. Itoh et al., J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 50,
6. D. J. Timbie and P. G. Keeney, J. Agric. 300 (1973).
Food Chem., 25, 424 (1977). 19. T. Itoh et al., Oleagineux, 29, 253 (1974).
7. D. L. Zak and P. G. Keeney, J. Agric. Food 20. K. Kimura et al., Jpn. Kokai 73 17, 825
Chem., 24, 483 (1976). (1973).
8. Y. Asamoa and J. Wurziger, Gordian, 76, 21. V. V. Ivanov, Vestn. Dermatol. Venerol.,
138 (1976). 3, 57 (1976).
9. G. Barbiroli, Atti Cong. Qual., 6 149 22. O. H. Mills et al., Br. J. Dermatol., 98, 145
(1968). (1978).
10. M. Mironescu, Rev. Fiz. Chim. Ser. A, 11, 23. Monograph Cacao semen, Bunde-
218 (1974). sanzeiger, no. 40 (February 27, 1991).
11. T. M. Kenyhercz and P. T. Kissinger, 24. P. A. Dewdney and M. L. Meara, Sci.
Phytochemistry, 16, 1602 (1977). Tech. Surv. Br. Food Manuf. Ind. Res.
12. R. M. Riggin and P. T. Kissinger, J. Agric. Assoc., 96 (1977).
Food Chem., 24, 900 (1976).
220 Codonopsis
and stimulation as well as relaxation of isolated was first described in the Ben Jing Feng Yuan
guinea pig ileum (IMM-2; WANG).5,14,15 (AD 1695) as a lung-clearing (qing fei) drug
Dangshen polysaccharides have exhibited with a sweet taste and neutral nature. Its tonic
immunomodulating effects in guinea pigs, properties were later described in the Ben Cao
inhibited experimental ulcers (stress, indo- Cong Xin (1757) and has since become a
methacin, acetic acid, and pyloric ligation highly valued qi tonic of equal status as some
models) in rats, and had antistress effects ancient ones such as astragalus, ginseng, and
(prolonging swimming time and increasing common jujube (see those entries). It is used to
tolerance to anoxia and to elevated tempera- treat many of the same conditions as these
tures) in mice, and so on.16–18 tonics, including general weakness, lack of
Oroxylin A was shown to have antihista- appetite, chronic diarrhea, shortness of breath,
minic effects on isolated guinea pig ileum.12 palpitations, asthma, cough, thirst and diabe-
tes, conditions due to spleen and blood defi-
ciencies, and damaged qi.
USES
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHP; CMH; FOSTER AND YUE; IMM-2; JIXIAN; JIANGSU; LU AND LI; NATIONAL;
WANG; ZHU.
1. Z. T. Wang and G. J. Xu, Zhongcaoyao, 10. G. R. Han et al., Zhongcaoyao, 22, 422
23, 144 (1992). (1991).
2. S. J. Zhang and S. Y. Zhang, 11. Y. Z. Wang et al., Zhongcaoyao, 17(5), 41
Zhongcaoyao, 18(3), 2 (1987). (1986).
3. D. G. Cai, Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi, 12. D. X. Zhou et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao
16, 376 (1991). Zazhi, 16, 564 (1991).
4. S. M. Wanget at., Shanxi Zhongyi, 6(3), 13. J. Liao and Y. Q. Lu, Zhongcaovao, 18(9),
35 (1990). 2 (1987).
5. S. M. Wang and Y. Yang, Shanxi Zhongyi, 14. X. L. Mao et al., Chin. J. Integr. Trad.
5(1), 37 (1989). West. Med., 5, 739 (1985).
6. G. R. Han et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao 15. C. O. Ling, Henan Zhongyi, 13, 94 (1993).
Zazhi, 15(2), 41 (1990). 16. M. X. Zhuang et al., Zhongguo Yaoxue
7. Y.X.Gong,Zhongcaoyao,18(11),37(1987). Zazhi, 27, 653 (1992).
8. T. Liu et al., Planta Med., 54, 472 (1988). 17. J. C. Cui et al., Zhongcaoyao, 19(8), 21
9. M. P. Wong et al., Planta Med., 49, 60 (1988).
(1983). 18. W. Li et al., Jilin Zhongyiyao, (6), 33 (1990).
222 Coffee
and g, with the last two being predominant), mild delirium, muscle tremor, tachycardia,
and others (LIST AND HÖRHAMMER).4,11–13 and extrasystoles.
Roasted coffee contains slightly less caf- In addition to the above well-known activi-
feine than green coffee, but contains much ties, caffeine has been reported to have many
lower concentrations of trigonelline, chloro- other activities, including mutagenic, terato-
genic acid, tannins, polyamines, proteins, and genic, and carcinogenic activities; it is also
sugars, which are degraded and involved in reported to cause temporary increase in intra-
flavor formation during roasting. The most ocular pressure, to have calming effects on
important flavor precursors are reported to be hyperkinetic children (effect similar to methyl
trigonelline, sugars, free amino acids, and phenidate or dextroamphetamine), and to
peptides.1,9,10,14 cause chronic recurrent headache, among
More than 100 aroma compounds have others.16,17 More than 50% of the total muta-
been identified in roasted coffee, including genic activity of coffee can be attributed to the
such important flavor contributors as furan activity of methylglyoxal.18 Coffee drinking
derivatives, pyrazines, pyrroles, oxazoles, and has also been linked to myocardial infarction
acids (LIST AND HÖRHAMMER).1,10 (a kind of blood clot in blood vessels that
Roasted coffee contains a relatively high supply blood to heart muscles), cancer of the
content of niacin, and coffee has been sug- lower urinary tract (e.g., bladder), ovaries,
gested as a source of niacin, for treating prostate, and others.19,20 However, most of
pellagra or niacin deficiency.10,15 A cup of these findings were disputed by later reports
coffee contains about 100 mg caffeine, which (GOODMAN AND GILMAN; MARTINDALE; USD
is within the therapeutic dose range. 23rd).15,21,22
Mutagenic activity of coffee is inactivated
by sodium sulfite (completely suppressing the
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL mutagenicities of the 1,2 dicarbonyls, diacetyl
ACTIVITIES and glyoxal) as well as by sodium bisulfite and
metabisulfite. Sodium sulfite also inactivates
The physiological activities of coffee are gen- the phage-inducing activity of coffee. It has
erally attributed to its caffeine. Caffeine is a been suggested that sulfites should be added
powerful stimulant of the central nervous to coffee to reduce mutagenicity.23
system, respiration, and skeletal muscles; Coffee (even decaffeinated) is reported to
other activities include cardiac stimulation, stimulate gastric secretion and should be taken
coronary dilation, smooth muscle relaxation, only with proper precautions (e.g., with cream
and diuresis. or during meals) by individuals with peptic
Apart from the biological activities of caf- ulcer (GOODMAN AND GILMAN; MARTINDALE).
feine, those of chlorogenic acid (which is pres-
ent in substantial quantities in coffee) should
not be ignored, as chlorogenic acid is reported USES
to have stimulant, diuretic, and choleretic prop-
erties (see artichoke and honeysuckle); it also Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
has allergenic properties (MORTON 3). In addition to its use as a central and respi-
ratory stimulant, usually as caffeine, U.S.P.,
and caffeine and sodium benzoate injection,
TOXICOLOGY U.S.P., caffeine is extensively used as an
ingredient in many types of pharmaceutical
The fatal dose of caffeine in humans is re- preparations, particularly internal analgesics,
ported to be 10 g. A dose of 1 g or more would cold and allergy products, weight-control
produce toxic effects, including headache, formulations (appetite depressants), and
nausea, insomnia, restlessness, excitement, others.
224 Coffee
Food. Coffee has been used for centuries by reported is 0.04% in all except the last cate-
various cultures as a beverage to stay alert and gory that is about 0.007% (68 ppm).
to improve work efficiency.
Coffee extract (type not specified) is widely
used as a flavor ingredient in many food COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
products, including alcoholic (e.g., liqueurs)
and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy Extracts (e.g., fluid, solid, and tincture) and
desserts, candy, baked goods, gelatins and natural caffeine. Caffeine is official in U.S.P.
puddings, sweet sauces, and milk products. and F.C.C.
Highest average maximum use level reported
is about 2.8% (28,216 ppm) in baked goods. Regulatory Status. Coffee extracts (§182.20)
Caffeine is extensively used in nonalcohol- and caffeine (§182.1180) are GRAS.17 Coffee
ic beverages (particularly colas), with re- charcoal, consisting of the milled, roasted to
ported average maximum use level of about blackened, carbonized outer parts of green
0.014% (141 ppm). It is also used in frozen dried fruits is the subject of a German thera-
dairy desserts, candy, gelatins and puddings, peutic monograph for treatment of nonspecific
and baked goods. Average maximum use level acute diarrhea.24
REFERENCES
See the General References for APhA; BAILEY 1; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; FEMA; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; LIST
AND HÖRHAMMER; MARTINDALE; TERRELL; USDA; YOUNGKEN.
1. R. G. Moores and A. Stefanucci in A. 12. J. Wurziger, Fette, Seifen, Anstrichmit.,
Standen, ed., Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia 79, 334 (1977).
of Chemical Technology, Vol. 5 Wiley– 13. B. A. Nagasampagi et al., Phyto-
Interscience, New York, 1964, p. 748. chemistry, 10, 1101 (1971).
2. R. J. Clarke and J. W. Drummond in L. W. 14. R. Viani and L Horman, J. Food Sci., 39,
Codd et al., eds., Chemical Technology: 1216 (1974).
An Encyclopedic Treatment, Vol. 7
15. G. Czok, Z. Ernaehrungswiss., 16, 248
Barnes & Noble, New York, 1975, p. 645.
(1977).
3. H. Vilar and L. A. B. Ferreira, Coll. Int.
16. N. Loprieno et al., Mutat. Res., 21, 275
Chim. Cafes (C. R.), 6, 135 (1974).
(1973).
4. P. Folstar et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 25,
17. M. T. O’Brien, Food Prod. Dev., 12 (9),
283 (1977).
86 (1978).
5. V. Ara and H. Thaler, Z. Lebensm. Unters.
18. H. Kasai et al., Gann, 73, 381 (1982).
Forsch., 161, 143 (1976).
19. P. Stocks, Br. J. Cancer, 24, 215 (1970).
6. M. Asanteand H.Thaler, Chem. Mikrobiol.
Technol. Lebensm., 4, 110 (1975). 20. D. H. Shennon, Br. J. Cancer, 28, 473
(1973).
7. V. Ara and H. Thaler, Z. Lebensm. Unters.
Forsch., 164, 8 (1977). 21. D. Simon et al., J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 54,
587 (1975).
8. W. Walter et al., Naturwissenschaften,
57, 246 (1970). 22. H.-P. Wuerzner et al., Food Cosmet.
Toxicol., 15, 289 (1977).
9. H. V. Amorim et al., J. Agric. Food
Chem., 25, 957 (1977). 23. Y. Suwa et al., Mutat. Res., 102, 383
(1982).
10. D. Reymond, Chemtech, 7, 664 (1977).
24. Monograph Coffea carbo, Bunde-
11. E. Cerma and P. Baradel, Atti Cong.
sanzeiger, no. 85 (May 5, 1988).
Qual., 6, 321 (1967).
Comfrey 225
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids from S. uplandicum ointments, and balms, are still widely avail-
have also been found to cause chronic hepa- able (FOSTER).
totoxicity.15 Veno-occlusive disease from in-
gestion of various comfrey species, including Traditional Medicine. A root decoction is
leaves and roots, has been clearly documented reportedly used as a gargle or mouthwash for
in humans.6,16–18 throat inflammations, hoarseness, and bleed-
ing gums. The root, in one form or another,
is also used to treat a wide variety of ailments
USES such as gastrointestinal problems (e.g., ul-
cers), excessive menstrual flow, diarrhea,
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. dysentery, bloody urine, persistent cough,
Comfrey root and leaves and their extracts bronchitis, cancers, and others.20
are used as ingredients in various types Externally, the powdered root is used as a
of cosmetic preparations such as lotions, hemostatic and in poulticing wounds, bruises,
creams, ointments, eyedrops, hair products, sores, and insect bites. The mucilage is believed
and others. to help soften the skin when used in baths.21,22
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; BLUMENTHAL 1; FOSTER; GOSSELIN; LUST; MARTINDALE; ROSE;
UPHOF.
1. G. V. Makarova et al., Farm. Zh. (Kiev), 7. H. Wagner et al., Arzneim.-Forsch., 20,
21(5), 41 (1966). 705 (1970).
2. D. Fijalkowski and M. Seroczynska, 8. G. Franz, Planta Med., 17, 217
Herba Pol., 23, 47 (1977). (1969).
3. T. Furuya and K. Araki, Chem. Pharm. 9. Z. Michalska and T. Jakimowicz, Farm.
Bull., 16, 2512 (1968). Pol., 25, 185 (1969).
4. T. Furuya and M. Hikichi, Phyto- 10. R. Andres et al., Planta Med., 55, 643
chemistry, 10, 2217 (1971). (1989).
5. L. W. Smith and C. C. J. Culvenor, J. Nat. 11. V. U. Ahmad et al., J. Nat. Prod., 56(3),
Prod., 44(2), 29 (1981). 329 (1993).
6. D. V. C. Awang, Can. Pharm. J., 101 12. I. V. I. Man’ko et al., Rast. Resur., 5, 508
(1987). (1969).
Coriander 227
13. I. S. Kozhina et al., Rast. Resur., 6, 345 18. P. M. Ridker, Lancet, 1, 657 (1989).
(1970). 19. R. Huxtable, Am. J. Med., 89, 548
14. G. Furnadzhiev et al., Stomatologiya (1990).
(Sofia), 58, 37 (1976). 20. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 31, 71 (1968).
15. 1. Hirono et al., J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 21. Monograph Symphyti herba-folium,
61(3), 865 (1978). Bundesanzeiger, no. 138 (July 27)
16. P. M. Ridker et al., Gastroenterology, 1990.
88, 1050 (1985). 22. Monograph Symphyti radix, Bunde-
17. R. Huxtable et al., N. Engl. J. Med., 315, sanzeiger, no. 138 (July 27) 1990.
1095 (1986).
Coriander oil is reported to have larvicidal The seeds (fruits) and oil are extensively
properties (see allspice and clove) as well used as flavor ingredients in all types of food
as bactericidal and weakly cytotoxic products, including alcoholic (vermouths, bit-
activities.20,21 ters, gin, etc.) and nonalcoholic beverages,
A liquid carbon dioxide extract of corian- frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked goods,
der seeds has been reported to exhibit antibac- gelatins and puddings, meat and meat pro-
terial and antifungal activities.22 ducts, condiments and relishes, and others.
Coriander oil when tested at a concentra- Highest average maximum use levels reported
tion of 6% in petrolatum on human subjects for seeds and oil were 0.52% and 0.012%,
(25 per test) did not produce skin irritation or respectively, in meat and meat products and
sensitization reactions.23 in alcoholic beverages.
An aqueous extract of fresh coriander seeds
produced a dose-dependent significant anti- Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Fruits
implantation effect in rats (related to a signifi- sometimes used in carminative and digestive
cant decrease in serum progesterone levels products (FOSTER).
after 5 days).24
Traditional Medicine. Fruits are used as an
aromatic carminative, stomachic, and anti-
USES spasmodic, usually in the form of an infusion.
In Chinese medicine, in addition to being
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. used as a stomachic, they are used in measles,
Oil is used mainly as a flavoring agent in dysentery, hemorrhoids, and other ailments;
pharmaceutical preparations (e.g., Aromatic a decoction is also used as a gargle to relieve
Cascara Sagrada Fluid extract); fruits are used toothache. The whole herb is also used in
as aromatic and carminative and in prepara- stomachache, nausea, measles, and painful
tions to prevent griping (MARTINDALE). hernia (JIANGSU).
In cosmetics, oil is used as a fragrance
component in soaps, creams, lotions, and
perfumes, with maximum use level of 0.6% COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
in perfumes.23
Oil is also used in flavoring tobacco. Crude and oil. Crude was formerly official in
N.F., and oil is official in N.F. and F.C.C.
Food. The young leaves are widely used as a
garnish in cooking (e.g., Chinese, Armenian, Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.10 and
Spanish, etc.); they are known as Chinese §182.20). Fruits subject of a German thera-
parsley in Chinese cuisine and cilantro in peutic monograph indicated for dyspeptic
Spanish cooking. complaints and loss of appetite.25
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; DUKE 4; FEMA; FOGARTY; FOSTER;
GRIEVE; JIANGSU; LUST; MASADA; NANJING; ROSENGARTEN.
1. E. Gliozheni, Bul. Shkencave Nat., Univ. 4. H. Karow, Riechst., Aromen, K€orper-
Shteteror Tiranes, 28(3), 41 (1974). pflegem., 19(2), 60 (1969).
2. G. Jukneviciene et al., Liet. TSR Mokslu 5. S. K. Chogovadze and D. M. Bakhtadze,
Akad. Darb., Ser. C, 3, 9 (1977). Lebensm. Ind., 24, 513 (1977).
3. N. N. Glushchenko et al., Maslo-Zhir. 6. E. Schratz and S. M. J. S. Qadry, Planta
Prom., 6, 28 (1977). Med., 14, 310 (1966).
Corn silk 229
7. S. Rasmussen et al., Medd. Nor. Farm. 17. G. Paulet et al., Rev. Fr. Corps Gras., 21,
Selsk., 34(3–4), 33 (1972). 415 (1974).
8. G. K. Gupta et al., Indian Perfum., 21, 86 18. Y. Saito et al., Eiyo To Shokuryo, 29, 505
(1977). (1976).
9. R. M. Ikeda et al., J. Food Sci., 27, 455 19. N. R. Farnsworth and A. B. Segelman,
(1962). Tile Till, 57, 52 (1971).
10. J. S. T. Chou, Koryo, 106, 55 (1974). 20. K. K. Abdullin, Uch. Zap. Kazansk. Vet.
11. J. Taskinen and L. Nykanen, Acta Chem. Inst., 84, 75 (1962).
Scand., Ser. B, 29, 425 (1975). 21. K. Silyanovska et al., Parfum. Kosmet.,
12. G. A. Stepanenko et al., Khim. Prir. 50, 293 (1969).
Soedin., 10, 37 (1974). 22. M. L. Khanin et al., Khim. Farm. Zh., 2,
13. L. T. Lee and M. W. Wah, Hua Hsueh, 2, 40 (1968).
52 (1973). 23. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
14. A. R. S. Kartha and Y. Selvaraj, Chem. 11, 1077 (1973).
Ind. (London), 25, 831 (1970). 24. M. S. Al-Said et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
15. N. V. Sergeeva, Khim. Prir. Soedin., 10, 21, 165 (1987).
94 (1974). 25. Monograph Coriandri fructus, Bunde-
16. J. Kunzemann and K. Herrmann, Z. sanzeiger, no. 173 (September 18) 1986.
Lebensm. Unters. Forsch., 164, 194 (1977).
REFERENCES
See the General References for APhA; BARRETT; FEMA; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; JIANGSU; LUST; ROSE; TERRELL;
UPHOF.
1. N. E. Bobryshev, Kukuruza, 9, 59 (1962). 3. S. J. Hahn, K’at’ollik Taehak Uihakpu
2. E. D. Styles and O. Ceska, Phytochemistry, Nonmunjip, 25, 127 (1973).
14, 413 (1975).
Source: Saussurea lappa Clarke (syn. Root contains 0.3–3% volatile oil; saussurine
Aucklandia costus Falc.) (Family Compositae (an alkaloid); betulin; stigamsterol; about
or Asteraceae). 18% inulin; and resins (JIANGSU; NANJING;
WILLAMAN AND SCHUBERT).
The major components in the oil are ses-
quiterpene lactones, including the crystalline
GENERAL DESCRIPTION dehydrocostus lactone and costunolide, which
together make up about 50% of the oil; a- and
Large erect perennial herb with a thick tap- b-cyclocostunolide; alantolactone; isoalanto-
root; up to about 2 m high; native to the lactone; dihydrodehydrocostus lactone; cy-
mountains of northern India (the Himalayas); naropicrin, and others.1–6 Also present are
cultivated in India and southwestern China. other sesquiterpenes such as b-costol, ele-
Part used is the dried root, from which a ma-1,3,11(13)trien-l2-ol, a-costol, g-costol,
volatile oil is obtained by steam distillation b-selinene, b-elemene, elemol, caryophyl-
followed by solvent extraction of the distilled lene, caryophyllene oxide, ar-curcumene,
water. India is the major producer of the oil. aselinene, a-costal, b-costal, g-costal, and
Costus oil 231
others, with their concentrations in decreasing reactions (e.g., contact dermatitis) in hu-
order and the first four accounting for about mans.13–15
18% of commercial root oil;7,8 (Z,Z,Z)-1,8,-
11,14-heptadecatetraene;9,10 an unusual ter-
penoid C14-ketone (E)-9-isopropyl-6-meth- USES
yl-5,9-decadien-2-one);11 a- and b-ionones;
dihydro-a-ionone; (E)-geranylacetone; aplo- Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
taxene and dihydroaplotaxene; 3,9,11-guaia- Costus and its derivatives (essential oil, abso-
triene-l2-carboxylic acid;12 costic acid; pal- lute, and concrete) are used as fixatives and
mitic, linoleic, and oleic acids; friedelin; b-si- fragrance components in creams, lotions, and
tosterol; and others (JIANGSU; MASADA).2–4,7 perfumes (e.g., Oriental types); reported max-
The sesquiterpene lactones (especially imum use level is 0.4% (no specific product
alantolactone, dehydrocostus lactone, and form given) in perfumes.14
costunolide) have plant growth-regulating
activities.1,13
Food. Oil is used as a flavor component in
most major food products, including alcohol-
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL ic and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy
ACTIVITIES desserts, candy, baked goods, gelatins and
puddings, and confectioner’s frosting. Use
Various fractions of costus oil have been levels are low, with highest average maxi-
reported to have hypotensive activities in mum of about 0.0004% (4.04 and 4.16 ppm)
anesthetized dogs, with 12-methoxydihydro- reported for alcoholic beverages and baked
costunolide and the delactonized oil being the goods.
most potent, acting through direct peripheral
vasodilation and cardiac depression. Most
fractions were also effective in relieving Traditional Medicine. Root has been used
bronchial spasm induced by histamine and for millennia in China and India as a tonic,
acetylcholine in guinea pigs, but none had stomachic, carminative, and stimulant and in
antitussive activity.5 treating asthma, cough, dysentery, and chol-
A decoction of costus root is reported to era, among others; also used in incense.
exhibit weak inhibitory activities on paraty-
phoid A bacterium and certain other patho-
genic bacteria (JIANGSU). COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BARRETT; FEMA; FOGARTY; GUENTHER; GUPTA; JIANGSU; NANJING.
1. P. S. Kalsi et al., Phytochemistry, 16, 784 3. S. V. Govindan and S.C. Bhattacharyya,
(1977). Indian J. Chem., Sect. B, 15, 956 (1977).
2. S. B. Mathur, Phytochemistry, 11, 449 4. S. B. Mathur and S. C. Bhattacharyya, Int.
(1972). Cong. Essent. Oils (Pap.), 6, 126 (1974).
232 Cranberry
5. O. P.Gupta and B. J. R. Ghatak, Indian 11. B. Maurer and G. Ohloff, Helv. Chim.
J. Med. Res., 55, 1078 (1967). Acta, 60, 2191 (1977).
6. F. Bohlmann et al., Planta Med., 51, 74 12. E. Klein and F. Thoemel, Tetrahedron,
(1985). 32, 163 (1976).
7. B. Maurer and A. Grieder, Helv. Chim. 13. E. Rodriguez et al., Phytochemistry, 15,
Acta, 60, 2177 (1977). 1573 (1976).
8. A. S. Bawdekar et al., Tetrahedron, 23, 14. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
1993 (1967). 12(Suppl.) 867 (1974).
9. R. G. Binder et al., Phytochemistry, 14, 15. J. C. Mitchell, Arch. Dermatol., 109, 572
2085 (1975). (1974).
10. M. Romanuk et al., Collect. Czech. Chem.
Commun., 24, 2018 (1959).
tract infections in mice. Cranberry juice fruc- of pure juice with added fructose. Approxi-
tose and an uncharacterized high molecular mately 1500 g of fresh fruit produce 1 L of
weight polymeric compound inhibit cellular juice. Anthocyanin pigment from fruit pulp
adhesion of uropathogenic strains of E. coli. used as commercial food coloring.
The antiadhesive agent of cranberry juice may
prevent E. coli colonization in the gut, in the Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Fruit
bladder, or in both.7 Dosage of juice ranges juice concentrates or dried fruit in capsules
from 5 to 20 oz daily (6 oz are equivalent to and tablets, intended for relief of urinary tract
90 g of fresh fruit). One study found that infections (LUST).
drinking 4–6 oz of cranberry juice daily for
7 weeks appeared to prevent urinary tract Traditional Medicine. Fruit juice tradition-
infections in 19 of 28 nursing home patients; ally considered diuretic, antiseptic, febrifuge,
a preventative rather than curative effect was refrigerant; a home remedy for treatment of
suggested.8 urinary tract infections; folk cancer remedy in
eastern Europe (STEINMETZ).
USES
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Food. Fruit juice, jelly, sauce: commonly
eaten with poultry. Leaves a folk tea substi- Fruit juice, juice concentrates, dried fruit,
tute. Cranberry juice cocktail is a 33% dilution juice concentrate in capsules.
REFERENCES
See the General References for BLUMENTHAL 2; CRELLIN AND PHILPOTT; GLEASON AND CRONQUIST; LUST;
STEINMETZ; TUTIN 3; UPHOF.
1. L. Liberti, Lawrence Rev. (1987). 6. D. Zafriri et al., Antimicrob. Agents
2. P. T. Bodel et al., J. Lab. Clin. Med., 54, 881 Chemother., 33, 92 (1989).
(1959). 7. I. Ofek et al., N. Eng. J. Med., 324(22),
3. P. Sternlieb, N. Engl. J. Med., 268, 57 1599 (1991).
(1963). 8. L. Gibson et al., J. Naturopathic Med.,
4. A. E. Sobata, J. Urol., 131, 1013 (1984). 2(1), 45 (1991).
5. D. R. Schmidt and A. E. Sobata, Microbios,
55, 173 (1988).
Source: Piper cubeba L. f. (syn. Cubeba Evergreen shrub or climbing vine, up to about
officinalis Miq.) (Family Piperaceae). 6 m high, often grown with other economic
plants such as coffee; native to Indonesia and
Common/vernacular names: Cubeba, cubeb cultivated throughout Southeast Asia. Part
berries, and tailed pepper. used is the dried, fully grown but unripe fruit,
234 Cubebs
commonly called cubeb berry, with its at- Cubeb oil has been reported to exhibit
tached peduncle or stem (hence also called antiviral activities in rats as well as weak
tailed pepper); cubeb oil is produced by steam to strong antibacterial activities in vitro; it
distillation of the crushed fruits, usually in also has certain urinary antiseptic properties
Europe and in the United States. (JIANGSU; MERCK).5
Fruits contain 10–20% volatile oil; about Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
2.5% cubebin;1 1–1.7% amorphous cubebic Berry and oil have been used in diuretic and
acid of undetermined structure; an acidic resin urinary antiseptic preparations. Oil is used as a
and 3–3.7% neutral resins, 8% gum; fats; and fragrance component in soaps, detergents,
others (JIANGSU; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER). creams, lotions, and perfumes, with highest
The essential oil contains mainly sesqui- maximum use level of 0.8% reported in per-
terpenes and monoterpenes and their alcohols, fumes.5 Also used in flavoring tobacco.
with their relative concentrations varying
considerably according to different reports. Food. Oil is used as a flavor ingredient in
Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons present include most major categories of food products, in-
caryophyllene, cadinene, a- and b-cubebene,2 cluding alcoholic (liqueurs) and nonalcoholic
copaene, and 1-isopropyl-4-methylene-7- beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked
methyl-1,2,3,6,7,8,9-heptahydronaphthalein; goods, gelatins and puddings, meat and meat
monoterpene hydrocarbons including sabi- products, condiments and relishes, and others.
nene, a-thujene, b-phellandrene, a-pinene, Highest average maximum use level reported
myrcene, b-pinene, a-phellandrene, g- and is about 0.004% (38.2 ppm) in condiments
a-terpinene, limomene, and ocimene, and relishes. Fruits are reportedly used only
among others;3 oxygenated terpenes include in nonalcoholic beverages at an average max-
1,4-cineole, a-terpineol, cadinol, and cube- imum use level of 0.085%.
bol; and others (JIANGSU; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER;
1,4
STAHL). Traditional Medicine. Used as a diuretic,
urinary antiseptic, carminative, and stimulat-
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL ing expectorant, among others. Also used in
ACTIVITIES treating gonorrhea and cancer.6
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BRUNETON; FEMA; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; LUST; MASADA;
TERRELL.
Cumin 235
1. C. K. Atal et al., Lloydia, 38, 256 (1975). 4. S. J. Terhune et al., Int. Congr. Essent. Oils
2. Y. Ohta et al., Tetrahedron Lett., 51, 6365 (Pap.), 6, 153 (1974).
(1966). 5. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
3. R. M. Ikeda, J. Food Sci., 27, 455 (1962). 14, 729 (1976).
6. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 288 (1970).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BRUNETON; DUKE 4; FEMA; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; GUPTA;
LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MARSH; ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL.
1. H. Karow, Riechst., Aromen, K€orper- 8. E. Georgiev and Van Hong Tam, Nauch.
pflegem., 19(2), 60 (1969). Tr., Vissh Inst. Khranit. Vkusova Prom.
2. C. G. Tassan and G. F. Russell, J. Food Plovdiv, 20, 99 (1973).
Sci., 40, 1185 (1975). 9. Y. Saito et al., Eiyo To Shokuryo, 29, 505
3. A. R. S. Kartha and Y. Selvaraj, Chem. (1976).
Ind. (London), 25, 831 (1970). 10. K. Oishi et al., Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi,
4. F. Toghrol and H. Daneshpejouh, J. Trop. 40, 1241 (1974).
Pediatr. Environ. Child Health, 20, 109 11. F. M. Ramadan et al., Chem. Mikrobiol.
(1974). Technol. Lebensm., 2, 51 (1972).
5. J. B. Harborne and C. A. Williams, 12. F. Meyer and E. Meyer, Arzneim.-
Phytochemistry, 11, 1741 (1972). Forsch., 9, 516 (1959).
6. P. T. Varo and D. E. Heinz, J. Agric. Food 13. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
Chem., 18, 234 (1970). 12(Suppl.) 869 (1974).
7. P. T. Varo and D. E. Heinz, J. Agric. Food
Chem., 18, 239 (1970).
Damiana 237
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 1; CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN AND
BEUTLER; LUST; MCGUFFIN
1 & 2; TERRELL; TYLER 1; UPHOF.
1. P. C. Standley, Vol. 23 Part 3 of 2. X. A. Dominguez and M. Hinojosa,
Contributions From the United States Planta Med., 30, 68 (1976).
NATIONAL Herbarium, Trees and Shrubs of 3. E.F. Steinmetz, Acta Phytother., 7,1(1960).
Mexico, Smithsonian Press, Washington, 4. S. Piacente et al., Z. Naturforsch. C, 57,
DC, 1923 p. 848. 983 (2002).
238 Dandelion root
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BAILEY 1; BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; DER
MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DUKE 4; ESCOP 3; FEMA; FOSTER; FOSTER AND DUKE; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE;
JIANGSU; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; LUST; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NANJING; ROSE; TERRELL.
1. B. Proda and E. Andrzejewska, Farm. 10. K. Faber, Pharmazie, 13, 423 (1958).
Polska, 22, 181 (1966); through Chem. 11. C. Hu and D. D. Kitts, J. Agric. Food
Abstr., 65, 9341c (1966). Chem., 51, 301 (2003).
2. Y. Kashiwada et al., J. Asian Nat. Prod. 12. N. Mascolo, Phytother. Res., 1, 28
Res., 3, 191 (2001). (1987).
3. W. Kisiel and B. Barszcz, Fitoterapia, 71, 13. S. W. Seo et al., World J. Gastroenterol.,
269 (2000). 11, 597 (2005).
4. C. Hu and D. D. Kitts, Phytomedicine, 12, 14. H. B. Heath, Cosmet. Toilet., 92, 19
588 (2005). (1977).
5. C. A. Williams et al., Phytochemistry, 42, 15. Monograph Taraxaci radix cum herba.
121 (1996). Bundesanzeiger, no. 228 (December 5,
6. K. Schutz et al., Rapid Commun. Mass 1984); corrected (September 1, 1990).
Spectrom., 19, 179 (2005). 16. Monograph Taraxaci radix cum herba.
7. J. Chury and F. Prosek, Vet. Med. Bundesanzeiger, no. 228 (August 29,
(Prague), 13, 305 (1968). 1992).
8. N. R. Farnsworth and A. B. Segelman, 17. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 31, 71 (1968).
Tile Till, 57, 52 (1971). 18. V. F. Belyaev and P. V. Golovin, Uch.
9. J. C. Mitchell, Recent Advances in Phy- Zap., Beloruss. Gos Univ. V. I. Lenina,
tochemistry, Plenum Press, New York, Ser. Khim., 20, 220 (1954).
1975, p. 119.
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 2; BRUNETON; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; MARTINDALE;
WREN .
1. R. A. Appleton and C. R. Enzell, 4. F. A. Haskins et al., Econ. Bot., 26,
Phytochemistry, 10, 447 (1971). 44 (1972).
2. K. Karlsson et al., Acta Chem. Scand., 5. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
26, 2837 (1972). 12, 385, (1974).
3. I. Wahlberg et al., Acta Chem. Scand., 6. T. Bolton and J. R. Casley-Smith,
26, 1383 (1972). Experientia, 31, 271 (1975).
242 Devil’s claw
Anticonvulsant activity. The aqueous extract of Traditional Medicine. Used in Africa and
the root administered at 100–800 mg/kg i.p. to since the early 20th century in Europe for
mice significantly decreased the onset and indigestion (bitter tonic), blood diseases,
severity of seizures induced by pentylenetetra- headache, allergies, rheumatism, arthritis,
zole and picrotoxin. The displayed anticonvul- lumbago, neuralgia; also as febrifuge, purga-
sant effect was similar to that of phenobarbitone tive; externally for sores, ulcer, boils, and skin
and diazepam. The authors suggested that an lesions; folk cancer remedy.
enhancing effect on GABA neurotransmission
and/or GABAergic action was the mechanism
underlying the anticonvulsant activity of de- COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
vil’s claw.25
Antidiabetic activity. i.p. administration of Crude and extracts. Extracts do not have uni-
50–800 mg/kg of the aqueous root extract to form standards. In Germany, ampoules are
streptozotocin-treated mice resulted in a sig- available for i.v. and i.m. administration.
nificant reduction in blood glucose levels com-
parable to that produced by the reference Regulatory Status. Undetermined in the
hypoglycemic agent chlorpropamide.14 United States. Root the subject of an official
Antiplasmodial activity. The petroleum ether monograph in Germany, indicated for
extract of the root displayed selective in vitro loss of appetite, dyspeptic discomfort, and
antiplasmodial activity against two strains of others.27
Plasmodium falciparum (chloroquine-resistant
REFERENCES
See the General References for BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; STEINMETZ; TYLER 1;
UPHOF; WEISS; WREN.
1. H. Litichi and A. Wartburg, Tetrahedron 3. F. C. Cyzgan and A. Kreuger, Planta
Lett., 15, 835 (1964). Med., 31, 305 (1977).
2. O. Sticher, Dtsch. Apoth. Ztg., 32, 1279 4. C. Clarkson et al., J. Nat. Prod., 69, 527
(1977). (2006).
244 Dill and indian dill
5. C. Clarkson et al., Planta Med., 69, 720 17. S. Chrubasik et al., Phytother. Res., 18,
(2003). 187 (2004).
6. K. Boje et al., Planta Med., 69, 820 (2003). 18. J. J. Gagnier et al., BMC Complement
7. A. Erdos et al., Planta Med., 34, 97 (1978). Altern. Med., 4, 13 (2004).
8. O. Eichler and C. Koch, Arzneim.- 19. D. Laudahn and A. Walper, Phytother.
Forsch, 20, 107 (1970). Res., 15, 621 (2001).
9. D. McLeod et al., Br. J. Pharmacol., 20. T. Wegener and N. P. Lupke, Phytother.
6, 140 (1979). Res., 17, 1165 (2003).
10. I. Whitehouse et al., Can. Med. Assoc., 21. T. H. Huang et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
129, 249 (1983). 104, 149 (2006).
11. R. Graham and B. V. Robinson, Ann. 22. M. H. Jang et al., J. Pharmacol. Sci.,
Rheum. Dis., 40, 632 (1981). 93, 367 (2003).
12. M. C. Lanhers et al., Planta Med., 58, 117 23. M. Kaszkin et al., Phytomedicine, 11, 585
(1992). (2004).
13. R. Kampf, Schweiz. Apothek. Zeitung, 24. B. L. Fiebich et al., Phytomedicine, 8, 28
114, 337 (1976). (2001).
14. I. M. Mahomed and J. A. Ojewole, 25. I. M. Mahomed and J. A. Ojewole, Brain
Phytother. Res., 18, 982 (2004). Res. Bull., 69, 57 (2006).
15. M. L. Andersen et al., J. 26. C. Circost et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
Ethnopharmacol., 91, 325 (2004). 11, 259 (1984).
16. P. Chantre et al., Phytomedicine, 7, 177 27. Monograph Harpagophyti radix.
(2000). Bundesangeizer, no. 43 (March 2, 1989).
DILL AND INDIAN DILL aboveground herb (dill herb) harvested imme-
diately before the fruits mature or, for best
Source: Dill Anethum graveolens L.; quality, before flowering. Dill seed oil is ob-
Indiandill Anethum sowa Roxb. (Family tained by steam distillation of the crushed
Umbelliferae or Apiaceae). dried fruits, and dillweed oil (dill oil or dill
herb oil) is obtained by steam distillation of
Common/vernacular names: European dill the freshly harvested herb. Dill seed oil is
and American dill (A. graveolens); East Indian produced mainly in Europe, while dillweed
dill (A. sowa). oil is produced primarily in the United States.
Indian dill (A. sowa) is a smooth perennial
herb, up to about 1 m high; native to tropical
GENERAL DESCRIPTION Asia and widely cultivated in India and Japan.
Part used is the dried ripe fruit (commonly
Dill (A. graveolens) is an annual or biennial called “seed”); Indian dill seed oil (Indian dill
herb with a smooth and erect stem; up to 1 m oil or East Indian dill seed oil) is obtained by
high; native to Mediterranean region and steam distillation of the crushed fruit.
Asia (southern Russia); now cultivated world-
wide (Germany, the Netherlands, the United CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Kingdom, Italy, the United States, India,
China, etc.). Parts used are the dried ripe fruit Dill seeds contain 1.2–7.7% (usually 2.5–4%)
(commonly called “seed”) and the whole volatile oil, with concentrations varying
Dill and indian dill 245
according to geographical origin and sea- in the oil for the first time were D8-dehydro-
sons;1–3 dillanoside (a xanthone glucoside);4 p-cymene, camphor, and linalylacetate.
coumarins (scopoletin, esculetin, bergapten, The whole herb of A. graveolens was
umbelliferone, umbelliprenine, etc.); kaemp- reported to contain the new furanocoumarin,
ferol and its 3-glucuronide;5,6 vicenin (6,8-di- 5-[400 -hydroxy-300 -methyl-200 -butenyloxy]-6,7-
C-glucosyl-5,7,30 -trihydroxyflavone) and furocoumarin, in addition to oxypeucedanin,
other fiavonoids;7 petroselinic acid triglycer- oxypeucedanin hydrate, and falcarindiol.22
ide and b-sitosterol glucoside;8 phenolic acids The whole herb also contains 9-hydroxypiper-
(caffeic, ferulic, and chlorogenic); protein itone glucosides, p-menth-2-ene-1,6-diol, and
(ca. 16%); fats (ca. 15%); and others (JIANGSU; 8-hydroxygeraniol.23
LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MARSH).
Dill seed oil contains mainly carvone
(35–60%), d-limonene, and a-phellandrene, PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
which together can account for 90% of the ACTIVITIES
oil.1,2,9 Other components present include
dihydrocarvone, eugenol, b-phellandrene, Dill seed oil has been reported to have spas-
a-pinene, anethole, dillapiole, myristicin, molytic effects on smooth muscles, especially
carveol, b-caryophyllene, and others.1,2,9,10 those of the GIT.24 A 5% emulsion in physio-
Dillweed oil contains a-phellandrene, logical saline administered intravenously to
limonene, and carvone as its major compo- cats (5–10 mg/kg) increased respiratory vol-
nents, usually with carvone in lesser ume and lowered blood pressure, while guinea
amount than that in dill seed oil.1,3,11,12 Other pigs receiving a higher dose (35 mg/kg) via i.p.
constituents include terpinene, apinene, injection went into anaphylactic shock.25
dillapiole, myristicin, and two coumarans, Dill seed oil has antibacterial properties,
among others (LIST AND HÖRHAMMER).1,12–14 and Indian dill seed oil has antifungal activi-
Thirty-three compounds have been identi- ties.26,27 The oxypeucedanins and falcarindiol
fied in the water-soluble portion of the metha- isolated from the whole herb were reported
nol extract of dill seed. Of these compounds, to exhibit antimycobacterial activity with
nine were reported for the first time and in- MIC values between 2 and 128 mg/mL.22
cluded a monoterpene, six monoterpene glyco- An infusion of the young dill herb
sides, an aromatic, and an alkyl glucoside.15 when administered intravenously to animals
Indian dill seeds contain 2–6% volatile oil;6 is reported to lower the blood pressure, dilate
kaempferol, isorhamnetin, quercetin, and blood vessels, stimulate respiration, slow the
their 3-glucuronides;5,6 petroselinic acid heart rate, and other activities (JIANGSU).
triglyceride and b-sitosterol;8 fats; proteins; Ethanolic extracts of dill seeds as well as
and others (LIST AND HÖRHAMMER).16 the volatile oil have been shown to produce
Indian dill seed oil consists mainly of car- diuresis in dogs, while significantly increasing
vone, dihydrocarvone, and limonene in varying Na þ and Cl excretion.28
amounts;6 dillapiole (often in significant Oral administration of an aqueous extract of
quantities) and apiole;6,17–20 myristicin;19 and dill leaves to hyperlipidemic rats for 14 days
others (LIST AND HÖRHAMMER). reduced their blood cholesterol and triacylgle-
Two minor aromatic compounds (a propio- ceride levels by almost 20% and 50%, respec-
phenone and a biphenyl derivative) were tively. Oral administration of the essential oil
isolated from 3 kg of dried Indian dell seeds. had a comparable effect on triacylglycerides but
Their yields were ca. 0.001% and 0.002%, resp- had no effect on cholesterol level.29
ectively, and were reported for the first time.21 Administration of aqueous and ethanolic
Egyptian dill seed was found to contain extracts of dill seed to mice models of gastric
limonene (30.3%), dillapiole (26.8%), irritation/hyperacidity resulted in a dose-
carvone (22%), piperitone (8.2%); reported dependent decrease in total gastric acid and
246 Dill and indian dill
a rise in pH comparable to that of cimetidine. age maximum use level of 0.075% reported in
Gastric lesions induced by HCl or ethanol snack foods.
were also reduced after oral administration of
the extracts (dose 0.45 g/kg vs. 0.1 g/kg of Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Bulk
sucralfate). The reduction of gastric lesions dillweed and dill seeds are available at natural
was attributed not only to the antacid effect of food stores valued as a carminative (FOSTER).
the extracts but also to a possible cytoprotec-
tive effect of their terpene and flavonoid
constituents.30 Traditional Medicine. Both in domestic
Western and Chinese medicine, dill seed and
dill seed oil are used as aromatic carminative
TOXICOLOGY and stimulant in the treatment of flatulence,
especially in children. Reported to have car-
At ordinary use levels, dill and Indian dill oils minative, antispasmodic, sedative, lactago-
are considered nontoxic.18 However, a num- gue, and diuretic properties. Used in India,
ber of case reports and studies have been Africa, and elsewhere for hemorrhoids, bron-
published about allergic reactions to dill seed chial asthma, neuralgias, renal colic, dysuria,
and related herbs.31–34 genital ulcers, dysmenorrhea, and others.35 In
European tradition, dill herb is reportedly used
USES as an antispasmodic for conditions of the
gastrointestinal tract, kidney and urinary tract;
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. also for sleep disorders.36
Dill seed and dill seed oil are occasionally
used in digestive preparations. Dill weed oil is
used as a fragrance component in cosmetics, COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
including soaps, detergents, creams, lotions,
and perfumes. Maximum use level reported is Crude and oils. Dill seed oil, dillweed oil, and
0.4% in perfumes. Indian dill seed oil are official in F. C. C., with
ketone (as carvone) contents highest in dill
Food. Dill, Indian dill, and their oils are seed oil and lowest in Indian dill seed oil.
extensively used in many food products. Dill
and Indian dill are reportedly used in baked Regulatory Status. GRAS status affirmed
goods, meat and meat products, condiments (§184.1282). Dill seed is the subject of a
and relishes, fats and oils, and others; highest positive German therapeutic monograph, in-
average maximum use level is about 2.9% dicated as a spasmolytic and bacteriostatic for
(28,976 ppm) for Indian dill in condiments and dyspeptic disorders, with a mean daily dosage
relishes. Dill oil is used in all above foods as of 3 g (or 0.1–0.3 g of the essential oil).37
well as in alcoholic and nonalcoholic bev- Dillweed is not allowed to carry therapeutic
erages, frozen dairy desserts, cheese, snack claims, since efficacy for reported uses has not
foods, gravies, and others, with highest aver- been documented.
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BLUMENTHAL 1; FOSTER; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; LIST AND
HÖRHAMMER; MARTINDALE; ROSENGARTEN; UPHOF.
1. H. Karow, Riechst, Aromen, Korper- 3. R.Gupta, Cultiv. Util. Med Aromat.
pflegem, 19, 60 (1969). Plants, 337 (1977).
2. M. B. Embong et al., Can. Inst. Food Sci. 4. M. Kozawa et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.,
Technol. J., 10, 208 (1977). 24, 220 (1976).
Doggrass 247
REFERENCES
See the General References for APhA; BLUMENTHAL 1; FEMA; GOSSELIN; HORTUS 3RD; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER;
WREN; YOUNGKEN.
1. S. Paslawska and R. Piekos, Planta Med., 5. M. Hejmanek and V. Dadak, Cesk. Mykol.,
30, 216 (1976). 13, 183 (1959).
2. D. Smith and R. D. Grotelschen, Crop Sci., 6. R. Kiesewetter and M. M€uller, Pharmazie,
6, 263 (1966). 13, 777 (1958).
3. R. Soiesel and H. Schilcher, Planta Med., 7. E. Racz-Kotilla and E. Mozes, Rev. Med.
55, 399 (1989). (Tirgu-Mures), 17, 82 (1971).
4. B. Cammue et al., Eur. J. Biochem., 148, 8. Monograph Graminis rhizoma, Bunde-
315 (1985). sanzeiger, no. 22 (February 1, 1990).
Dogwood, jamaican 249
REFERENCES
See the General References for HORTUS 3RD; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;MORTON 2; SARGENT;
YOUNGKEN.
1. J. Buechi et al., Arch. Pharm. Chem., 68, 3. O. A. Stamm et al., Helv. Chim. Acta, 41,
183 (1961). 2006 (1958).
2. J. S. P. Schwarz et al., Tetrahedron, 20, 4. A. L. Kapoor et al., Helv. Chim. Acta, 40,
1317 (1964). 1574 (1957).
250 Dogwood, jamaican
5. W. Heller and C. Tamm, Helv. Chim. Acta, 7. M. Aurousseau et al., Ann. Pharm. Fr., 23,
58, 974 (1975). 251 (1965).
6. A. Nordal et al., Acta Chem. Scand., 20, 8. A. Caceres et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 31,
1431 (1966). 263 (1991).
Echinacea 251
dried roots);4 and 14 additional isobutyla- ester, and germacrene alcohol (characteristic
mides from the dried roots of E. angustifolia of fresh plant extracts). Alkylamides include
at 0.009–0.151%.5 Dodeca-2Z,4E,10Z-trien- isomeric dodeca-(2E,4E,8Z,10E/Z)-tetraenoic
8-ynoic acid isobutylamide was recently iso- acid isobutylamides, dodeca-2Z,4E-diene-
lated from the root by Chen et al.6 E. angusti- 8,10-diynoic acid isobutylamide (also in E.
folia polysaccharides include inulin (5.9%) pallida),6 along with 10 additional alkylamides
and fructans. Other constituents include a possessing a 2,4-diene structure (compared
resin (yielding oleic, linoleic, cerotic, and with one double bond in conjugation with the
palmitic acids on hydrolysis), rnyristic and carbonyl group in E. angustifolia alkylamides).
linolenic acids, n-triacontanol, b-sitosterol, The aerial parts of E. pallida, E. angustifolia,
stigmasterol, sitosterol-3-b-O-glucoside (le- and E. purpurea have a comparable alkylamide
aves and stems), behenic acid ethyl ester spectrum, mainly of the 2,4-diene type.2
(roots), and three glycoproteins. Chlorogenic Various polysaccharides from E. purpurea
acid and isochlorogenic acids are found in dried root include a heteroxylan (mean mol.
the leaves and stems of E. angustifolia and wt. 35,000), rhamnoarabinogalactan (mean
E. pallida.2 mol. wt. 450,000), and a xyloglucan.8 Hot
Rutoside is the major leaf flavonoid of water extracts of E. purpurea roots contain
E. angustifolia, E. pallida, and E. purpurea. water-soluble inulin-type fructans mainly
Flavonoids from E. angustifolia (possibly composed of linear glucose/fructose polymers
involving E. pallida) leaves include luteolin, with limited branch points.9 An acidic arabi-
kaempferol, quercetin, quercetagetin-7-glu- nogalactan and two neutral fucogalactoxylo-
coside, luteolin-7-glucoside, kaempferol- glucans are found in E. purpurea cell
3-glucoside, apigenin, and isorhamnetin. tissue cultures.2 From the pressed juice of
E. purpurea leaves contain quercetin, querce- E. purpurea, Classen et al. identified hydroxy-
tin-7-glucoside, kaempferol-3-rutinoside, proline-rich glycoproteins with arabinogalac-
rutin, and others. tan constituting the polysaccharide portion
E. pallida root essential oil (0.2–2.0%) con- of the molecule.10,11 Similar glycoproteins
tains a series of ketoalkynes and ketoalkenes, (sugar 96.1%, protein 3.6% w/w), in addition
including tetradeca-8Z-en-11,13-diyn-2-one; to an arabinan polysaccharide, were also iden-
pentadeca-8Z-en,11,13-diyn-2-one; pentade- tified in the root of E. pallida.12
ca-8Z,13Z-dien-11-yn-2-one; pentadeca-8Z, Alkaloids include glycine betaine in
11Z,13E-trien-2-one; pentadeca-8Z,11E,13Z- E. purpurea.2 The pyrrolizidine alkaloids
trien-2-one; pentadeca-8Z,11Z-dien-2-one; tussilagine (0.006%) and isotussilagine
pentadeca-8Z-en-2-one; and heptadeca-8Z, have been identified in E. angustifolia and
11Z-dien-2-one. In stored roots (commercial E. purpurea dried roots, neither of which
dried root), these components are oxidized possesses a 1,2-unsaturated necine ring struc-
by atmospheric oxygen to the hydroxylated ture associated with hepatotoxicity; therefore,
derivatives 8-hydroxytetradeca-9E-en-11,13- they are not considered to be problematic.13
diyn-2-one;8-hydroxypentadeca-9E,13Z-dien- A summary of the chemical composition of
11 -yn-2-one; and 8-hydroxypentadeca-9E-en- E. angustifolia, E. pallida, and E. purpurea
11,13-diyn-2-one.Thesecompoundsdifferenti- can be found in the recent review by Barnes
ate E. pallida extracts from E. angustifolia et al. and elsewhere.14
(absent).7
E. purpurea, the best studied species, con-
tains 1.2–3.1% (flowers) and 0.6–2.1% (roots) PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
cichoric acid, and other caffeic acid deriva- ACTIVITIES
tives; essential oil (in addition to above
reported essential oil components) contains Numerous studies report on the wound-
vanillin, p-hydroxycinnamic acid methyl healing mechanism of a preparation of the
Echinacea 253
expressed juice of fresh flowering E. purpurea the reported anti-HIV activity. Chicoric acid
on local tissues: inhibits hyaluronidase inhibits HIV-1 integrase in vitro at concentra-
(both direct and indirect via formation of a tion as low as 500 nM and inhibits viral
complex with hyaluronic acid, causing depo- integration in vivo at concentrations above
lymerization of hyaluronidase), promotes the 1 mM.22 On the other hand, a 1-year clinical
formation of mesenchymal mucopolysacchar- study to investigate the effect of an E. purpurea
ides, stimulates histogenic and haematogenic product on recurrent genital herpes in 50
phagocytes, promotes differentiation of fibro- patients failed to demonstrate any significant
cytes from fibroblasts, stimulates the anterior benefit of the product versus placebo.23
pituitary–adrenal cortex, and has anti-inflam- Weak oncolytic activity has been reported
matory activity.1,2,15,16 The antihyaluronidase from pentane extracts against Walker carcino-
activity was also exhibited by E. angustifolia ma 256 and P-388 lymphocytic leukemia,
root extracts and was mainly due to the but not lymphoid leukemia.15 The acidic
four caffeoyl acid esters (cynarine, chicoric, arabinogalactan isolated from E. purpurea
caftaric and chlorogenic acids) identified by tissue culture activated macrophages to cyto-
mass spectrometry.17 Topical application toxicity against tumor cells and Leishmania
of the root extract of E. pallida as well as enriettii, in addition to stimulating macro-
echinacoside resulted in a marked reduction phages to produce TNF, IL-1, and IF-b2, and
of local inflammation and improved wound a slight increase in T-cell proliferation.24
healing in treated rats in comparison to the The major activity for Echinacea species
control group. The authors attributed the and chemical fractions thereof is nonspecific
observed effect to the antihyaluronidase stimulation of the immune system. Immunos-
activity of echinacoside.18 timulant activity involves an overall increase
Bacteriostatic and fungistatic activities of in phagocytosis by macrophages and granu-
isolated compounds and/or plant extracts are locytes. Oral dosage is as effective as paren-
reported against Staphylococcus aureus teral dosage forms, though acts more
(weak in vitro), Escherichia coli, Pseudomo- slowly.1,2,15,16
nas aeruginosa, Trichomonas vaginalis (weak Immunostimulatory principles have been
in vitro), and Epidermophyton interdigitale. demonstrated both in lipophilic and polar
Yeasts, such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae and fractions of extracts of various species and
different species of Candida, are susceptible plant parts. Active components of lipophilic
to the light-mediated activity of E. purpurea (chloroform) extracts may include polyacety-
root extracts rich in polyacetylenes and alka- lenes, alkylamides, and essential oils. En-
mides. Conventional antifungal activity, in riched alkylamide fractions of E. purpurea,
absence of UV irradiation, was not as marked E. angustifolia, and E. pallida root ethanol
as when combined with UV irradiation (en- extracts eliminate carbon particles (carbon
hanced phototoxicity).19 Different alkamides clearance test) by a factor of 1.5–1.7. Cichoric
of E. purpurea produced 100% mortality in acid from the polar water-soluble fraction of
Aedes aegyptii mosquito larvae when tested E. purpurea increased carbon elimination by
in vitro at 100 mg/mL.20 a factor of 2.1. In the granulocyte smear test,
E. purpurea extracts have shown indirect all ethanolic root extracts of the three species
antiviral activity against encephalomyocardi- increased in vitro phagocytosis by 20–30% (E.
tis, vesicular stomatitis, influenza, herpes, purpurea most active). Lipophilic (chloro-
and poliovirus; described as interferon-like. form) fractions of E. angustifolia and E. pallida
The 70% ethanolic extract of E. pallida and were more active than hydrophilic fractions,
the n-hexane extract of E. purpurea inhibited while hydrophilic fractions of E. purpurea
HSV-1 in vitro at MIC 0.026 mg/mL and stimulated phagocytosis by 40%.15,25
0.12 mg/mL, respectively.21 The alkamide Two high molecular weight polysacchar-
constituents of the extracts may be behind ides from an aqueous extract of E. purpurea
254 Echinacea
stimulated T-lymphocyte activity 20–30% infections, common cold, and flu. Numerous
more than a potent T-cell stimulator, with a in vivo and in vitro studies have been reported
concurrent enhancement of phagocytosis in about new activities of echinacea. The most
the carbon clearance test.26 These compounds important of these are
are found only in low concentrations in the
expressed juice of the herb and precipitate out 1. Antioxidant activity. Caffeoyl derivatives
of ethanol extracts.2 from echinacea, for example, echinacoside
Bauer and Wagner concluded that the and cynarine, are capable of reducing collagen
immunostimulatory activity of alcoholic and damage produced by reactive oxygen species
aqueous extracts depend on the combined and/or other radicals (IC50 15–90 mM).34
action of several constituents. In lipophilic Alcoholic extracts of the roots and
fractions, alkylamides and the polar caffeic leaves of E. angustifolia, E. pallida, and
acid derivative cichoric acid contribute to E. purpurea exhibited comparable in vitro
activity of alcoholic extracts. Polysaccharides antioxidant activities in ABTS free radical
are implicated in the expressed juice of scavenging assay, and the root extracts
E. purpurea and aqueous extracts, as well as were also active in the lipid peroxidation
orally administered powdered whole drug.2,27 inhibition assay.35 Methanolic extracts of
A recent double-blind, placebo-controlled freeze-dried roots of the three species act
study indicates that a dose of 450 mg/day of E. as in vitro antioxidants through the scav-
purpurea root extract (1:5 in 55% ethanol) enging of DPPH and ABTS radicals, as well
significantly relieved the severity and duration as by chelation of the copper ion (Cu2 þ ).36
of flu symptoms.28 A double-blind, mono- Copper-catalyzed oxidation of human LDL
centric, placebo-controlled clinical trial ex- was further demonstrated in vitro by differ-
amined the immunostimulating influence of ent preparations from E. purpurea root
an expressed fresh juice E. purpurea prepara- containing alkamides, caffeoyl derivatives,
tion on the course and severity of colds and flu- and polysaccharides, as well as by pure
like symptoms with patients deemed to have caffeoyl derivatives. The antioxidant effect
greater susceptibility to infections. At a dose was synergistic and dose dependent.37
of 2–4 mL/day, patients with diminished im- The dried juice of E. purpurea (i.p.
mune response (expressed by a low T4:T8 cell 360 mg/kg every other day, 3-week pre-
ratio) were found to benefit significantly from and 4-week post-irradiation) significantly
preventative treatment with the Echinacea increased serum SOD activity resulting in
preparation.29 an enhanced blood antioxidant activity
The caffeic acid glycoside echinacoside, in response to oxidative stress caused by
once regarded as a significant active principle exposure to a high dose of X-rays.38
(based on one report of weak antibacterial 2. Anti-inflammatory activity. Alkamides from
activity) and inactive in the carbon clearance E. angustifolia, and other medicinal herbs,
test and granulocyte smear test, does not exhibited in vitro inhibition of sheep seminal
appear to possess immunostimulatory microsome cyclooxygenase and porcine
activity.2,16 leukocyte 5-lipooxygenase.39
Further studies have suggested that echina- The extract of E. purpurea significantly
cea could play a therapeutic role in a wide inhibited the formation of rat paw edema in
range of clinical disciplines, including derma- mice (oral administration, 100 mg/kg, twice
tology, pediatrics, gynecology, surgery, daily). The involved mechanism was down-
urology, and the treatment of allergies.30 regulation of COX-2 expression as shown
More than 10 clinical studies have been con- by Western blotting.40 Several alkamides
ducted over the past 10 years. These studies from E. purpurea showed ca. 48% and 30%
investigated the efficacy of echinacea in im- inhibition of COX-1 and -2, respectively, at
munostimulation,31–33 upper respiratory tract 100 mg/mL.20
Echinacea 255
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BARNES; BISSET; BLUMENTHAL 2; DER MARDEROSIAN
AND BEUTLER; FOSTER; FOSTER AND DUKE; GRIEVE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2 ; STEINMETZ; TYLER 1; UPHOF;
WEISS; WREN.
1. S.Foster, Echinaceae—Natures Immune 16. D. V. C. Awang and D. G. Kindack,
Enhancer, Healing Arts Press, Rochester, Can. Pharm. J., 124, 512 (1991).
VT, 1991. 17. R. M. Facino et al., Farmaco, 48, 1447
2. R. Bauer and H. Wagner, Economic and (1993).
Medicinal Plant Research, Academic 18. E. Speroni et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 79,
Press, New York, 1991, p. 253. 265 (2002).
3. G. Mazza and T. Cottrell, J. Agric. Food 19. S. E. Binns et al., Planta Med., 66, 241
Chem., 47, 3081 (1999). (2000).
4. M. Jacobson, J. Org. Chem., 32, 1646 20. L. J. Clifford et al., Phytomedicine, 9, 249
(1967). (2002).
5. R. Bauer et al., Phytochemistry, 28, 505 21. S. E. Binns et al., Planta Med., 68, 780
(1989). (2002).
6. Y. Chen et al., J. Nat. Prod., 68, 773 22. R. A. Reinke et al., Virology, 326, 203
(2005). (2004).
7. R. Bauer et al., Planta Med., 54, 426 23. B. Vonau et al., Int. J. STD AIDS, 12, 154
(1988). (2001).
8. H. Wagner and A. Proksch, Economic and 24. B. Luetting et al., J. Natl. Cancer Inst.,
Medicinal Plant Research, Academic 81, 669 (1989).
Press, New York, 1985, p. 113. 25. R. Bauer et al., Z. Phytother., 10, 43
9. M. Wack and W. Blaschek, Carbohydr. (1989).
Res. (2006). 26. H. Wagner and A.A. Proksch, Angew
10. B. Classen et al., Planta Med., 71, 59 Phytother., 2, 166 (1981).
(2005). 27. S. Foster, Echinacea—The Purple
11. B. Classen et al., Carbohydr. Res., 327, Coneflowers, The American Botanical
497 (2000). Council, Austin, TX, 1991.
12. S. Thude and B. Classen, Phyto- 28. B.Braunigetal.,Z.Phytother.,13,7(1992).
chemistry, 66, 1026 (2005). 29. D. Schoneberger, Forum Immunol., 8, 2
13. E. Roder et al., Dtsch. Apoth. Ztg., 124, (1992).
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14. J. Barnes et al., J. Pharm. Pharmacol., Ztg., 38, 1040 (1984).
57, 929 (2005). 31. L. L. Agnew et al., J. Clin. Pharm. Ther.,
15. C. Hobbs, The Echinacea Handbook, 30, 363 (2005).
Eclectic Medical Publications, Portland, 32. L. S. Kim et al., Altern. Med. Rev., 7, 138
OR, 1989. (2002).
Elder flowers (American and European) 257
33. E. Schwarz et al., Phytomedicine, 12, 625 43. K. Woelkart et al., Planta Med., 71, 701
(2005). (2005).
34. R. M. Facino et al., Planta Med., 61, 510 44. D. Skaudickas et al., Medicina (Kaunas.),
(1995). 39, 761 (2003).
35. B. D. Sloley et al., J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 45. D. Skaudickas et al., Medicina (Kaunas.),
53, 849 (2001). 40, 1211 (2004).
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Chem., 48, 1466 (2000). (1998).
37. L. Dalby-Brown et al., J. Agric. Food 47. R. J. Mullins and R. Heddle, Ann. Allergy
Chem., 53, 9413 (2005). Asthma Immunol., 88, 42 (2002).
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1004 (2004). Report of the Bureau of the American
Ethnology U.S. Government Printing
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(1994).
49. Monograph Echinaceae Purpureae
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REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BLUMENTHAL 1; FEMA; FERNALD; FOSTER AND DUKE;
FURIA AND BELLANCA; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; MARTINDALE; ROSE; TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. W. Ritchter and G. Willuhn, Dtsch. 2. R. H€ansel and M. Kussmaul, Arch.
Apoth. Ztg., 114, 947 (1974). Pharm. (Weinheim), 308, 790 (1975).
Elecampane 259
3. W. Ritchter and G. Willuhn, Pharm. Ztg., 11. N. Nakatani et al., Phytochemistry, 38,
122, 1567 (1977). 755 (1995).
4. A. Radu et al., Farmacia (Bucharest), 24, 12. O. P. Johansen et al., Phytochemistry, 30,
9 (1976). 4137 (1991).
5. I. Leifertova et al., Acta Fac. Pharm., 13. C. N. Lin and W. P. Tome, Planta Med.,
Univ. Comeniana, 20, 57 (1971). 54, 223 (1988).
6. I. I. Hajkova and V. Brazdova, Farm. 14. L. Marklc et al., Biochem. J., 278, 667
Obzor., 32, 343 (1963). (1991).
7. Z. N. Guseinova, Azerb. Med. Zh., 42, 29 15. H. Kaku et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys.,
(1965). 277, 255 (1990).
8. T. Inoue and K. Sato, Phytochemistry, 14, 16. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 31, 71 (1968).
1871 (1975). 17. MonographSambuciflos,Bundesangeizer,
9. A. M. Al-Moghazy Shoaib, Egypt J. no. 50 (March 13, 1986); revised (March
Pharm. Sci., 13, 255 (1972). 13, 1990).
10. S. R. Jensen and B. J. Nielsen, Acta
Chem. Scand., 27, 2661 (1973).
been reported to have anthelmintic activities The oil is used as a fragrance component
in vitro13 and in humans (similar to santonin in cosmetic products, including soaps,
but better and less toxic) and hypotensive, detergents, creams, lotions, and perfumes
hyperglycemic (in large doses), and hypogly- (e.g., oriental types). Highest maximum use
cemic (smaller doses) effects in experimental level reported is 0.4% in perfumes.18
animals. It also has antibacterial and antifun-
gal properties, among others (JIANGSU). Food. Reportedly used as a flavor ingredient
Among 105 plant lactones studied, alanto- in major food products, including alcoholic
lactone and isoalantolactone are among the few (aromatic bitters, vermouths, etc.) and nonal-
that have been reported to exhibit the highest coholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts,
bactericidal and fungicidal properties in vitro.14 candy, baked goods, and gelatins and pud-
The recently isolated epoxythymol isobutyrate dings. Highest average maximum use level
also exhibits moderate activity against Gram- reported is 0.08% for the crude in baked goods.
negative, Gram-positive, Pseudomonas, and
Candida.9 Root extracts rich in sesquiterpene Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Pow-
lactones were significantly active against dered root used in tea formulations;
Mycobacterium tuberculosis in vitro.15 sometimes in other product forms for lung
Alantolactone was reported as an conditions (FOSTER).
immunostimulant.16
Root extracts and their major sesquit-
Traditional Medicine. Reportedly used in
erpene constituents have been shown to
treating asthma, bronchitis, whooping cough,
possess selective cytotoxic activity against
nausea, diarrhea, and other ailments. Also
different tumor cell lines, such as HeLa,
used as a diuretic, stomachic, and anthelmintic
HepG2, HT-29, MCF-7, and Capan-2.6,7,17
both in Western domestic medicine and in
Caspase-dependent apoptosis may be one of
Chinese medicine, usually in the form of a
the mechanisms involved in the displayed
decoction or tea. It has reportedly been used
antitumor activity.6
in treating cancers.21
Some individuals are extremely sensitive to Crude, oil, and extracts; crude was formerly
the oil when applied to the skin.18 Contact official in N.F.
dermatitis and allergic cross-reactions with
other plants belonging to the same family, for
Regulatory Status. Has been approved for
example, Echinacea and Chamomile, are not
use in alcoholic beverages only (§172.510).
uncommon.19,20
Root subject of a German therapeutic mono-
graph; not recommended due to lack of evi-
USES dence of efficacy and risk for allergic
reactions.22
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
Alantolactone is used as an anthelmintic, pri-
marily in the United Kingdom and Europe.
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BARNES; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1;
BRUNETON; FEMA; FOSTER; FURIA AND BELLANCA; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; JIXIAN; JIANGSU; LUST; MARTINDALE;
MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NANJING; TERRELL; UPHOF; WREN.
Elemi gum 261
1. A. Boeva et al., Farmatsiya (Sofia), 21, 12. K. L. Zelenskaya et al., Bull. Exp. Biol.
(1971). Med., 139, 414 (2005).
2. S. S. Kerimov and O. S. Chizhov, Khim. 13. M. F. El Garhy and L. H. Mahmoud,
Prir. Soedin., 10, 254 (1974). J. Egypt. Soc. Parasitol., 32, 893 (2002).
3. P. P. Khvorost and N. F. Komissarenko, 14. S. A. Vichkanova et al., Rastit. Resur., 13,
Khim. Prir. Soedin., 6, 820 (1976). 428 (1977).
4. V. G. Sinitsina and Z. I. Boshko, Nek. 15. C. L. Cantrell et al., Planta Med., 65, 351
Probl. Farm. Nauki Prakt., Mater Sezda (1999).
Farm. Kaz., 1, 87 (1975). 16. H. Wagner and A. Proksch, Economic
5. Y. Kashman et al., Isr. J. Chem., 5, 23 and Medicinal Plant Research,
(1967). Academic Press, New York, 1985, p. 113.
6. C. N. Chen et al., Cancer Lett., 246, 237 17. D. C. Dorn et al., Phytother. Res., 20, 970
(2007). (2006).
7. T. Konishi et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 25, 18. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
1370 (2002). 14, 307 (1976).
8. W. Olechnowicz-Stepien et al., Rocz. 19. E. Paulsen et al., Contact Dermatitis, 45,
Chem., 49, 849 (1975). 197 (2001).
9. A. Stojakowska et al., Z. Naturforsch. C, 20. E. Paulsen, Contact Dermatitis, 47, 189
59, 606 (2004). (2002).
10. E. Rodriguez et al., Phytochemistry, 15, 21. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 31, 71 (1968).
1573 (1976). 22. Monograph Helenii radix, Bundesangeizer,
11. R. Kiesewetter and M. Muller, no. 85 (May 5, 1988).
Pharmazie, 13, 777 (1958).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; FEMA; GUENTHER; POUCHER; UPHOF.
1. A. F. Summa, Diss. Abstr., 21, 1772 (1961). 4. M. Mladenovic and D. Fodor-Mandušic,
2. R. Pernet, Lloydia, 35, 280 (1972). Acta Pharm. Jugoslav., 8, 59 (1958);
3. G. D. Manalo and A. P. West, Philippine J. through Chem. Abstr., 52, 17614i (1958).
Sci., 78, 111 (1949); through Chem. Abstr., 5. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
44, 7564f (1950). 14(Suppl.) 755 (1976).
Common/vernacular names: Siberian gin- Russian workers initially isolated seven com-
seng, eleutheroco, eleuthero ginseng, and Us- pounds from a methanol extract of roots,
surian thorny pepperbush. deemed eleutherosides A–G (in a ratio of
8:30:10:12:4:2:1), ranging from 0.6% to
0.9% (roots); 0.6% to 1.5% (stems); seven
GENERAL DESCRIPTION additional eleutherosides have been identi-
fied.2 Eleutheroside A is the sterol daucoster-
Deciduous shrub, 1–3 m high, branches beset ol; eleutheroside B is the phenylpropanoid
with numerous small sharp spines; leaves syringin; eleutheroside B1 is isofraxidin-
palmate; in northeast Asia, including much 7-O-a-L-glucoside (b-calycanthoside); eleuth-
of far southeastern Russia (middle Amur eroside B2 and B3. Eleutheroside B4 (()-
region in the north to Sakhalin), northeast sesamin), eleutheroside D (()-syringaresi-
China (Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Nei nol-di-O-b-D-glucoside), and eleutheroside E
Monggol, Hebei, Shanxi); abundant in the (acanthoside D) are lignans. A new lignan,
Xiaoxinganling Mountains of Heilongjiang, termed eleutheroside E2, together with iso-
adjacent Korea, and Japan (Hokkaido). In maltol glucoside and thymidine were later
traditional Chinese medicine, the bark of the isolated by Li et al.3 Triterpenes include
Eleuthero 263
eleutherosides I–M, (eleutheroside I is mus- A root extract had a marked antiviral effect
senin B; eleutheroside M is hederasaponin), against the RNA viruses human rhinovirus,
senticosides A–F (incompletely characterized respiratory syncytial virus, and influenza A
oleanolic acid glycosides), and oleanolic acid. virus in vitro. DNA viruses were not affected
Additional phenylpropanoids include caffeic by the same extract.17
acid, caffeic acid ethyl ester, dicaffeoylquinic A hypoglycemic effect has been demon-
acids, coniferyl aldehyde, and sinapyl alcohol; strated in animals, though the mechanism of
other components include b-sitosterol, galac- action is unclear.2
tose, a- and b-glucose, a- and b-maltose, Antiedema, anti-inflammatory, diuretic,
sucrose, vitamin E, b-carotene,2,4 polysac- gonadotropic activity, estrogenic activity, and
charides (eleutherans A–G),5 and two glu- antihypertensive activity were also reported
cose-, galactose-, and arabinose-containing in vivo.2 The antihypertensive activity may be
polysaccharides.6 Saponin glycosides, well explained in view of a recent report by Kwan
known in various Panax species, are absent et al. in which Siberian ginseng aqueous ex-
in E. senticosus. tract resulted in a concentration-dependent
relaxation in different contracted vascular
preparations (dog carotid arterial rings, rat
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL aorta, and rat artery) at 0.04–2.0 mg/mL. The
ACTIVITIES observed relaxation was attributed to NO and/
or EDHF, in addition to other possible
In vivo animal studies of root ethanol extracts mechanisms.18
have been evaluated for adaptogenic activity Polysaccharides are responsible for immu-
in hyperthermia, electroshock-induced con- nostimulatory activity (carbon clearance and
vulsions, toxic cardioglycoside dose resis- granulocyte tests); lessened thioacetamide,
tance, cortisone-induced lymphatic stress, phytohemagglutin, and X-ray toxicity; antitu-
gastric ulcers, X-ray irradiation, increased mor activity; and hypoglycemic activity.5,6
metabolic efficiency in swimming-induced Recent studies demonstrated that eluthero-
stress, increased conditioned response to sti- sides B and E may also contribute to the
muli, inhibition of conditioned avoidance immunostimulant activity. For example, the
response, NK cell activity, and corticosterone ethanolic extract of eleuthero stimulated the
level.2,7,8 Clinical trials have also been con- in vitro production of IL-1 and IL-6 but not
ducted in humans to substantiate the adapto- IL-2.19 Two oral preparations containing
genic effect of eleuthero. Some observed end the root extracts displayed varying levels of
points included quality of life in geriatrics, enhanced humoral responses in mice as
steroidal hormone indices and lymphocyte evidenced by the increased levels of immu-
subset numbers, endurance, cellular stress, nogobulins in mouse serum.20
and physical fitness. The collective results of A carcinostatic effect, slowing the spread
these trials indicate an inconsistent pattern of of metastases, is suggested by Russian
effectiveness for Siberian ginseng.9–12 A num- research (DUKE 2). A comprehensive review
ber of reviews about the adaptogenic activity of of Russian studies is available.2
eleuthero have been published.13–15
Antioxidant (free radical scavenging) ac-
tivity has been demonstrated in animals.2 The USES
hepatoprotective effect of the aqueous extract
and polysaccharide fraction of the root was Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
demonstrated in significant attenuation of he- Used to increase general resistance as an adap-
patic failure in mice (300 mg/kg, oral and i.p.) togenic and immunostimulant.2 Hydroalcoholic
induced by D-galactosamine/lipopolysaccha- and glycolic extracts increasingly used in skin
ride injection.16 care products, including creams and lotions.
264 Eleuthero
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 1 & 2; BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND
BEUTLER; DUKE 2; FOSTER AND YUE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TYLER 1; WEISS.
1. S. Foster, Eleutherococcus senticosus, 9. A. F. Cicero et al., Arch. Gerontol.
American Botanical Council, Austin, Geriatr. Suppl., 69 (2004).
TX, 1991. 10. B. T. Gaffney et al., Life Sci., 70, 431
2. N. R. Farnsworth et al., Economic and (2001).
Medical Plant Research, Academic 11. J. Szolomicki et al., Phytother. Res., 14,
Press, New York, 1985, p. 155. 30 (2000).
3. X. C. Li et al., Planta Med., 67, 776
12. L. F. Eschbach et al., Int. J. Sport Nutr.
(2001).
Exerc. Metab., 10, 444 (2000).
4. A. Tolonen et al., Phytochem. Anal., 13,
316 (2002). 13. A. Panossian and H. Wagner, Phytother.
Res., 19, 819 (2005).
5. N. H. Hikino et al., J. Nat. Prod., 49, 293
(1986). 14. E. D. Goulet and I. J. Dionne, Int. J. Sport
Nutr. Exerc. Metab., 15, 75 (2005).
6. H. Wagner and A. Proksch, Economic and
Medical Plant Research, Academic 15. M. Davydov and A. D. Krikorian,
Press, New York, 1985, p. 113. J. Ethnopharmacol., 72, 345 (2000).
7. Y. Kimura and M. Sumiyoshi, J. 16. E. J. Park et al., Basic Clin. Pharmacol.
Ethnopharmacol., 95, 447 (2004). Toxicol., 94, 298 (2004).
8. T. Deyama et al., Acta Pharmacol. Sin., 17. B. Glatthaar-Saalmuller et al., Antiviral
22, 1057 (2001). Res., 50, 223 (2001).
Ephedra 265
18. C. Y. Kwan et al., Naunyn Schmiedebergs 22. D. V. C. Awang, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 265,
Arch. Pharmacol., 369, 473 (2004). 1828 (1991).
19. G. G. Steinmann et al., Arzneim.-Forsch., 23. D. V. C. Awang, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 266,
51, 76 (2001). 363 (1991).
20. J. Drozd et al., Acta Pol. Pharm., 59, 395 24. D. P. Waller et al., J. Am. Med. Assoc.,
(2002). 267, 2329 (1992).
21. G. Koren et al., J. Am. Med. Assoc., 264, 25. Monograph Eleutherococci radix,
2866 (1990). Bundesanzeiger, no. 11 (January 17, 1991).
Source: Chinese ephedra Ephedra sinica Stem (maHUANG) contains 1–2% alkaloids
Stapf.; Intermediate ephedra Ephedra composed mainly of l-ephedrine and
intermedia Shrenk et C. A. Mey.; Mongo- d-pseudoephedrine, with ephedrine ranging
lian ephedra Ephedra equisetina Bge.; from 30% to 90%, depending on the source.
Other Ephedra spp. (Family Ephedraceae). Thus, E. sinica contains ca. 1.3% alkaloids
with more than 60% ephedrine; E. intermedia
Common/vernacular names: MaHUANG, contains ca. 1.1% alkaloids with 30–40%
Herba Ephedrae, cao maHUANG (Chinese ephedrine; and E. equisetina contains ca.
ephedra), zhong maHUANG (intermediate 1.7% alkaloids with 85–90% ephedrine.
ephedra), and muzei maHUANG (Mongolian Other alkaloids include l-N-methylephedrine,
ephedra); maHUANGgen (root). d-N-methylpseudoephedrine, l-norephedrine,
d-norpseudoephedrine (cathine), ephedine,
ephedroxane, and pseudoephedroxane (IMM-
4).1,2 The alkaloids are concentrated in the
GENERAL DESCRIPTION internodes, with lesser amount (ca. 50%) in
the nodes and none in the root (ZHOU).
Low shrubs with scale-like leaves, 1.5–3.3 m Other compounds present include glycans
high; stems herbaceous above and woody (ephedrans A, B, C, D, and E with mol. wt. of
below; herbaceous stems greenish, with 1.2 106, 1.5 106, 1.9 104, 6.6 103,
those of E. intermedia and E. equisetina often and 3.4 104, respectively);3 a volatile oil;4,5
covered with a white powder. E. equisetina is catechin, gallic acid, and condensed tannin;
the largest among the three, while E. sinica is flavonoid glycosides; inulin, dextrin, starch,
the smallest, with herbaceous features; all and pectin; and other common plant constitu-
flowering in spring and fruiting in late sum- ents, including plant acids (citric, malic,
mer. Native to central Asia, now distributed oxalic, etc.), sugars, and trace minerals.
throughout northern China from Xinjiang to Active components in the volatile oil in-
Inner Mongolia and Jilin; also cultivated. clude limonene, caryophyllene, phellandrene,
Parts used are the herbaceous green stems linalool, l-a-terpineol, and 2,3,5,6-tetra-
(maHUANG) and the root (maHUANGgen, methylpyrazine. Concentration and composi-
ephedra root). Stems are collected in autumn tion vary considerably, depending on botani-
either by cutting the green parts aboveground cal sources (e.g., 0.250% volatile oil in
or the whole plant is pulled out and rid of dirt, Chinese ephedra vs. 0.124% in Mongolian
and then the stems and roots separated and ephedra)4 and type of processing. For exam-
sun dried. ple, honey-cured and stir-fried maHUANG
266 Ephedra
pressure, glaucoma, impaired cerebral circu- foot), where the powder is topically applied
lation, urinary disturbances, and others.22 (NATIONAL).
Case reports of severe to fatal conditions
associated with ephedra, together with collec- Others. MaHUANG serves as raw material
tive reviews, are continuously being published for the extraction and production of natural
even after the banning of its sales in the United ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. MaHUANG-
States.23–28 gen, due to its antiperspirant properties, is a
potential ingredient in antiperspirant
preparations.
USES
REFERENCES
See the General References for BLUMENTHAL 1 & 2; CHP; HU; IMM-4; JIANGSU; NATIONAL; TYLER 2 & 3;
WANG; ZHOU AND WANG.
1. C. Konno et al., Phytochemistry, 18, 697 4. Y. Y. Jia et al., Zhongguo Yaoxue Zazhi,
(1979). 24, 402 (1989).
2. Y. Kasahara et al., Planta Med., 325, 5. Q. Zeng et al., Zhongguo Yaoxue Zazhi,
(1985). 17, 83 (1992).
3. C. Konno et al., Planta Med., 162, 6. N. H. Hikino et al., Planta Med., 478,
(1985). (1984).
268 Epimedium
7. N. H. Hikino et al., Planta Med., 48, 108 18. A. Li and B. H. Li, Zhongguo Yaoli
(1983). Xuebao, 12, 468 (1991).
8. N. H. Hikino et al., Planta Med., 48, 290 19. M. J. Yeom et al., J. Pharmacol. Sci., 100,
(1983). 41 (2006).
9. N. H. Hikino et al., Heterocycles, 17, 155 20. N. H. Nam et al., Phytother. Res., 17, 70
(1982). (2003).
10. N. H. Hikino et al., Heterocycles, 19, 21. E. H. Kim et al., Am. J. Chin Med., 32,
1381 (1982). 659 (2004).
11. A. N. Starrat and S. Caveney, 22. Monograph Ephedrae herba, Bundes-
Phytochemistry, 40, 479 (1995). anzeiger, no. 11 (January 17, 1991).
12. A. N. Starrat and S. Caveney, Phyto- 23. R. M. Fleming, Angiology, 58, 102 (2007).
chemistry, 42, 1477 (1996). 24. C. E. Stahl et al., Med. Sci. Monit., 12,
13. S. V. Pullela et al., Planta Med., 71, 789 CS81 (2006).
(2005). 25. C. Chen-Scarabelli et al., Eur. J. Heart
14. P. A. Sharpe et al., J. Am. Diet. Assoc., Fail., 7, 927 (2005).
106, 2045 (2006). 26. B. D. Keisler and R. G. Hosey, Curr.
15. R. Andraws et al., Prog. Cardiovasc. Sports Med. Rep., 4, 231 (2005).
Dis., 47, 217 (2005). 27. C. A. Haller et al., Clin. Pharmacol.
16. M. H. Pittler and E. Ernst, Int. J. Obes. Ther., 77, 560 (2005).
(London), 29, 1030 (2005). 28. M. Maglione et al., Am. J. Psychiatry,
17. E. A. Abourashed et al., Phytother. Res., 162, 189 (2005).
17, 703 (2003).
and E. sagittatum) contain flavonoid glyco- men.21 A follow-up study further demon-
sides, mostly rhamnosides (ca. 4.5% in E. strated that intracavernous administration of
brevicornum):3 icariin and epimedosides, E. brevicornum elicited penile erection in
wushanicariin (30 ,50 ,7-trihydroxy-40 -meth- rats (300–1000 mg/mL) and that NO may be
oxy-6-(3,3-dimethylallyl)-flavone-7-b-D-glu- involved.22
copyranoside), hyperin (hyperoside, quercetin 2. Broad cardiovascular effects (hypotensive,
galactoside), quercitrin (quercetin rhamno- peripheral vasodilatory, increasing peripher-
side), kaempferol-3-O-a-L-rhamnopyranoside, al and coronary blood flow volumes, stimu-
acuminatin (600 ,600 -dimethylpyrano-(200 ,300 ,7,8)- lating ADP-induced platelet aggregation,
40 -methyl, kaempferol-3-O-a-L-rhamnopyra- etc.);9 and catecholamine inhibition.23
noside), kaempferol-3-dirhamnoside, bao- 3. Promotion of growth of chick embryonic
huosides, sagittatins A and B, and others.3–9 femur and its protein and polysaccharide
Different prenylflavonol glycosides, such as synthesis in vitro.24
acetylicariin, breviflavone B, ikarisoside A,
4. Immunomodulating; regulating nucleic acid
icarisid II, and others, have recently been
metabolism; antiviral and antibacterial; anti-
isolated from E. brevicornum, E. koreanum,
inflammatory; antitussive and expectorant;
and E. sagittatum.10–12 More flavonoids (icar-
possible antitumor activity25 and others
itin, baohuosu, tricin, desmethylicaritin, etc.)
(JIANGSU; WANG).26
isolated from different Epimedium species
have also been reported.5,7,13–18
The last decade has witnessed a shift in
Traditional curing of epimedium herb
focus toward the following new activities of
by stir frying with lamb fat (20% w/w)
epimedium and/or its major constituents:
followed by drying only slightly reduces total
flavonoids content but significantly improves
1. Reduction of bone resorption. Zhang et al.
their water extractability (MA).19
investigated this activity in more than one
Other chemical constituents present
study. The first two studies investigated the
include polysaccharides;20 volatile oil, phy-
mechanism of reduction of bone loss in ani-
tosterols (daucosterol), tannin, fatty acids,
mal models and found that epimedium-de-
and others (JIANGSU).9
rived phytoestrogenic flavones prevented es-
trogen deficiency-induced osteoporosis and
steroid-associated osteonecrosis in rats and
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL rabbits, respectively.27,28 The final study, a
ACTIVITIES double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial
conducted on postmenopausal women,
Epimedium is a highly valued tonic herb in showed that the same preparation had a ben-
traditional Chinese medical practice and has eficial effect toward reducing bone resorption
been shown to have numerous pharmacologi- after 24 months of use.29
cal effects in humans and experimental ani- 2. Estrogenic activity. A polyphenolic extract
mals, including from the leaves was equally active in the in
vitro yeast and Ishikawa assays for estro-
1. Stimulation or improvement of male sexual genic activity.30 The prenylflavone brevi-
function in experimental animals, with cured flavone B, isolated from the leaves of E.
(fried with 20% w/w lamb fat) but not raw brevicornum, displayed a biphasic effect of
epimedium (E. brevicornum) being the active stimulating the estrogen receptor at low con-
herb;19 The aqueous extract of E. brevicor- centration (EC50 200 nM) and inhibiting it at a
num was recently found to relax rabbit corpus higher one (>2 mM).11 Icaritin and desmethy-
cavernosum strips, through an NO-mediated licaritin resulted in an estrogen-like dose-
mechanism, and may thus have potential for dependent effect (1 nM–10 mM) when tested
the management of erectile dysfunction in in the MCF-7 cell proliferation assay. The
270 Epimedium
phytoestrogenic effect was blocked by a spe- (e. g., disinfectant sprays) for its antimicrobial
cific estrogen receptor antagonist.31 effects.
3. Antidepressant activity. In two different
studies, Pan et al. demonstrated that icariin, Dietary Supplements/Health Foods/Herb
isolated from E. brevicornum, had an antide- Teas. Powdered herb and extracts used in
pressant-like effect in the forced swimming tonic formulas and teas for its traditional male
test and tail suspension test in mice after oral tonic (aphrodisiac) properties (JIANGSU).
administration for 21 and 7 days, respective-
ly. The 21-day treatment also resulted in a Traditional Medicine. First recorded use
decrease in the levels of MAO and serum dates back to the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing
CRF.32 Further investigation of its mecha- (ca. 200 BC–AD 100). Traditionally regarded
nism of action in rats showed that icariin as acrid and sweet tasting; warming; invigo-
reduced the serum levels of CRF, IL-6, and rating kidney yang (bu shen yang); benefiting
TNF-a resulting in the chronic mild stress jing (semen, life essence); strengthening
model utilized in the study.33 bones, tendons, and muscles (qiang jin gu);
4. Antioxidant activity. Icariin, isolated from and antirheumatic and antiarthritic (qu feng
the aerial parts of E. koreanum, displayed in shi). Used in impotence, spermatorrhea, weak
vitro antihepatotoxic activity in cultured rat back and knees, rheumatism and arthritic pain,
heptocytes exposed to carbon tetrachloride. mental fatigue and poor memory, and post-
Cytotoxicity, GPT, and sorbitol dehydroge- menopausal hypertension, among others.
nase were all reduced at 1–20 mM.17 Pretreat- In recent years, extensively used in
ment icariin pretreatment, 0.1–50 mM) was China in the treatment of coronary heart dis-
also active in protecting human umbilical ease, hypertension (including postmenopa-
vein endothelial cells from oxidative injury usal), bronchitis, and neurasthenia;36,37 also
by hydrogen peroxide. Reduction of caspase used in chronic hepatitis, poliomyelitis, chron-
expression was also observed, which may be ic leukopenia, and others (JIANGSU; WANG).36,38
one of the underlying mechanisms of action
of icariin.34
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Thus far, the total flavonoids, icariin, and
polysaccharides have been shown to be the Crude and extracts. Crude (raw herb) comes
active constituents of epimedium. A compre- in whole bundled form composed of mostly
hensive review about the chemistry and phar- leaflets with little or no petioles or in loose
macology of epimedium has recently been form containing leaves with stems and
published.35 petioles, also in powdered form. Cured
Acute toxicity of edimedium is low: the form not available in bulk quantities.
LD50 of its total flavonoids in white mice was Extracts occasionally come with assay for
2.99 0.14 g/kg after i.p. administration.26 flavonoids.
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHP; IMM-4; JIANGSU; LU AND LI; MA; NATIONAL; WANG; ZHU.
1. H. R. Liang et al., Zhongyao Tongbao, 13, 2. H. R. Liang et al., Beijing Zhongyi
7 (1988). Xueyuan Xuebao, 13, 42 (1990).
Eucalyptus 271
3. L. X. Xu and X. Q. Zhang, Yaoxue 21. J. H. Chiu et al., Int. J. Impot. Res., 18,
Xuebao, 24, 606 (1989). 335 (2006).
4. H. R. Liang et al., Yaoxue Xuebao, 23, 34 22. K. K. Chen and J. H. Chiu, Urology, 67,
(1988). 631 (2006).
5. F. Li and Y. L. Liu, Yaoxue Xuebao, 23, 23. H. C. Li and G. H.Huang, Zhongcaoyao,
739 (1988). 15, 26 (1984).
6. Y. S. Li and Y. L. Liu, Zhongcaoyao, 23, 8 24. Z. F. Gao et al., Chin. J. Integr. Trad.
(1992). Western Med., 5, 172 (1985).
7. F. Li and Y. L. Liu, Yaoxue Xuebao, 23, 25. C. C. Lin et al., Clin. Exp. Pharmacol.
672 (1988). Physiol., 31, 65 (2004).
8. Y. Oshima et al., Planta Med., 55, 309 26. J. H. Liu and L. S. Shen, Beijing Zhongyi
(1989). Xueyuan Xuebao, 16, 29 (1993).
9. B. H. Hu et al., Yaoxue Xuebao, 27, 397 27. G. Zhang et al., Bone, 40, 685 (2007).
(1992). 28. G. Zhang et al., Bone, 38, 818
10. J. Dou et al., Anal. Sci., 22, 449 (2006).
(2006). 29. G. Zhang et al., J. Bone Miner. Res.
11. S. P. Yap et al., Planta Med., 71, 114 (2005). (2007).
12. M. Kuroda et al., Planta Med., 66, 575 30. N. A. De et al., Fitoterapia, 76, 35
(2000). (2005).
13. C. M. Liu et al., Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za 31. Z. Q. Wang and Y. J. Lou, Eur. J.
Zhi, 30, 1511 (2005). Pharmacol., 504, 147 (2004).
14. H. R. Liang et al., Planta Med., 63, 316 32. Y. Pan et al., Pharmacol. Biochem.
(1997). Behav., 82, 686 (2005).
15. W. K. Li et al., Phytochemistry, 43, 527 33. Y. Pan et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 29, 2399
(1996). (2006).
16. W. K. Li et al., Phytochemistry, 42, 213 34. Y. K. Wang and Z. Q. Huang, Pharmacol.
(1996). Res., 52, 174 (2005).
17. M. K. Lee et al., Planta Med., 61, 523 35. H. Wu et al., Prog. Drug Res., 60, 1
(1995). (2003).
18. W. K. Li et al., Phytochemistry, 38, 263 36. F. C. Liu, Zhongcaoyao, 16, 44 (1985).
(1995). 37. L. Yu et al., Zhongyi zazhi, 36 (1990).
19. R. Niu et al., Zhongchengyao, 13, 18 38. P. G. Xiao and K. J. Chen, Phytother.
(1991). Res., 2, 55 (1988).
20. R. S. Li et al., Zhongyao Tongbao, 12, 40
(1987).
Source: Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (Family Evergreen tree with bluish green leaves
Myrtaceae). often covered with a white powder; up to about
90 m high; native to Australia; extensively
Common/vernacular names: Blue gum, Tas- cultivated worldwide (e.g., Europe, United
manian blue gum, fever tree, and gum tree. States, China, Africa, and South America).
272 Eucalyptus
Part used is the fresh or partially dried leaf properties;15–17 strongly antibacterial against
from which the essential oil is produced by several strains of Streptococcus.18 The oil also
steam distillation. Major oil-producing coun- has antiparasitic activity against a number of
tries include Spain, Portugal, and Brazil.1 organisms, such as head lice, scabies, mites,
Essential oils from other Eucalyptus that affect humans living in poor hygienic
species are also used, some of which may conditions.19–21 The leaf extract was shown
have quite different chemical compositions. to be active against Staphylococcus aureus,
Streptococcus pyogenes, S. pneumoniae, and
Haemophilus influenza isolated from patients
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
with respiratory tract infections (MIC50 < 100
mg/mL).22 The flavonoids quercitrin and hy-
Eucalyptus leaves contain 0.5–3.5% volatile
peroside have been reported to have eliminat-
oil, tannins, polyphenolic acids (gallic, caf-
ed influenza type A viral infections in mouse
feic, ferulic, gentisic, protocatechuic
tissue and in chick embryos.23
acids, etc.), flavonoids (quercetin, quercitrin,
A crude extract of E. globulus leaves rich in
rutin, hyperoside, eucalyptin, etc.), wax, and
phenolic glycoside(s) has been reported to
others (JIANGSU; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER).2–6 A
have antihyperglycemic activity in rabbits; a
newly reported ellagic acid was isolated
loss of this activity resulted upon purification
from eucalyptus fruits and was identified as
of this material.5 Oral administration of an
3-O-methylellagic acid 40 -O-a-L-200 -O-
aqueous extract of eucalyptus to streptozoto-
acetylrhamnopyranoside. Two related glyco-
cin-treated mice resulted in a reduction of
sides and ellagic acid were also isolated.7
hyperglycemia and weight loss. The same
Eucalyptone, another newly reported com-
extract enhanced in vitro insulin secretion
pound, was also isolated from the leaves.8
from a pancreatic beta-cell line after 20 min
Eucalyptus oil contains usually 70–85%
incubation at a concentration of 0.25–0.5
of eucalyptol (1,8-cineole);1,2,9 other consti-
mg/mL.24
tuents present are mostly monoterpene
The in vitro anti-inflammatory effect of
hydrocarbons (a-pinene, d-limonene, p-cym-
eucalyptus leaf extract was demonstrated
ene, b-pinene, a-phellandrene, camphene,
due to its ability to scavenge and reduce NO
g-terpinene, etc., with the first three in major
production in a murine macrophage cell
amounts), with lesser amounts of sesquiter-
line.25 The essential oil was also tested in
penes (e.g., aromadendrene, allo-aromaden-
a number of in vivo models of pain (acid-
drene, globulol, epiglobulol, ledol, and viridi-
induced writhing and hot plate) and inflam-
florol), aldehydes (e.g., myrtenal), ketones
mation (paw edema) in rats and was found to
(e.g., carvone and pinocarvone), and others
be active in reducing both effects.26
(JIANGSU).1,10,11 The eucalyptol content is
When tested among other Sardinian plant
61.2% and 83.9% in Brazilian and Chinese
extracts/volatile oils, eucalyptus oil inhibited
eucalyptus, respectively.12,13
the oxidation of linoleic acid as compared to the
The rectified oil contains little or no un-
BHT and a-tocopherol antioxidant controls.27
pleasant smelling lower aliphatic aldehydes.
The epicuticular wax contains esters of
triterpene and fatty acids, such as ursolic acid, TOXICOLOGY
hexadecanoic acid, sesamin, and others.14
Eucalyptus oil has been reported to be
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL rapidly absorbed through the intact, shaved
ACTIVITIES abdominal skin of the mouse and to promote
the formation of tumors (papillomas) by
Eucalyptus oil and eucalyptol reportedly have 9,10-dimethyl-l,2-benzanthracene.28,29 Later
antiseptic (antibacterial) and expectorant studies demonstrated that eucalyptus oil and
Eucalyptus 273
eucalyptol were generally nonirritating, non- highest being about 0.002% (19.5 ppm) for
sensitizing, and nonphototoxic to the skin.30,31 eucalyptol in candy.
When taken internally, eucalyptus oil is
toxic, and ingestion of as little as 3.5 mL has Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Leaves
been reported to be fatal (JIANGSU). used in tea; oil a fragrance ingredient in topical
Rare instances of nausea, vomiting, and balms and massage oils (ROSE).
diarrhea have been reported after ingestion of
nonfatal doses of leaf preparations or essential Traditional Medicine. Leaves and oil are
oil.32,33 reportedly used as antiseptic and febrifuge,
and as expectorant and stimulant in respira-
tory ailments; also used for wounds, burns,
USES ulcers, and cancers.34 In Chinese medicine,
leaves and oil are used for similar purposes.
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. In addition, aqueous extracts and decoctions
Both eucalyptus oil and eucalyptol are exten- of the leaves are used to treat aching joints,
sively used as expectorants and/or flavoring bacterial dysentery, ringworms, pulmonary
agents in cold and cough medicines (e.g., tuberculosis, and others; successful clinical
cough drops and syrups), vaporizer fluids, studies on some of these uses have been
antiseptic liniments, ointments, toothpastes, reported (JIANGSU).
and mouthwashes. Also widely used as fra-
grance components in soaps, detergents,
creams, lotions, and perfumes, with maximum COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
use levels of 1.0 and 1.6% in perfumes re-
ported for eucalyptus oil and eucalyptol, re- Leaves, oil, and eucalyptol. The leaves were
spectively.30,31 Eucalyptus oil and eucalyptol formerly official in U.S.P., while eucalyptol
are used in dentistry as components of certain was official in N.F. Eucalyptus oil and euca-
root canal sealers; also used as solvents for lyptol are currently official in F.C.C., and
root canal fillings. eucalyptus oil is official in N.F.
Food. Both eucalyptus oil and eucalyptol Regulatory Status. Has been approved for
are used as flavor ingredients in most food food use (§172.510); eucalyptol is listed as
products, including alcoholic and nonalcohol- a synthetic flavoring agent (§172.515). Leaves
ic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy; and essential oil subjects of German therapeu-
baked goods, gelatins and puddings, meat and tic monographs, indicated for catarrhs of the
meat products, and others. Average maximum upper respiratory tract;33 oil topically for
use levels reported are generally low, with the rheumatic complaints.32
REFERENCES
See the General References for ADA; ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BARNES; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BISSET;
BLUMENTHAL 1; FEMA; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; JIXIAN; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; LUST; GRIEVE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2 ;
ROSE; UPHOF.
1. W. D. Fordham, Chemical Technology: 4. K. Boukef et al., Plant. Med. Phytother.,
An Encyclopedia Treatment, Barnes and 10, 30 (1976).
Noble, New York, 1972, p. 1. 5. K. Boukef et al., Plant. Med. Phytother.,
2. R. K. Baslas, Indian Oil Soap J., 35, 136 10, 119 (1976).
(1969). 6. M. A. Elkeiy et al., Bull. Fac. Pharm., 31,
3. K. Boukef et al., Plant. Med. Phytother., 83 (1964).
10, 24 (1976).
274 Euphorbia
Source: Euphorbia pilulifera L. (syn. E. Contains choline and shikimic acid as active
hirta L.; E. capitata Lam.) (Family constituents.1 Other compounds present in-
Euphorbiaceae). clude triterpenes (e.g., free taraxerol and a-
amyrin; esters of taraxerone, a-amyrin, and
Common/vernacular names: Snakeweed and b-amyrin; friedelin); sterols (campesterol, si-
pill-bearing spurge. tosterol, stigmasterol, etc.);2,3 flavonoids
(quercitrin, quercetin, leucocyanidin, xantho-
GENERAL DESCRIPTION rhamnin, etc.);4 n-alkanes (e.g., hentriacon-
tane);3 phenolic acids (e.g., gallic and ellagic),
An upright hairy annual; up to 0.5 m high; l-inositol, sugars (glucose, fructose, and su-
native to India. Part used is the whole flower- crose), and resins; and others (LIST AND
1
ing or fruiting plant. HÖRHAMMER).
Euphorbia 275
REFERENCES
See the General References for FARNSWORTH 3; FOGARTY; FOSTER AND DUKE; GOSSELIN; JIANGSU; LIST AND
HÖRHAMMER; YOUNGKEN.
1. L. El-Naggar et al., Lloydia, 41, 73 (1978). 14. M. Sudhakar et al., Fitoterapia, 77, 378
2. A. Atallah and H. Nicholas, Phyto- (2006).
chemistry, 11, 1860 (1972). 15. K. Vijaya et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 49,
3. R.Gupta and S. Garg, Bull. Chem. Soc. 115 (1995).
Jpn., 39, 2532 (1966). 16. S. K. Singh et al., Chemosphere, 59, 263
4. P. Blanc and G. Sannes, Plant. Med. (2005).
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7. I. A.Evans and M. A. Osman, Nature 316 (2006).
(London), 250, 348 (1974). 20. P. B. Johnson et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
8. B. Stavric and D. R. Stoltz, Food Cosmet. 65, 63 (1999).
Toxicol., 14, 141 (1976). 21. J. Galvez et al., J. Pharm. Pharmacol.,
9. L. B. Jacobsen et al., Lloydia, 41, 450 45, 157 (1993).
(1978). 22. M. C. Lanhers et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
10. L. Tona et al., Phytomedicine, 7, 31 (2000). 29, 189 (1990).
11. S.K.Horeetal., Fitoterapia,77,35(2006). 23. M. C. Lanhers et al., Planta Med., 57, 225
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(1993).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BLUMENTHAL 2; BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DUKE 2;
FOSTER; FOSTER AND DUKE; GLASBY 1 & 2; MARTINDALE; TYLER 1–3; WEISS; WREN.
1. Fedeli et al., Riv. Ital. Sostanze Grasse, 3. J. Zaugg et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 54,
53, 23 (1976). 6623 (2006).
2. M. Hamburger et al., J. Agric. Food 4. M. Wettasinghe et al., J. Agric. Food
Chem., 50, 5533 (2002). Chem., 50, 1267 (2002).
Eyebright 279
5. C. J. Briggs, Can. Pharm. J., 250 (1986). 16. A. E. Birch et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
6. C. R. Lovell et al., Lancet, 1, 278 (1981). 49, 4502 (2001).
7. C. A. Hederos and A. Berg, Arch. Dis. 17. J. P. De La Cruz et al., Life Sci., 65, 543
Child, 75, 494 (1996). (1999).
8. S. Yoon et al., Skin Pharmacol. Appl. Skin 18. T. Arimura et al., Amino Acids, 28, 21
Physiol., 15, 20 (2002). (2005).
9. N. L. Morse and P. M. Clough, Curr. 19. C. D. Pellegrina et al., Cancer Lett., 226,
Pharm. Biotechnol., 7, 503 (2006). 17 (2005).
10. J. Janick et al., Herbs, Spices, and 20. T. Arimura et al., Chem. Biol. Interact.,
Medicinal Plants: Recent Advances in 145, 337 (2003).
Botany, Horticulture, and 21. J. P. De La Cruz et al., Thromb. Res., 87,
Pharmacology, Oryx Press, Phoenix, 141 (1997).
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11. S. K. Khoo et al., Med. J. Aust., 152, 189 Haemost., 80, 696 (1998).
(1990). 23. O. A. al-Shabanah, Food Chem. Toxicol.,
12. J. K. Pyke et al., Lancet, 2, 373 (1985). 35, 769 (1997).
13. S. Qureshi and N. Sultan, Surgeon, 3, 7 24. Y. N. Shukla et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
(2005). 67, 241 (1999).
14. E. J. Stevens et al., Prostaglandins Leukot. 25. M. Blumenthal 1, HerbalGram, 29, 38
Essent. Fatty Acids, 49, 699 (1993). (1993).
15. N. E. Cameron and M. A. Cotter, Acta
Diabetol., 31, 220 (1994).
palmitic, and stearic acids.1,2E. pectinata model of alloxanized rats, while it had no
contains the iridoid glucosides hydroxy- and hypoglycemic effect in normal rats.5
dihydroxyboschnaloside, aucubin, euphro-
side, plantarenaloside, and geniposidic acid,
together with the phenylethyl glycosides USES
verbascoside (acetoside) and leucoscepto-
side A.3 Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
Used mainly in Europe as rinse, compress, or
eye bath for eye-related inflammatory and
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
vascular conditions, including eye lid inflam-
ACTIVITIES
mation, conjunctivitis, secreting and inflamed
eyes, catarrh of eyes, and prevention of mu-
Astringent ophthalmic; infusion internally
cous secretion from eyes.6
and externally (as eye wash) recommended
historically and in modern literature for eye
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Tea,
irritations, particularly conjunctivitis, without
capsules, tablets, tincture, and so on, presum-
scientific substantiation (TYLER 1).
ably for traditional applications.
A report of clinical success with com-
presses of an eyebright decoction to provide
surprisingly rapid relief of redness, swelling, Traditional Medicine. Use as ophthalmic
and visual disturbances in acute and subacute for eye inflammations with mucous discharge;
eye inflammations, particularly conjunctivitis, a folk remedy for allergy, cancer, coughs,
blepharitis, and recent eye injuries with risk earache, headache with congestion, hoarse-
of serpiginous corneal ulcers developing; ness, inflammation, jaundice, rhinitis, and
used internally at the same time (WEISS). In sore throat (DUKE 2; FOSTER AND DUKE). In
a prospective cohort trial conducted on 65 European tradition also reported as stomachic
conjunctivitis patients, a single drop of a E. and for skin diseases.6
rostkoviana preparation was administered
1–5 times daily for up to 14 days. The ob- COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
served symptoms included conjunctival red-
dening and burning, foreign body sensation, Crude herb, extracts, and so on.
and blurred vision. This treatment resulted
in a complete recovery from symptoms of Regulatory Status. Undetermined in the
conjunctivitis in 53 patients and a marked United States. Subject of a German therapeu-
improvement in 11 patients.4 tic monograph; use not recommended for
The aqueous extract of E. officinalis leaves eye conditions because of hygienic concerns
reduced the blood glucose levels in a diabetes and nondocumented efficacy.6
REFERENCES
See the General References for BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER;
DUKE 3; FOSTER AND DUKE; GLASBY 1 & 2;GLEASON AND CRONQUIST; LUST; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
STEINMETZ; TYLER 1;TUCKER 2; WEISS; WREN.
1. O. Salama and O. Sticher, Planta Med., 47, 4. M. Stoss et al., J. Altern. Complement
90 (1983). Med., 6, 499 (2000).
2. O. Sticher et al., Helv. Chim. Acta, 65, 5. E. Porchezhian et al., Fitoterapia, 71, 522
1538 (1982). (2000).
3. T. Ersoz et al., J. Nat. Prod., 63, 1449 6. Monograph Euphrasia, Bundesanzeiger
(2000). (Aug. 29, 1992).
Fangfeng 281
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHP; CMH; HONGKUI; HU; JIXIAN; JIANGSU; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NATIONAL; WANG;
ZHU.
1. J. H.Wang and Z. C. Lou, Zhongyao 9. N. Shimizu et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 37,
Tongbao, 13, 9 (1988). 3054 (1989).
2. J. H. Wang and Z. C. Lou, Zhongguo 10. J. H. Wang et al., Acta Med. Sinica, 4, 20
Yaoxue Zazhi, 27, 323 (1992). (1989).
3. J. H. Wang and Z. C. Lou, Zhongyao 11. C. N. Wang et al., Planta Med., 66, 644
Tongbao, 13, 5 (1988). (2000).
4. E. Okuyama et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 12. R. D. Xiang et al., Zhongcaoyao, 15, 22
49, 154 (2001). (1985).
5. A. R. Ding et al., Zhongcaoyao, 18, 7 13. X. T. Liu, Zhongchengyao, 13, 9
(1987). (1991).
6. G. Z. Jin et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao 14. Y. Masamoto et al., Planta Med., 40, 361
Zazhi, 17, 38 (1992). (1980).
7. H. Sasaki et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 30, 15. S. Y. Zhang et al., Zhongcaoyao, 18, 9
3555 (1982). (1987).
8. N. Shimizu et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 37,
1329 (1989).
Fennel 283
bronchodilation. The effect is suggested to be upper respiratory tract, stimulating ciliary ac-
through the opening of potassium channels.23 tion, and ciliary epithelium in frogs.36 Recent
A recent clinical study showed that fennel oil research shows that anethole is one of many
is effective in the treatment of infantile colic, phytochemicals that interrupt NFkB involved
which supports a common traditional use of in the etiology of many diseases.38 It is sug-
the oil.24 The oil has a relaxant effect on gested that polymers of anethole, such as
isolated rat uterus pre-exposed to oxytocin dianethole and photoanethole, are active es-
and PGE2 as a model of primary dysmenor- trogenic compounds.39 Anethole and fench-
rhea.25 The same effect was observed in a one experimentally reduce secretions of upper
clinical study conducted in young females respiratory tract.36
with dysmenorrhea whereby the effect of the
oil was comparable to that of mefenamic
TOXICOLOGY
acid.26
Fennel oil exhibited antimicrobial activi-
Estragole has been reported to cause tumors in
ties in vitro against a number of bacteria and
animals (see sweet basil).
fungi, such as Helicobacter pylori, Bacillus
subtilis and Aspergillus niger.14,27,28p-Anisal-
dehyde and ( þ )-fenchone were found to have USES
an acaricidal activity against two Dermato-
phagoides species that is stronger than that of Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
benzyl benzoate.29 Fennel and sweet fennel oil are used as a
The volatile oil and extracts have a cyto- carminative or flavoring agent in certain laxa-
toxic effect on the larvae of Culex pipiens tive preparations.
mosquito and a repellent effect against Aedes In Germany, the fruits used in phytomedi-
aegypti malaria mosquito. Moderate repellent cines for dyspeptic disorders; mild gastroin-
activity was exhibited by fenchone and E-9- testinal antispasmodic, also upper respiratory
octadecenoic acid of the oil.30,31 tract conditions (expectorant); in syrup for
Fennel oil displayed an anti-inflammatory, children’s coughs.36,40
central analgesic, and antioxidant effect in Bitter (common) fennel and sweet fennel
experimental animals.32 The oil also had a oils are used as fragrance components in
hepatoprotective effect against carbon tetra- cosmetics, including soaps, detergents,
chloride-induced toxicity in a liver injury creams, lotions, and perfumes, with highest
model in rats.33 maximum use levels of 0.4% reported for both
Fennel oil has antiplatelet activity and abil- oils in perfumes.
ity to inhibit clot retraction in experimental
animals. The activity has been correlated with Food. Common fennel is used as a flavor
the phenylpropanoid content of the oil.34 component in alcoholic beverages (especially
A terpene fraction of fennel oil has shown liqueurs), baked goods, meat and meat pro-
strong cytotoxic properties.35 ducts, fats and oils, snack foods, and gravies,
Aqueous extracts of fennel experimentally with highest average maximum use level of
increase ciliary action of ciliary epithelium in about 0.119% (1186 ppm) reported in meat
frogs.36 and meat products.
A cream containing 2% of the ethanolic Sweet fennel is reportedly used in nonal-
extract of fennel was effective in reducing coholic beverages, candy, baked goods, meat
excessive hair growth in women diagnosed and meat products, condiments and relishes,
with idiopathic hirsutism.37 gravies, and processed vegetables. Highest
Anethole is reported to have allergenic, average maximum use level reported is
weakly insecticidal, and toxic properties (see about 0.305% (3049 ppm) in meat and meat
anise). It also stimulates secretions of the products.
Fennel 285
Sweet fennel oil is widely used in most In Chinese medicine, fennel has also been
major food products; including alcoholic (e.g., used for centuries in treating hard-to-heal
liqueurs) and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen snakebites, for which the powdered drug is
dairy desserts, candy, baked goods, gelatins used as a poultice, and for cholera, backache,
and puddings, meat and meat products, and and bedwetting, usually decocted with other
condiments and relishes, among others. drugs (JIANGSU).
Highest average maximum use level reported
is about 0.023% (234 ppm) in alcoholic
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
beverages.
Crude and oil. Crude was formerly official in
Dietary Supplement/Health Food. Crushed
N.F. and U.S.P. Oil official in N.F. and F.C.C.
or ground fruit in teas, tincture, or honey syrup
(FOSTER).40
Regulatory Status. GRAS: common fennel
and sweet fennel (§182.10); sweet fennel
Traditional Medicine. Fennel fruits and oil
(§182.20). Seeds and essential oil subjects of
are reportedly used as a stomachic and as a
German therapeutic monographs.36,40 The oil
carminative in treating flatulence and other
(0.1–0.6 mL daily dose) and fruits (5–7 g daily
stomach troubles, as well as for catarrhs of the
dose) allowed for stimulation of gastrointesti-
upper respiratory tract.36,40
nal motility (or spasmolytic effect at high end
Traditionally, fennel fruits have been used
of dosage) for dyspeptic discomfort, gastroin-
for many similar purposes as dill fruits, both in
testinal spasms, and congestion of upper re-
Western traditional medicine and in Chinese
spiratory tract.36,40
medicine.
REFERENCES
See The General References For APPLEQUIST;BAILEY 1; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BISSET; BLUMENTHAL 1;
DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; FOSTER; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; GUPTA; JIXIAN; JIANGSU; HUANG; LIST AND
HöRHAMMER; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. M. B. Embong et al., Can. J. Plant Sci., 9. J. B. Harborne and C. A. Williams,
57, 829 (1977). Phytochemistry, 11, 1741 (1972).
2. J. Karlsen et al., Planta Med., 17, 281 10. J. Kunzemann and K. Herrmann, Z.
(1969). Lebensm. Unters. Forsch., 164, 194 (1977).
3. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 11. I. Parejo et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 52,
12(Suppl.), 879 (1974). 3679 (2004).
4. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 12. A. Z. Abyshev et al., Farmatsiya
14, 309 (1976). (Moscow), 26, 42 (1977).
5. M. A. Wahid and M. Ikram, Pak. J. Sci. 13. C. Zidorn et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 53,
Ind. Res., 4, 40 (1961). 2518 (2005).
6. A. Seher and S. Ivanov, Fette, Seifen, 14. Y. S. Kwon et al., Arch. Pharm. Res., 25,
Anstrichmit, 78, 224 (1976). 154 (2002).
7. M. R. I. Saleh et al., J. Pharm. Sci. U. 15. N. Mimica-Dukic et al., Phytother. Res.,
Arab. Rep., 5, 55 (1964). 17, 368 (2003).
8. J. P. Moreau et al., J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 16. M. Ashraf and M. K. Bhatty, Pak. J. Sci.
43, 352 (1966). Ind. Res., 18, 236 (1975).
286 Fenugreek
17. H. Rothbacher and A. Kraus, Pharmazie, 29. H. S. Lee, J. Agric. Food Chem., 52,
25, 566 (1970). 2887 (2004).
18. G. A. de A. Brasil e Silva and L. Bauer, 30. A. F. Traboulsi et al., Pest. Manag. Sci.,
Rev. Bras. Farm., 54, 143 (1973). 61, 597 (2005).
19. J. B. Harborne et al., Phytochemistry, 8, 31. D. H. Kim et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
1729 (1969). 50, 6993 (2002).
20. L. Peyron et al., Bull. Soc. Chim. Fr., 1, 32. E. M. Choi and J. K. Hwang, Fitoterapia,
339 (1969). 75, 557 (2004).
21. C. S. Shah et al., Planta Med., 18, 285 33. H. Ozbek et al., Fitoterapia, 74, 317
(1970). (2003).
22. T. Shipochliev, Vet. Med. Nauki, 5, 63 34. M. Tognolini et al., Life Sci., 78, 1419
(1968). (2006).
23. M. H. Boskabady et al., Pharmazie, 59, 35. K. Silyanovska et al., Parfüm. Kosmet.,
561 (2004). 50, 293 (1969).
24. I. Alexandrovich et al., Altern. Ther. 36. Monograph Foeniculi fructus, Bundesan-
Health Med., 9, 58 (2003). zeiger, no. 74 (April 19, 1991).
25. S. N. Ostad et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 37. K. Javidnia et al., Phytomedicine, 10,
76, 299 (2001). 455 (2003).
26. J. B. Namavar et al., Int. J. Gynaecol. 38. B. B. Aggarwal and S. Shishodia, Ann.
Obstet., 80, 153 (2003). N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1030, 434 (2004).
27. G. B. Mahady et al., Phytother. Res., 19, 39. M. Albert-Puleo, J. Ethnopharmacol., 2,
988 (2005). 337 (1980).
28. F. M. Ramadan et al., Chem. Mikrobiol. 40. Monograph Foeniculi aetheroleum, Bun-
Technol. Lebensm., 2, 51 (1972). desanzeiger, no. 74 (April 19, 1991).
acid and other pyridines and pyrroles, which these extracts may have a highly oxytocic
probably account for much of the flavor of activity; they were suggested as possible re-
roasted fenugreek (JIANGSU; MARTINDALE).1 placements for oxytocin. The water extract
Other constituents include (1) saponins that has also been reported to have accelerating
yield on hydrolysis 0.6–1.7% steroid sapogen- effects on the heartbeats of the isolated mam-
ins consisting mainly of diosgenin and its malian heart.22
isomer yamogenin usually in a 3:2 ratio, with Trigonelline and fenugreek infusion have
tigogenin and neotigogenin also present;2–7 been shown to have hypoglycemic effects
treatment of the seeds with enzymes before in animals. However, the effects of trigonel-
acid hydrolysis has increased the yield of line in diabetics have been inconclusive
diosgenin and yamogenin by 10–90%;5,8,9 (MARTINDALE).23,24
yamogenin tetrosides B and C have been When fed both before and after experimen-
reported to be two of the glycosides (saponins) tal diabetes induction, fenugreek has antidia-
present.10 (2) Flavonoids, including vitexin, betic activities in rats. 25
vitexin-7-glucoside, orientin arabinoside,
homoorientin, saponaretin (isovitexin), vice-
TOXICOLOGY
nin-1, vicenin-2, quercetin, luteolin, and vi-
texin cinnamate.11–13 (3) Fixed oils (5–8%),
A report has indicated that fenugreek absolute
which on extraction with fat solvents yield an
is nonirritating, nonsensitizing, and nonpho-
extract with a strong odor; varying from fishy
totoxic to human skin.24
to nutty, depending on age of the extract
(MARSH; ROSENGARTEN).3,14 (4) Considerable
amount of a mucilage, which appears to be USES
mostly a galactomannan and is probably re-
sponsible for swelling of the seed in water. Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
(5) Protein (23–25%), which is low in S-amino Fenugreek extracts are used in certain perfume
acids but high in lysine and tryptophan; it has bases as well as in soaps, detergents, creams,
been suggested as a supplement of cereal and lotions, with maximum use level of 0.2%
proteins.15 (6) Free amino acids, including reported in perfumes.24
(2S,3R,4R)-4-hydroxyisoleucine, histidine,
lysine, and arginine, with the first one isolated Food. Used as an ingredient of curry powder
at 0.09% yield as the major component.16 and many spice blends. Its major use in the
(7) Vitamins, especially A, B1, and C.17 United States is in imitation maple syrups for
(8) Minerals (especially calcium and iron). which solid extracts are mostly employed;
(9) Volatile components (more than 50), flavor of the extracts varies with the extent of
which include n-alkanes, sesquiterpenes, and roasting and the solvents used. Other food
oxygenated compounds (undecane to hexade- products in which it is used include alcoholic
cane, elemenes, muurolenes, g-nonalactone, and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy des-
5-methyl-d-caprolactone, etc.); and others serts, candy, baked goods, gelatins and pud-
(JIANGSU; NANJING).18–21 dings, meat and meat products, and others. Use
levels for extracts are usually below 0.05%.
to be used in Java in hair tonics and to cure is an annual herb, the time required for its
baldness (ROSENGARTEN). planting to seed harvesting is much shorter
Fenugreek was first introduced into Chinese than that for Dioscorea species and may prove
medicine in the Sung Dynasty (ca. 1057) and to have a distinct advantage.
has since been used as a nutrient and in treating
kidney ailments, beriberi, hernia, impotence,
other male problems, and others. Both un- COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
roasted and roasted (fried and sprayed with
salt water) seeds are used. Crude and extracts in liquid and spray-dried
forms. Strengths (see glossary) of extracts are
Others. Extracts used in flavoring tobacco. expressed in flavor intensities.
Used extensively in foreign countries as a feed
for livestock. Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.10 and
Due to its content of sapogenins, particu- §182.20). Seeds subject of a German thera-
larly diosgenin, fenugreek seed is a potential peutic monograph; allowed internally for loss
source of sapogenins for the manufacture of of appetite; externally as poultice for local
steroid hormones and related drugs. Because it inflammation.28
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; ARCTANDER; BARNES; BISSET; BLUMENTHAL 1; DER MARDEROSIAN
AND BEUTLER; DUKE 4; FEMA; HORTUS 3rd; JIXIAN; BRUNETON; JIANGSU; HUANG; LUST; GRIEVE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
NANJING; POUCHER; ROSENGARTEN; UPHOF; YOUNGKEN.
1. D. Reymond, Chemtech, 7, 664 (1977). 12. M. Adamksa and J. Lutosmski, Planta
2. H. S. Puri et al., Planta Med., 30, 118 Med., 20, 224 (1971).
(1976). 13. A. R. Sood et al., Phytochemistry, 15,
3. T. M. Jefferies and R. Hardman, Analyst, 351 (1976).
101, 122 (1976). 14. F. R. Y. Fazli and R. Hardman,
4. M. B. Bohannon et al., Phytochemistry, Phytochemistry, 10, 2497 (1971).
13, 1513 (1974). 15. I. Elmadfa, Nahrung, 19, 683 (1975).
5. R. Hardman and F. R. Y. Fazli, Planta 16. L. Fowden et al., Phytochemistry, 12,
Med., 21, 322 (1972). 1707 (1973).
6. R. Hardman and K. R. Brain, Planta 17. N. Saleh et al., Z. Ernahrungswiss., 16,
Med., 21, 426 (1972). 158 (1977).
7. J. C. Knight, J. Chromatogr., 133, 222 18. S. Ghosal et al., Phytochemistry, 13,
(1977). 2247 (1974).
8. D. A. Voloshina et al., Prikl. Biokhim. 19. R. C. Badami and G. S. Kalburgi, J.
Mikrobiol., 11, 896 (1975). Karnatak Univ., 14, 16 (1969).
9. A. A. Elujoba and R. Hardman, Planta 20. D. K. Bhardwaj et al., Indian J. Chem.
Med., 51, 113 (1985). Sect., B, 15, 94 (1977).
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11, 65 (1977). (1985).
11. H. Wagner et al., Phytochemistry, 12, 22. M. S. Abdo and A. A. Al-Kafawi, Planta
2548 (1973). Med., 17, 14 (1969).
Feverfew 289
(D.I.N. 01958712) to a feverfew leaf capsules Product allowed to carry the claim ‘‘used as a
product, standardized to 0.2% parthenolide. prophylactic against migraines.’’23
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 2; BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND
BEUTLER; DUKE 2; FOSTER AND DUKE; GLASBY 1 & 2; GLEASON AND CRONQUIST; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
STEINMETZ; TUCKER 2; TUTIN 4; TYLER 1; WEISS; WREN.
1. C. Hobbs, HerbalGram, 20, 26 (1989). 12. S. Mittra et al., Acta Pharmacol. Sin., 21,
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4. D. V. C. Awang, paper presented to the 57 (1985).
Congres de 10 Association Canadienne 15. J. J. Murphy et al., Lancet, 22, 189
Francaise pour 10 Advancement des (1988).
Sciences, Montreal, Quebec, May 16. M. Pattrick et al., Ann. Rheumatic Dis.,
15–19, 1989. 48, 547 (1989).
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(1990). Ethnopharmacol., 68, 251 (1999).
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22. J. J. Ross et al., Planta Med., 65, 126
10. H. C. Diener et al., Cephalalgia, 25, 1031 (1999).
(2005).
23. S. Foster, Feverfew-Tanacetum par-
11. E. Ernst and M. H. Pittler, Public Health thenium, Botanical series, no. 310,
Nutr., 3, 509 (2000). American Botanical Council, Austin, TX,
1991.
Source: Ficus insipida Willd. (syn. A tree with tall, erect cylindrical trunk over
F. glabrata H.B.K., F. anthelmintica 1 m in diameter; up to about 45 m high, trunk
Mart., and F. laurifolia Hort. ex. Lam.) smooth grayish brown; leaves bright, shiny
(Family Moraceae). green, with yellow veins; tip of a branch has a
long, yellow, pointed stipule, which falls as the
Common/vernacular names: Leche de oje, branch grows leaving a circular scar on branch
leche de higueron. at the base of each leaf; broken leaves drip
292 Ficin
white latex rapidly; native to tropical South been reported to consist of three major com-
America; growing in Peru, Colombia, ponents and 248 amino acid residues, with a
Venezuela, and Central America. Part used is molecular weight of 23,800–26,000 and an
the latex from the tree. It is generally collected isoelectric point at pH 9 or 10.1,3,7,8 It is
by felling the tree, making incisions all over similar to papain in its chemical properties,
the surface, and allowing the latex to drip into being affected similarly by the usual papain
wooden or non-iron containers placed beneath activators (e.g., cysteine, sulfide, bisulfite, and
the incised areas. To prevent coagulation, cyanide) and inhibitors (e.g., methyl bromide,
acetic acid is generally added; sodium benzo- iodoacetate, and hydrogen peroxide); its ac-
ate (1%) is also added as a preservative. This is tivity has been reported to be reduced by
the usual form of crude ficin imported into the ethanol and propanol.9 It is also easily inacti-
United States. The major producing countries vated by metals (e.g., iron, copper, aluminum,
are Peru and Colombia; the Peruvian material and mercury) and sorbic and maleic acids.1
has a higher solids content.1 Like bromelain and papain, the lost activity
Crude ficin (latex) is cream to pinkish due to inactivation by certain metals can be
in color and has an acidic pH (usually restored by EDTA and a reducing agent
3–4). It is usually purified by filtration, fol- such as cysteine, mercaptoethanol, or 1,2-
lowed by spray-drying. Commercial purified dimercaptopropanol.
ficin is not pure ficin but is a mixture of Like papain, ficin has broad specificity
several proteases and small amounts of other in hydrolyzing proteins, amides, esters, and
enzymes (e.g., peroxidases) in addition to small peptides.
diluents (e.g., lactose, dextrose, or starch)
and other constituents.1–3
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
Commercial purified ficin is a beige to
ACTIVITIES
light-brown powder, odorless or with a putrid
odor, depending on the quality. It is relatively
Ficin (also bromelain but not papain) when
soluble in water but insoluble in most organic
administered orally to rats has been demon-
solvents. It is active over a pH range of 4–9.
strated to have anti-inflammatory activity
It can withstand an acidic pH of 2, and its
against paw edema induced by serotonin,
solutions are reported to be stable over a pH
egg white, dextran, brewer’s yeast, and
range of 3.5–9.5, with maximum stability at
carrageenan.10
pH 5–8.1,4,5 It is inactivated at 80.6 C.6
Ficin is well known for its ability to digest
The optimal pH for ficin activity varies with
intestinal worms in vitro.
the substrate, ranging from 5 (for gelatin and
Crude ficin (latex) is corrosive to the skin
elastin) to 9.5 (for casein). With gelatin there
and may cause bleeding on prolonged contact.
is another optimum at pH 7.5, and casein has
Like other proteases, ficin may cause con-
another optimum at pH 6.7.4,6
tact allergies in certain individuals, and large
The optimal temperature range for ficin
oral doses are reported to cause catharsis
activity is generally considered to be between
(MERCK).
50 and 65 C, depending on the substrates and
the pH as well as the purity of the commercial
ficin preparations. Thus with gelatin at pH 7.5, USES
it is reported to be 62.6 C.1,6
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION Used in anti-inflammatory preparations, pri-
AND PROPERTIES marily in Europe; also used as digestive aid.
bromelain) and in the preparation of protein manufacture of sutures; cleaning and prepara-
hydrolysates, edible collagen films, and sau- tion of animal arteries for implantation in
sage casings. Also used in cheese making humans; and in serology (e.g., determination
(curdling milk) and in chillproofing beer. of the Rh factor).1
Others. Due to its increasingly high cost and Crude (latex) and purified; purified ficin is
limited availability, ficin is used in special official in F.C.C. Available grades and ac-
applications where the other proteases are less tivities vary, depending on suppliers (see
suitable. Such uses include cleaning and bromelain).
preparation of intestinal submucosa in the
REFERENCES
Source: Polygonum multiflorum Thunb. A climbing perennial herb with thick rhi-
(Family Polygonaceae). zomes, reaching 3–4 m long, hollow stems,
somewhat woody at the base and mostly
Common/Vernacular names: Heshouwu, branched at the top; branches herbaceous;
shouwu, polygonum, Radix Polygoni roots slender, bearing reddish brown to dark
Multiflori; zhiheshouwu, zhishouwu, Radix brown thick tubers near the tip; leaves alter-
Polygoni Multifiora Preparata (cured fo-ti); nate, simple, ovate-cordate, 3–4.5 cm long,
also hoshou-wu, ho-show-wu, ho-shau-wu, 2.5–4.5 cm wide, short-acuminate, glabrous;
ho-shao-wu. petioles 1–5 cm; sheaths rather short. Spikes
294 Fo-ti (raw and cured)
branched, terminal, paniculate; flowers green- stated in the English version, without giving any
ish white, small in slender panicles, 2 mm hints as to the existence of the two types of fo-ti
long; fruit an achene, 3 angular, with 3 wings, with distinct differences in properties and uses
entirely enclosed by sepals, 7–8 mm long; (CHEUNG AND LI). This ambiguity has caused
native to China; now distributed mainly along problems in fo-ti products as manufacturers not
coastal provinces, from Guangxi to Hebei, and familiar with Chinese herbs have been using the
extending inland to Sichuan and Yunnan. Part cheaper raw fo-ti in place of cured fo-ti in their
used is the tuberous root collected from au- tonic formulas. Adding to this confusion is the
tumn through spring (preferably autumn and lack of specificity in reporting findings on fo-ti,
winter) and processed into different types of particularly in the already meager English liter-
fo-ti. Since the early 1970s, fo-ti has been ature, where authors frequently do not specify
increasingly produced from cultivated plants, type of fo-ti used in their research or report, thus
for which root tubers of 3- to 4-year-old plants making the reported information of dubious
are used (IMM-1; IMM-CAMS; JIANGSU). value (LIST AND HöRHAMMER).6
Although easy to pronounce, the term fo-ti Thus the two types of fo-ti have distinctly
does not mean anything and was originally different chemical compositions, traditional
coined in America for marketing purposes properties, and modern pharmacologic effects
only. Depending on methods of processing, and uses; they should be sourced carefully and
there are at least four types of fo-ti: raw fo-ti, used specifically.
wine fo-ti, steamed fo-ti, and prepared or
cured fo-ti. Raw and cured fo-ti are the most
commonly used and are the ones imported into CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
the United States.
To prepare raw fo-ti, freshly collected tu- Many chemical studies have been performed
bers are washed with water. After having both on the genus Polygonum but few on Polygo-
ends removed, the larger tubers are normally num multiflorum itself (LIST AND HöRHAMMER).
cut in half or sliced and sun or oven dried (CHP; Results obtained from earlier studies were
IMM-1; JIANGSU). somewhat confusing as most did not specify
To prepare cured fo-ti, raw fo-ti slices are the types of fo-ti used, especially in the non-
stirred into black soybean broth in a noniron Chinese literature. Thus one report (consist-
container, sealed and cooked in a water or ing of only three lines) mentions the presence
steam bath until all liquid is absorbed and the of anthraquinones in the rhizome, rootstock,
fo-ti slices turn dark brown to reddish brown. and stem (LIST AND HöRHAMMER), which has
This heating may take many hours; the opti- been the only chemical study quoted in a
mal heating time for yielding fo-ti with the well-known herbal, attributing cathartic ac-
best immuno-modulating effects (tonic prop- tivity as solely responsible for the action of
erties) being 32 h.1 For every 100 kg of raw fo- fo-ti (TYLER 1). Two other reports simply
ti slices, broth from 10 kg of black soybean is mention the dried roots or heshouwu as being
used. The slices are then dried (CHP). used,7,8 with no indication as to what type of
Much confusion exists in the Western litera- fo-ti; the only clue to their using raw fo-ti was
ture regarding fo-ti, with some major or popular the use of description ‘‘for the treatment of
works making no mention of the existence of suppurative dermatitis, gonorrhea, favus ath-
differenttypes(BENSKYAND GAMBLE; CHEUNG AND lete’s foot, inflammation,’’ for which raw fo-
2–5
LI; LIST AND HöRHAMMER; TYLER 1). For in- ti is traditionally used. Nevertheless, from
stance, in one bilingual reference, even though these few reports and from the Chinese liter-
raw fo-ti is mentioned in the Chinese version as ature that does describe raw and cured fo-
having lubricating effects on the intestines as ti, in addition to a few recently published
well as antitoxic and nodule-dispersing (anti- Western reports, the following chemical pro-
swelling) properties,thesepropertiesaresimply file of fo-ti can be described.
Fo-ti (raw and cured) 295
animal species (e.g., rabbits, pigeons, and mice were fed for 18 weeks with casein diets
rats) also showed that fo-ti (type not re- supplemented with aqueous and ethanolic
ported) or its formulations exhibited simi- extracts of fo-ti.31 The same effects were
lar effects (WANG).9,26 later confirmed by the same authors who
4. Hepatoprotective effects. Stilbene gluco- attributed them to a probable involvement of
sides (e.g., 2,3,5,40 -tetrahydroxystilbene- the antioxidant constituents of fo-ti.32
2-O-D-glucoside) isolated from fo-ti were 8. Others. Fo-ti (type not specified) is re-
found to partially inhibit the deposition ported to be nonmutagenic per the Ames
of lipid peroxides in the liver of rats fed Salmonella/microsome assay;6 the hyd-
peroxidized corn oil. They inhibited the xoxyanthraquinones in its aqueous extract
elevation of GOT and GPT levels in the (decoction) had antimutagenic effects.33
serum of the rats. They also inhibited lipid The same effect was also demonstrated by
peroxidation induced by ADP and NADPH the root extract in a Tradescantia micronu-
in rat liver microsomes.8 cleus assay. The authors attributed the
5. Resistance to cold. Daily intragastric ad- antimutagenic effect to a possible combi-
ministration of fo-ti extract (type not spec- nation of antioxidant, radical scaveng-
ified) at a dose of 0.5 mL, (equivalent to ing,34 and DNA repair activity of fo-ti.35
0.2 g crude drug) for 14 days markedly Raw fo-ti has cathartic activities.
decreased the mortality rate in mice in-
duced by refrigeration at 5 C (WANG). TOXICOLOGY
6. Antimicrobial activities. Among 80 herbs
commonly used in treating hepatitis tested Compared to cured fo-ti, raw fo-ti is relatively
against hepatitis B virus in vitro, water toxic. Thus, the LD50 of an alcoholic percolate
extract of cured fo-ti was found to be one of raw fo-ti per i.p. administration was 2.7 g/kg,
of the eight most actives in inhibiting HBV while the LD50 of an alcoholic percolate of
DNA replication.27 Raw fo-ti and four cured fo-ti was 169.4 g/kg (animal species not
different types of cured fo-ti all exhibited reported).9
varying degrees of inhibition against nine One case of allergic reaction (cystitis, pa-
species of bacteria, but there was no pre- tient recovered) due to cured fo-ti has been
dictable pattern in their activities.28 reported.36 Gastrointestinal disturbances (di-
7. Neuroprotection and enhancement of cog- arrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting)
nitive performance. In passive avoidance reported for fo-ti were most likely due to raw
and water-maze tests, a water extract of fo- or improperly cured fo-ti (WANG). Other re-
ti significantly reduced the cognitive deficit ported adverse effects due to fo-ti (or could be
induced in mice by intracerebroventricular due to other ingredients present in the formu-
injection of amyloid b-peptide 25–35 las) include numbness of the extremities and
(Abeta25–35). Abeta25–35 accumulates in skin rashes (a few cases) (WANG).
Alzheimer’s disease and causes accelerated
lipid peroxidation and increased levels of
thiobarbituric acid in the brain.29 Daily ad- USES
ministration of ethanolic extracts of fo-ti
resulted in a significant reduction in Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
the symptoms of Parkinsonism induced in Extract of cured fo-ti is a popular ingredient
mice by paraquat and maneb over a 6-week in hair care products (e.g., shampoos and
period.30 Thelearningabilityandmemoryof tonics) for its alleged hair-darkening and
senescence acceleratedmice(SAMP8) were growth-promoting properties, especially in
significantly improved, and brain patholog- China and Hong Kong (ZHOU); also used in
ical changes were also reduced when the skin care products (e.g., creams and lotions)
Fo-ti (raw and cured) 297
for its traditional detoxicant (antiallergic) and dizziness with tinnitus, insomnia, premature
nourishing properties. graying, soreness and weakness of lower back
andknees, and numbness oflimbs andothers. In
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Pow- recent years, both raw and cured fo-ti are also
der and occasionally extracts are used in tonic used in treating hyperlipemia (CHP; JIANGSU).
formulas in America, though often with no
distinction between the raw and cured forms;
also used in sliced form in soup mix packets. COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Traditional Medicine. Fo-ti was first de- Crude, powder, and extracts. Raw fo-ti comes
scribed in He Shou Wu Lu (before 10th century) in whole, halved, or thick slices, light brown to
and later in Kai Bao Ben Cao (10th century, in brown in color; cured fo-ti in very dark brown
the Song Dynasty). Raw fo-ti is traditionally to dark reddish brown slices. Due to the much
considered a detoxicant and laxative and is used lower price of raw fo-ti, this is normally the
to treat scrofula (lymph node tuberculosis), powder available in America. Also, there is no
sores, carbuncles, skin eruptions (feng zhen), simple practical assay method to determine
pruritis, and constipation, among other condi- whether a given extract from a supplier is
tions. On the other hand, cured fo-ti is tradi- genuine fo-ti and which type it is.
tionally considered to have slightly warming
properties and a liver and kidney tonic; it is Regulatory Status. Class 2d dietary supple-
believed to tone up the vital essence and blood ment (contraindicated with diarrhea, prepared
and to fortify the muscles, tendons, and root and stem may cause gastric distress, raw
bones. Cured fo-ti is traditionally used to treat root causes catharsis).
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHEUNG AND LI; CHP; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FOSTER AND YUE;
HONGKUI; HUANG; IMM-1; IMM-CAMS, JIANGSU; JIXIAN; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; WANG.
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p. 186. (2006).
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Tuttle Co., Rutland, VT, 1976, p. 151. Zazhi, 78 (1966).
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(1983). 123 (1981).
298 Fo-ti (raw and cured)
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(1987). 53 (1986).
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Galbanum 299
components and fixatives in cosmetics, in- (33 ppm) for the resin in candy and gelatins
cluding soaps, detergents, creams, lotions, and and puddings.
perfumes, with a maximum use level of 0.7%
reported for the oil in perfumes.20 Traditional Medicine. Used as a carmina-
tive, stimulant, expectorant, and antispamodic
Food. Galbanum resin and galbanum oil for purposes similar to those of asafetida; also
are used as flavor components in most food used in treating wounds.
products, including nonalcoholic beverages,
frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked goods, COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
gelatins and puddings, and condiments and
relishes. Galbanum oil is also used in alcohol- Crude, oil, and resinoid.
ic beverages, meat and meat products,
snack foods, and gravies. Highest average Regulatory Status. Has been approved for
maximum use level reported about 0.003% food use (§172.510).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; CLAUS; DUKE 4; FEMA; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; LEWIS AND ELVIN-
€ RHAMMER; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TERRELL; UPHOF.
LEWIS; LIST AND HO
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G. japonicum (Fr.) Lloyd. (syn G. sinense
Source: Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss. ex Fr.) Zhao, Xu et Zhang) (Family Poly-
Karst. (syn. Polyporus japonicus Fr.) and poraceae).
Ganoderma 301
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHEUNG AND LI; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; HUANG; JIANGSU; LU AND LI;
MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NATIONAL; WANG; ZHOU ANDWANG.
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308 Garlic
A strong scented perennial herb with long, flat, Prostaglandins A2 and Fla were isolated
and firm leaves, 0.5–1.5 cm wide; flowering from a homogenized garlic extract.3 High-
stem up to 1.2 m high; bulbs with several molecular weight fructans and agglutinins
bulblets (cloves), all enclosed in membranous (homo- and heterodimeric mannose-binding
skins; origin unclear; a variable cultigen lectins) were also isolated from garlic.8–11
(found only in cultivation), garlic’s wild pro- Allicin is the major odor principle that is
genitor, Allium longicuspis, is thought to have produced by the enzymatic action of alliinase
originated in the high plains of west-central on alliin; it is decomposed by heat and alkali
Asia perhaps in the Kirgiz Desert; spread east but is unaffected by dilute acids in solution
and west with nomadic tribes; known to be (JIANGSU; MERCK).
cultivated in the Middle East more than 5000 Composition of garlic products depends on
years ago; naturalized in North America; cul- product form. Thiosulfinates (e.g., allicin) were
tivated worldwide. Part used is the fresh or found to be released only from garlic cloves
dehydrated bulb. Garlic oil is obtained by and garlic powder products; vinyl dithiins and
steam distillation of the crushed fresh bulbs; ajoenes were found only in products containing
powdered garlic is derived from the dried garlic macerated in vegetable oil; diallyl, meth-
bulbs. yl allyl, and dimethyl sulfide series components
were exclusive to products containing the oil of
steam distilled garlic.12
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
in vivo against H. pylori, pneumococci, Can- are generally considered to be responsible for
dida, Aspergillus, and dermatophytes) with the much of garlic’s pharmacological activities
hydroalcoholic extract reportedly being much (e.g., hypoglycemic, hypocholesterolemic,
more potent than the essential oil;2,15,28,36–48 antimicrobial, insecticidal, and larvicid-
a pilot study in 10 AIDS patients found that al).23,45,48,53,63 Allicin, believed to be the most
a garlic extract produced an improved helper: important biologically active compound in
suppresser ratio in natural killer cell activity, garlic, is primarily responsible for its antibi-
with a concurrent improvement in AIDS- otic and antimutagenic effects.75,76
related conditions, including diarrhea, genital One study found that thiosulfinates (e.g.,
herpes, candidiasis, and pansinusitis with re- allicin) were not formed below pH 3.6, thus
current fever;49,50 garlic also has larvicidal, alliinase is completely and irreversibly inhib-
insecticidal, and amebicidal activities (e.g., ited by stomach acid. A second (unidentified)
antigiardial and antitrypanosomal);48,51–53 (iv) enzyme, in addition to alliinase is involved
anti-inflammatory (inhibition of COX and in thiosulfinate formation. A stomach acid-
prostaglandin synthesis);54–57 (v) antitumor resistant coating on garlic powder tablets is
activities against various tumor models in mice necessary for thiosulfinate release, which if
and rats;58–61 (vi) hypoglycemic activities in prepared carefully can release amounts of
rabbits and rats;21,62–64 (vii) antioxidant/anti- total thiosulfinates similar to whole garlic
hepatotoxic/radioprotective activity in rats cloves.77
(mainly due to S-allyl cysteine);65–67 garlic Garlic oil acts as a gastrointestinal smooth
was recently reported to be effective in the muscle relaxant, suggested for further re-
treatment of hepatopulmonary syndrome.68 search in patients with hypermotile intestinal
Garlic also lowers blood viscosity; improves disorders.78
microcirculation; with expectorant, diaphoret-
ic, and diuretic properties, among others (ESCOP
2; JIANGSU; LIST AND HO€ RHAMMER; MARTIN- TOXICOLOGY
69
DALE). It has recently been reported
to reduce osteoporosis and to possess Allergic contact dermatitis due to garlic has
immunomodulatory and spermicidal activi- been reported (MARTINDALE).
ties.70–72
Antithrombotic activity has been attributed
to various fractions of garlic. Ajoene has USES
antithrombotic activity triggered by inhibiting
exposure of fibrinogen receptors on platelet Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
membranes. Diallyl sulfide and methyl allyl Strong popular interest has made garlic pre-
sulfide, claimed responsible for the antithrom- parations the best-selling over-the-counter
botic activity, were found to be inactive in drugs in Germany, with sales topping $250
inhibiting platelet aggregation.73 However, a million per year in Europe.79
recent study attributes higher thrombocyte
aggregation-inhibiting potential to chloro- Food. Fresh garlic and powdered garlic are
form fractions of thiosulfinate than to the widely used as domestic spices. Garlic oil is
ajoenes.3 The platelet aggregation-inhibiting extensively used as a flavor ingredient in most
activity, as well as possible antiplaque ef- food products, including nonalcoholic bev-
fect,74 may be responsible for the potential erages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked
utility of garlic as a useful protective agent in goods, gelatins and puddings, condiments and
atherosclerosis, coronary thrombosis, and relishes, meat and meat products, fats and oils,
stroke (TYLER 1).49 snack foods, and gravies, with highest average
The volatile sulfur compounds (especially maximum use levels generally much below
allicin, diallyl disulfide, and diallyl trisulfide) 0.003% (34.4 ppm).
310 Garlic
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 1 & 2; DER MARDEROSIAN AND
BEUTLER; DUKE 4; ESCOP 2; FEMA; FERNALD; FOSTER; FOSTER AND DUKE; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; GUPTA; HUANG;
€ RHAMMER; LUST; MABBERLY; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NANJING; ROSE;
JIANGSU; LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS; LIST AND HO
ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL; TYLER 1; UPHOF; YOUNGKEN.
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Garlic 311
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Bundesanzeiger, no. 122 (July 6, 1988).
(1986).
Source: Gelsemium sempervirens (L.) Ait. f. Evergreen woody vine sometimes climbing to
(syn. G. nitidum Michx. and Bignonia about 6 m; leaves opposite, lance-shaped to
sempervirens L.) (Family Loganiaceae or narrowly oval; flowers very fragrant, bright
Spigeliaceae) yellow, occur in clusters; native to southwest-
ern United States; also grows in Mexico and
Common/vernacular names: Yellow jasmine, Guatemala; widely cultivated as an ornamen-
wild jessamine, woodbine, Carolina yellow tal plant. Parts used are the dried rhizome and
jessamine, and evening trumpet flower. roots.
Gelsemium 313
TOXICOLOGY
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Gelsemium alkaloids are very toxic; and gel-
semicine is reportedly more toxic than glese- Crude and extracts (fluid, solid, etc.). Strengths
mine.9 Ingestion of as little as 4 mL of a fluid (see glossary) of extracts are expressed
extract (1:1) or a tea made from as few as three in weight-to-weight ratios. Crude and fluid
leaves has been reported as fatal. Children extract were formerly official in N.F.
314 Genet
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; GOSSELIN; HARDIN AND ARENA,
HUANG; LIST AND HO€ RHAMMER; LUST; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; RAFFAUF; UPHOF; WILLAMAN AND
SCHUBERT.
1. M. Kitajima et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 8. D. Bousta et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 74,
51, 1211 (2003). 205 (2001).
2. A. Nikiforov et al., Monatsh. Chem., 105, 9. B. R. Olin et al., Lawrence Rev. Nat.
1292 (1974). Prod., (1993).
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(1971). 44, 272 (2002).
4. M. Wichtl et al., Monatsh. Chem., 104, 87 11. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 97 (1970).
(1973). 12. S. Foster, East–West Botanicals:
5. M. Wichtl et al., Monatsh. Chem., 104, 99 Comparisons of Medicinal Plants
(1973). Disjunct between Eastern Asia and
6. Y. Schun and G. A. Cordell, J. Nat. Prod., Eastern North America, Ozark
50, 195 (1987). Beneficial Plant Project, Brixey, MO,
1986.
7. O. Peredery and M. A. Persinger,
Phytother. Res., 18, 700 (2004).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 2; CSIR X:FEMA; GUENTHER; HAY AND SYNGE; STEINMETZ; TUTIN 2;
UPHOF.
1. A. D. Dauksha and E. K. Denisova, 4. A. R. Bilia et al., Phytochemistry, 34,
Nauch. Dokl. Vysshei Shkoly, Biol. 847 (1993).
Nauki, 3, 178 (1966). 5. E. Yesilada et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
2. N. L. Gurvich and Z. I. Abasova, Maslo. 73, 471 (2000).
Zhir. Promy., 33, 27 (1967). 6. E. Yesilada and Y. A. Takahishi,
3. G. Faugergas et al., Plant. Med. Phytochemistry, 51, 903 (1999).
Phytother., 7, 68 (1973).
316 Gentian
Recent reports suggest that G. lutea has an nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts,
effect on the CNS. A parenterally adminis- candy, baked goods, and gelatins and pud-
tered methanolic extract exhibited a central dings, with highest average maximum use
effect in mice that resulted in a significant level of about 0.015% (153 ppm) reported for
increase in their swimming endurance and a gentian extract (type not specified) in baked
slight analgesic activity.19 The methanolic goods.
extract of the dried bark potently inhibited Gentian is also a major constituent of ‘‘an-
rat brain monoamine oxidase (MAO). The gostura bitters’’ (see angostura).
active MAO inhibitors were determined to
be a chalcone dimer, a chromanone, and Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Dried
5-hydroxyflavanone.20 root and extract used in various digestive
The root extract and two of gentian’s formulations; tea flavoring; also in nervine
constituents (sweroside and swertiamarine) formulations. In England, the most popular
possessed wound-healing properties in a of gastric stimulants (WREN).
chicken embryonic fibroblasts in vitro model.
Stimulation of mitotic activity and collagen Traditional Medicine. Yellow gentian as
production were speculated to mediate the well as related gentians reportedly used to
activity.21 stimulate the appetite, improve digestion, and
Gentiopicrin has been reported to be lethal to treat numerous gastrointestinal problems
to mosquito larvae (JIANGSU). (stomachache, heartburn, gastritis, diarrhea,
vomiting, etc.) as well as externally for
wounds; also used in cancers.24
TOXICOLOGY In Chinese medicine several related Gen-
tiana species (e.g., G. scabra Bunge, G. trif-
The root may not be well tolerated by patients tora Pall., and G. rigescens Franch.) are used
with extreme high blood pressure or by preg- for similar purposes. In addition, they are used
nant women (TYLER 1). for treating jaundice, sore throat, headache,
Highly toxic Veratrum album L., growing sores, inflammations, and rheumatoid arthri-
wild in proximity to gentian has resulted in tis, among others, both internally and exter-
several cases of vicarious accidental poison- nally (JIANGSU; NANJING).
ing in Europe among persons making gentian
preparations for home use.22
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1; FARNSWORTH 3; FEMA;
GOSSELIN; JIANGSU; LUST; NANJING; POLUNIN AND SMYTHIES; RAFFAUF; TERRELL; TUTIN 3; TYLER 1; WREN.
1. J. Bricout, Phytochemistry, 13, 2819 14. Ch. Franz,et al., Sci. Pharm., 53, 31
(1974). (1985).
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Zasshi, 26, 75 (1972). 18(1), 15 (1984).
3. C. Franz and D. Fritz, Planta Med., 28, 16. V. Plouvier et al., C. R. Acad. Sci., Ser. D,
289 (1975). 264, 1219 (1967).
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(2003). 151 (1959).
5. F. Rulkco, Pr. Nauk. Akad. Med. 18. B. R. Olin,ed., Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod.
Wroclawiu, 8, 3 (1976). 1993.
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Serdechnykh Glikozidov, 146 (1971). (2002).
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(4), 629 (1971). 2255 (2004).
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1507 (1969). (2006).
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89 (2003). (1977).
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885 (2003). 25. Monograph Gentianae radix, Bundesan-
12. P. Rivaille and D. Raulais, C. R. Acad. zeiger, no. 223 (November 30, 1985);
Sci., Ser. D, 269, 1121 (1969). revised (March 13, 1990).
13. V. Rossetti et al., Q. J. Crude Drug Res.,
19(1), 37 (1981).
GERANIUM OIL, ROSE age, with fragrant, deeply incised leaves; flow-
ers pinkish in umbel-like inflorescence; native
Source: Pelargonium graveolens (L.) L’Her. to South Africa; widely cultivated in Africa
ex Ait. (Family Geraniaceae). (Algeria, Morocco, etc.) and Europe (Spain,
Italy, France, etc.). Parts used are the fresh
Common/vernacular names: Algerian gerani- leaves and stems, from which geranium oil is
um oil, Bourbon geranium oil, and Moroccan obtained by steam distillation, generally in a
geranium oil. 0.08–0.4% yield.1,2
There are several types of geranium oils
produced from cultivated forms, varieties, and
GENERAL DESCRIPTION hybrids of P. graveolens, and other Pelargoni-
um species such as P. odoratissimum Ait.,
A perennial erect shrubby, hairy, and glandu- P. capitatum Ait., P. crispum (L.) L’Her., and
lar plant up to 1 m high, becoming woody with P. radula (Cav.) L’Her. ex Ait. (syn. P. roseum
Geranium oil, rose 319
Willd.). The more commonly used ones are entirely of l-citronellol has been reported to
Algerian or African geranium oil, Reunion exhibit in vitro inhibitory activities against
or Bourbon geranium oil, and Moroccan several fungi that are pathogenic to humans.2
geranium oil. Despite mention of several com- Other rose geranium oils have also been re-
mercial source species in the literature, ported to have antibacterial and antifungal
P. graveolens appears to be the only one com- activities in vitro.14–16
mercially cultivated (TUCKER AND LAWRENCE). Antioxidant free radical scavenging ac-
Geranium oils should not be confused with tivity of geranium oil has recently been
East Indian or Turkish geranium oil; the latter reported.17
is palmarosa oil and is derived from a
completely different plant source.
TOXICOLOGY
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; FEMA; FURIA AND BELLANCA; GUENTHER; LIST AND
€ RHAMMER; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; ROSE; TERRELL; TUCKER AND LAWRENCE; UPHOF; WATT AND
HO
BREYER-BRANDWIJK.
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have been reported for ginger extracts.48–51 about 0.525% (5248 ppm) reported in baked
Gingerol, paradol, and dehydrozingerone were goods.
among the constituents showing highest activ- Ginger oil, oleoresin, and extract are wide-
ity.52–54 6-Gingerol was also shown to possess ly used in soft drinks (e.g., gingerales and
antitumor-promoting activity through the in- colas). In addition to the above uses, they are
hibition of angiogenesis.55 used in alcoholic beverages (liqueurs, bitters,
Ginger extracts, gingerols, and gingerdiol etc.), frozen dairy desserts, and candy. High-
were found to exhibit antiviral, antibacterial, est average maximum use levels reported are
and antifungal activities against Helicobacter about 0.004% for the oil in baked goods
pylori, influenza and rhinovirus, and 13 (36.9 ppm) and gelatins and puddings
fungal pathogens, respectively.21,56–58 A syn- (37.9 ppm); about 0.01% for the oleoresin
ergistic antimicrobial effect was recently in alcoholic beverages (99.8 ppm), baked
reported between 10-gingerol and aminogly- goods (104 ppm), and condiments and
coside antibiotics against vancomycin-resis- relishes (108 ppm); and about 0.023%
tant enterococci.59 (233 ppm) for the extract (type not given) in
Other activities reported for ginger baked goods.
include hypoglycemic,60,61 antihyperlipi-
demic,62 immunomodulatory,63 antiplatelet Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Dried
aggregation,64 androgenic,65 and antiwrink- powdered root and extracts used in teas, cap-
ling effects.66 sules, and drinks, tablets, singly or in combi-
nation as a digestive aid, or antinauseant; also
for colds, flu, and as general stimulant (FOSTER
TOXICOLOGY AND YUE).
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BARNES; BARRETT; BLUMENTHAL 1 & 2;
BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; FOSTER AND YUE; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; JIXIAN;
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Ginkgo 325
Food. Seeds considered a delicacy in Japan Other. The root and inner bark are Chinese
and China; edible after acrid, foul-smelling folk medicines; bark used in prescriptions for
pulp is removed; seeds are then boiled or mucous vaginal discharges, seminal emission,
roasted and eaten sparingly (no more than or weak, convalescing patients; dried bark,
8–10 per day). Fresh seeds are toxic and have burned to ash, mixed with vegetable oil as
reportedly caused death in children; pulp poultice for neurodermatitis.
may cause contact dermatitis similar to poison
ivy rash; handled with rubber gloves. Inges-
tion of fresh seeds may cause stomachache, COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
nausea, diarrhea, convulsions, weak pulse,
restlessness, difficult breathing, and shock. Crude herb, extracts, dried leaf in capsules,
Dyed-red, the nuts were traditionally eaten at tinctures, and so on. Purified ginkgolide B is
weddings (FOSTER AND YUE). known commercially as BN 52021. A com-
plex standardized extract of the dried leaves
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. In the (EGb 761), produced by a German/French
United States, various ginkgo leaf prepara- consortium; standardized to 24% flavone
tions or crude leaf are sold as dietary supple- glycosides and ginkgolide B is widely sold
ments in the form of tablets, capsules, tincture, in Europe (especially in Germany and
standardized extracts, tea, and so on. France).
Traditional Medicine. In China, the dried, Regulatory Status. Class 1 dietary supple-
processed seed (baiguo) is used in prescrip- ment (can be safely consumed when used
tions for asthma, coughs with phlegm, enure- appropriately).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 2; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; EVANS; FOSTER
AND YUE; GLASBY 2; HUANG; TYLER 1; WEISS; WREN.
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preparation. Old, wild, well-farmed roots are searchers. There are at least 18 saponins found
most valued, while rootlets of cultivated plants in Asian ginseng, including ginsenosides R0,
are considered the lowest grade. Powdered Rb2, Rb3, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, Rf2, Rb3, R20-gluco-f,
ginseng currently imported from Korea for Rg1, and Rg2, which are all triterpenoids.
use in cosmetics and health foods is probably Ginsenoside R0 is an oleanane type; the rest
from the latter. are all dammarane type. The sapogenin of
American ginseng does not undergo spe- ginsenoside R0, is oleanolic acid, that of gin-
cial curing as Asian ginseng, and there are senosides Rb1 to Rd is 20-S-protopanaxadiol,
considerably fewer grades, mostly separated and that of ginsenosides Re to Rg2, is 20-S-
on the basis of ‘‘wild’’ or ‘‘cultivated.’’ The protopanaxatriol. Ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rc,
international trade of American ginseng is Re, and Rg1 are present in major concentra-
regulated under the provisions of the Con- tions in Asian ginseng.6,7 Minor dammarane
vention on International Trade in Endan- saponines also present include koryoginseno-
gered Species (CITES), which regulates side R1 and R2 in addition to ginsenoside
trade through permit requirements for Rf2.29,30
imports, exports, and reexports of listed American ginseng contains primarily gin-
species.6,7 senosides Rb1 and Re; it does not contain
Siberian ginseng is the dried root of ginsenosides Rb2, Rf, and Rg2, and in some
Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. and Max- instances Rg1.11,12 The new ginsenoside Rg8
im.) Maxim. It does not have a long history of and quinquenosides I–V as well as some of
usage as Asian ginseng (or even American the known ones (ginsenosides Rf1, Rf4, Rh1,
ginseng), but it is reported to have similar Rg2, and Rh1) have also been reported in
properties as Asian ginseng and is consequent- American ginseng.24,31 Prized American gin-
ly gaining popularity in the United States and seng contains a high ratio of ginsenosides Rb1
Canada (see eleuthero).8,9 to Rg1. Other dammarane-type triterpenes
present include chikusetsusaponin IVa, pseu-
doginsenoside Rc1, and notoginsenosides
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION A–C.24
Six panaxosides (A, B, C, D, E, and F) have
Asian ginseng contains numerous saponins, been reported, with panaxosides A, B, and C
which are one of the major groups of active having panaxatriol as their sapogenin and the
constituents;8–16 a trace of volatile oil consist- sapogenin of panaxosides D, E, and F being
ing mainly of the sesquiterpene hydrocarbons panaxadiol.8,9 Since the genuine aglycones
panacene, panaxene, panaginsene, and ginsin- reported for ginsenosides are 20-S-protopa-
sene;17 sterols (e.g., b-sitosterol and its b- naxadiol and 20-S-protopanaxatriol, they are
glucoside); 8–32% starch;18 7–9% ginseng most likely the sapogenins of panaxosides
polysaccharides (panaxans A–U and pectin- also.15,16 Panaxoside A is reported to be
like polysaccharide PG-F2) and pectin;19–23 the same as ginsenoside Rg-1 (LIST AND
free sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose, sucrose, HO€ RHAMMER).
maltose, trisaccharides, etc.); pectin; vitamins Ginseng herb oil (P. ginseng) has been
(e.g., vitamins B1, B2, and Bl2, nicotinic acid, reported to contain sesquiterpenes, including
pantothenic acid, and biotin); 0.1–0.2% cho- bicyclogermacrene, a- and b-panasinsenes,
line; fats; minerals (Zn, Cu, Mn, Ca, Fe, etc.); caryophyllene, a- and b-humulenes, a- and
polyacetylenes (e.g., panaxynol, panaxydol, b-neoclovenes, b-farnesene, and a-, b-, and
panaxydiol, and panaxytriol);24,25 oligo- and g-selinenes.32
polypeptides;26,27 and others (JIANGSU; LIST A study showed that highest yields of gin-
AND HO € RHAMMER).8,28 senosides were obtained at the end of summer
The saponins are called ginsenosides by of the fifth year; the root doubles in weight
Japanese and panaxosides by Russian re- between the fourth and fifth years.33
332 Ginseng (Asian and American)
At least 56 closely related saponins, called and Re);82,83 ginsenosides Rb1 and Rd
gynosaponins, have been isolated from also potentiate nerve growth factor (JIANGSU);
Gymnostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Maki- (vii) aphrodisiac: ginsenosides can stimulate
no of the gourd family, four of which (gyno- the sexual response in both male and female
saponins 3, 4, 8, and 12) are identical to animals, but there are conflicting results on
ginsenosides Rbl, Rb3, Rd, and Rf2.34–36 their ability to exhibit sex hormonal effects, for
New polyacetylenic compounds isolated example, estrogenic effects;82,84,85 the ginse-
from Asian ginseng include (9R,10S)-ep- nosides were also reported to increase male
oxy-16-heptadecen-4,6-diyn-3-one, (9R,10S)- copulatory behavior in rats and to enhance
epoxy-16-heptadecan-4,6-diyn-3-one, and fertility in human males;86,87 (viii) other ef-
1-methoxy-(9R,10S)-epoxy-16-heptadecan-4, fects: include antagonizing the effects of
6-diyn-3-one. depressants such as alcohol, chloral hydrate,
opiates, and barbiturates;67,88–90 antiepilep-
tic;91 anti-inflammatory;92 antitumor;69,93,94
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL antihypetensive (ACE inhibition);95,96 and
ACTIVITIES antimicrobial.23,97,98
Some members of the ginseng saponins
The pharmacological properties of Asian produce effects directly opposed to those
ginseng are multiple, which are due to its produced by others, and under certain condi-
various components, notably saponins and tions, ginseng acts in opposite directions
polysaccharides. (JIANGSU).12,41,90 Ginsenoside Rb1 reportedly
Asian ginseng has been reported to be an is CNS-tranquilizing, hypotensive, antipyret-
adaptogen with numerous pharmacological ic, antipsychotic, and ulcer protective;99 in-
activities in humans and in laboratory animals, hibits conditioned avoidance response; is
including (i) qualtiy of life enhancement: weakly anti-inflammatory; antihemolytic;
general stimulatory effect, decreasing sensi- increases gastrointestinal motility; accelerates
tivity to stress, enhancing cognitive functions, glycolysis; and accelerates serum and
and raising mental and physical capacity liver cholesterol, nuclear RNA, and serum
for work;37–42 (ii) protective effect: radiopro- protein synthesis.6,100,101 Ginsenoside Rg1
tection and remedial effect on radiation reportedly has weak CNS-stimulant, hyper-
sickness,43–48 neuroprotective,49,50 musculo- tensive, and antifatigue activity; aggravates
protective,51–53 and cancer chemopreven- stress ulcer; and increases motor activity.
tive;51,54–56 (iii) immunomodulatory/stimu- In behavioral tests, it accelerates discrimina-
lant: mainly due to the polysaccharides;57–70 tion behavior in pole-climbing tests and
(iv) antioxidant: in various in vitro and in vivo Y-maze tests, a reversal learning response in
models of oxidative stress and hepatotoxici- the Y-maze test, and one-trial passive avoid-
ty;71–77 (v) antidiabetic/hypoglycemic: gin- ance learning using the step-down
seng polysaccharides (especially panaxan A) method.6,100,101
and the polypeptide lowered blood sugar in Conflicting results of various studies are
experimental animals;22,26 studies suggest that attributed to type of preparation, route of
hypoglycemic mechanisms include reducing administration, dosage, and presence or ab-
insulin resistance, enhancing glucose toler- sence of biologically active compounds,
ance, lowering blood sugar level and liver among other factors.6,7,100–104
glycogen content, and altering carbohydrate Oleanolic acid has antiallergenic activities
and albumin metabolism;9,37,38,78–81 (vi) pri- in experimental animals (see also
mary metabolism and tissue regeneration: ligustrum).105
by promoting the biosynthesis of cholesterol, The chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology,
lipid, RNA, DNA, and protein17,32,33 and by and therapeutics of American and Asian gin-
stimulating angiogenesis (ginsenosides Rb2 seng have been extensively reviewed.56,107–110
Ginseng (Asian and American) 333
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; BLUMENTHAL 1 & 2; FOSTER; FOSTER AND YUE; JIANGSU; LEUNG;
€ RHAMMER; NANJING; TYLER 1.
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GENERAL DESCRIPTION
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
A perennial herb with a knotty yellow rhizome
(rootstock) from which arise a single leaf (rad- Contains as active principles isoquinoline
ical leaf) and an erect hairy stem in early spring alkaloids consisting mainly of hydrastine
bearing two five- to nine-lobed rounded leaves (1.5–4%) and berberine (0.5–6%), with lesser
Goldenseal 337
wounds, sores, acne, dandruff, and ringworm, cial in N.F. Strengths (see glossary) of extracts
among others. It has also been used in are expressed in weight-to-weight ratios or in
cancers.20 total alkaloids content.
American Indian tribes used the roots as
a wash for local inflammations; decoction Regulatory Status. Class 2b dietary supple-
for general debility, dyspepsia, whooping ment (not used during pregnancy). Official in
cough, diarrhea, jaundice, fever, sour stom- the first revision (1830) of New York edition of
ach, flatulence, pneumonia, and with whisky U.S.P., but absent in the Philadelphia 1830 U.
for heart disease (FOSTER AND DUKE; S.P. Dropped in 1840, and then official in U.S.
1
MOERMAN). P. from 1860 to 1926. Included in N.F. 1888;
also 1936–1955.21
In 1982 the alkaloid, hydrastine, was still
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS official in the pharmacopoeias of nine
countries.21
Crude, extracts, and hydrastine salts. Crude,
fluid extract, and tincture were formerly offi-
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BAILEY 1; BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 2; DER MARDEROSIAN AND
BEUTLER; FERNALD; FOSTER; FOSTERAND DUKE; GOSSELIN; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; LUST; MARTINDALE;
MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; MOERMAN; ROSE; TERRELL; TYLER 1; UPHOF.
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(2003). 561 (2001).
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(1974). The Alkaloids, Vol. 15, Academic Press,
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Zasshi, 82, 726 (1962). (1990).
Gotu kola 339
Other. Insecticidal properties have been re- Regulatory Status. Undetermined in the
ported from leaf extracts. United States; official in the French pharma-
copoeia as early as 1884; official in Indian
pharmacopoeia; also once official in the
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS Dutch, Mexican, Spanish, and Venezuelan
pharmacopoeias.
Crude (leaf, whole herb, etc.), tincture, ex-
tracts (calculated to contain 70% total triter-
penes), and so on.
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BARNES; BARRETT; BRUNETON; CHP; CSIR II; DER MARDEROSIAN
AND BEUTLER; GLASBY 2; GUPTA; JIXIAN; HUANG; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TYLER 1; WATT AND BREYER-BRANDWIJK;
WEISS; WREN.
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1208 (1996). Prev., 6, 396 (2005).
342 Grape skin extract (enocianina)
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BARRETT; BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DUKE 4;
GRIEVE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2.
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Pharmacol., 54, 1515 (2002).
A cultivated tree with large fruits, often over PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
10 m high; is considered to be a relatively PROPERTIES
recent hybrid of C. maxima and C. sinensis.
Numerous cultivars are grown commercially; Grapefruit oil is reported to have antibacterial
‘‘Duncan’’ is the standard type grown in Flor- activities.16 Its chromenone constituent has
ida (TUCKER AND LAWRENCE); cultivated in the been shown to enhance antibiotic effect against
United States (especially California, Florida, MSSA and MRSA by acting as an inhibitor of
and Texas), the West Indies (e.g., Jamaica and the bacterial efflux pump mechanism.7
the Dominican Republic), Nigeria, Brazil, and The olfactory stimulation resulting from
Europe (e.g., Israel and Portugal). Part used is the scent of grapefruit oil has a sympathomi-
the fresh peel of the fruit from which grape- metic stimulating effect that results in an
fruit oil is produced by cold expression. Nar- increase in blood pressure, increased lipolysis,
ingin extract is a bitter flavoring material and reduced body weight gain in experimental
prepared by extraction of the expressed peel; animals and in humans.17–20
it is not pure naringin.
TOXICOLOGY
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Grapefruit oil has been reported to promote
Grapefruit oil contains mostly the monoter- tumor formation on mouse skin by the
pene hydrocarbon, limonene (ca. 90%). Other primary carcinogen, 9,10-dimethyl-l,2-
volatile constituents include sesquiterpenes (e. benzanthracene.21
g., cadinene and paradisiol or intermedeol);1,2 Certain bergaptens are known to be photo-
aldehydes (C7 to C12 aldehydes, neral, gera- toxic and allergenic to humans (see bergamot
nial, perillaldehyde, citronellal, a-sinensal, oil).
and b-sinensal); esters (e.g., geranyl acetate, Dermatological studies have indicated
neryl acetate, perillyl acetate, octyl acetate, grapefruit oil to be nonirritating, nonsensitiz-
decyl acetate, citronellyl acetate, trans-carvyl ing, and nonphototoxic to humans.16
acetate, 1,8-p-menthadien-2-yl acetate, and
1,8-p-menthadien-9-yl acetate); and nootka- USES
tone (a bicylcic sesquiterpene ketone); among
others (GUENTHER; LIST AND HO€ RHAMMER).1–6 Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
The oil also contains sizable amounts (ca. Grapefruit oil is used as a fragrance compo-
1.4%) of coumarins and furocoumarins (bergap- nent in soaps, detergents, creams, lotions, and
tens) composed mainly of 7-geranoxycoumarin, perfumes, with maximum use level of 1.0%
with marmin, osthol, limettin, 7-methoxy-8- reported in perfumes.16
(2-formyl-2-methylpropyl) coumarin, ber-
gapten, bergamottin, dihydroxybergamottin, Food. Grapefruit oil is extensively used as a
bergaptol, byakangelicin, 5-[(3,6-dimethyl-6- flavor ingredient in alcoholic and nonalcohol-
formyl-2-heptenyl)-oxy] psoralen, and a ic beverages (especially soft drinks), frozen
chromen-7-one also present.7–10 dairy desserts, candy, baked goods, gelatins
The characteristic grapefruit aroma and and puddings, and milk products, with highest
flavor of grapefruit oil is reported to be due maximum average use level of about 0.108%
primarily to nootkatone and other carbonyls (1084 ppm) reported in candy.
Guaiac wood oil 345
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; FEMA; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; KARRER; POLUNIN AND
SMYTHIES; TERRELL; TUCKER AND LAWRENCE; UPHOF.
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4. J. A. Remar in J. Erghese, ed., On 15. V. A. Bandyukova and G. M. Fishman,
Essential Oils, Synthie Industrial Pte Subtrop. Kul’t., 5–6, 137 (1976).
Ltd., Lolenchery, India, 1986, p. 123. 16. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
5. G. Dugo et al., Flav. Frag. J., 5, 205 (1990). 12, 723 (1974).
6. W. A. König et al., J. High Res. 17. M. Tanida et al., Brain Res., 1058, 44
Chromatogr., 13, 328 (1990). (2005).
7. A. N. Abulrob et al., Phytochemistry, 65, 18. J. Shen et al., Neurosci. Lett., 383, 188
3021 (2004). (2005).
8. P. Schmiedlin-Ren et al., Drug Metab. 19. A. Niijima and K. Nagai, Exp. Biol. Med.
Dispos., 25, 1228 (1997). (Maywood.), 228, 1190 (2003).
9. W. L. Stanley and L. Jurd, J. Agric. Food 20. S. Haze et al., Jpn. J. Pharmacol., 90, 247
Chem., 19, 1106 (1971). (2002).
10. J. F. Fisher and H. E. Nordby, J. Food Sci., 21. F. J. C. Rose and W. E. H. Field, Food
30, 869 (1965). Cosmet. Toxicol., 3, 311 (1965).
11. M. G. Moshonas, J. Agric. Food Chem.,
19, 769 (1971).
roses and may sometimes have an undesirable conditions and inflammation, but without
‘‘smoked ham’’ note. clear demonstration of pharmacological or
Guaiac wood oil is different from guaiac clinical efficacy.4
resin or guaiac gum products. The latter are
obtained from the wood of other trees (Guai-
USES
acum officinale L. and G. santum L. (Family
Zygophyllaceae)). This guaiac contains a
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
small amount of a-guaiaconic acid mixed
Guaiac wood oil is used as a fixative, modifier,
with large amounts of other phenolic lignans
or fragrance component in soaps, detergents,
(formerly collectively called guaiaconic acid)
creams, lotions, and perfumes, with maximum
and other substances. It was formerly used in
use level of 0.8% reported in perfumes.
treating rheumatism and gout but currently is
mainly used as a diagnostic reagent (e.g., in
Food. Guaiac wood oil is used as a flavor
testing for occult blood).1 Nevertheless, it has
component in most categories of food pro-
been approved for food use as an equivalent of
ducts, including alcoholic and nonalcoholic
guaiac wood oil or products derived from B.
beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked
sarmienti; it is used in foods mainly as an
goods, gelatins and puddings, and meat and
antioxidant and is official in F.C.C.
meat products, with highest average maxi-
mum use level of about 0.002% (22 ppm)
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION reported in meat and meat products.
Guaiac wood oil contains 42–72% guaiol, Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Guaiac
bulnesol, d-bulnesene (d-guaiene), b-bulne- wood preparations are occasionally used in
sene, a-guaiene, b-patchoulene, and guaiox- formulation for anti-inflammatory activity,
ide (LIST AND HöRHAMMER). mostly in Europe, including gout and rheuma-
tism formulations (WREN).
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
ACTIVITIES COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BLUMENTHAL 1; FEMA; GUENTHER; MERCK; TERRELL; UPHOF;
WREN.
1. J. F. Kratochvil et al., Phytochemistry, 10, 2. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
2529 (1971). 12(Suppl.), 905 (1974).
Guar gum 347
and rats, as well as the serum cholesterol and patients did not adversely affect mineral
postprandial (after meal) blood glucose in balance.24
humans (MARTINDALE).3–5 When included
at different levels in the diets of chickens,
guar gum has been demonstrated to cause USES
growth depression, though with inconsistent
results. It also reduced the metabolizable Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
energy of the diets in which it was It is used as a binding and disintegrating agent
included.3,6,7 in tablets and as a thickener in lotions and
Guar gum does not seem to be digested by creams;25 also used as an appetite depressant
animals.3 and in certain antihypercholesterolemic
In women, one study found that ingestion preparations.
of guar gum led to permanent weight loss,
but did not influence serum lipids in hyper- Food. Used extensively as a thickener,
cholesterolemia.8 Similar results were stabilizer, suspending agent, and binder of
noted in male patients and elderly pa- free water in many food products, including
tients.9–11 However, positive results are nonalcoholic beverages (e.g., fruit drinks),
reported in the use of guar gum as a long-term frozen dairy desserts (especially ice cream
dietary supplement in control of hypercholes- and sherbets where it binds free water to
terolemia in diabetics.10,12–14 Long-term prevent ice crystals formation), baked goods,
administration (21 g/day) produced a sus- gelatins and puddings, meat and meat pro-
tained improvement in control of type 2 dia- ducts, condiments and relishes, breakfast cer-
betes, with significantly lower serum total eals, cheeses (especially soft cheeses and
and LDL cholesterol concentrations.15 spreads), milk products, soups, sweet sauces,
An average reduction of 14% total cholesterol gravies, snack foods, and processed vegeta-
levels was observed in doses of 10 g b.i.d. bles, among others.26,27 Highest average
immediately before meals as well as a reduc- maximum use level reported is about 1% in
tion in postprandial glucose levels.16 Other breakfast cereals (11,260 ppm), sweet sauces
studies have produced similar positive results (9000 ppm), and processed vegetables
including a recent one in alloxan-induced (10,747 ppm).
diabetic rats.10,12,17,18
A blood pressure lowering effect (8% sys- Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Cap-
tolic; 7% diastolic) has been observed in sules, tablets, powder, and other product forms
overweight men with mild hypertension.19 have, until recently, been widely used in
weight loss formulations. Guar gum was
blamed for causing esophageal obstruction.
TOXICOLOGY A death has been attributed to the use of one
guar gum tablet product, which apparently
Flatulence has frequently been reported as a swelled in the esophagus, indirectly resulting
side effect to guar gum dietary supplementa- in complications that caused the fatality.28
tion.20 Occupational asthma has been reported Major adverse reactions appear to result
in subjects working with industrial production from product formulations (tablets) that
of guar gum.21 A severe case of contact urti- dissolve in the mouth or esophagus before
caria has recently been linked to guar gum they reach the stomach. The FDA issued
present in a local anesthetic gel.22 regulatory letters to manufacturers of guar
Guar gum did not produce teratogenic gum capsules or tablets. Products that includ-
effects in rats.23 A human study found that ed claims implying use in weight loss, appetite
guar gum consumption in diabetic mellitus suppression, or cholesterol or blood glucose
Guar gum 349
lowering effects were deemed misbranded Regulatory Status. Has been affirmed as
drugs.28 GRAS (§184.1339), as a thickener,
stabilizer, suspending agent, or binder in food
Others. Technical guar gum is extensively products.
used in other industries (especially paper, oil Based on ‘‘numerous adverse reaction re-
drilling, and textile). ports of esophageal, gastric, or intestinal ob-
struction associated with the use of guar gum
in a weight control drug,’’ the FDA now con-
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS siders guar gum, when labeled as a drug, to be
a hazardous ingredient.28
Various grades with different particle sizes
and viscosities. It is official in N.F. and F.C.C.
REFERENCES
See the General References for BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; FURIA; GLICKSMAN;
LAWRENCE; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; TERRELL; UPHOF; WHISTLER AND BEMILLER.
1. J. Gynther et al., Planta Med., 46, 60 15. A. Aro et al., Diabetologia, 21, 29 (1981).
(1982). 16. U. Smith and G. Holm, Atherosclerosis,
2. C. W. Baker and R. L. Whistler, 45, 1 (1982).
Carbohydr. Res., 45, 237 (1975). 17. H. M. Mukhtar et al., Indian J. Exp. Biol.,
3. S. E. Davis and B. A. Lewis, ACS Symp. 42, 1212 (2004).
Ser., 15, 296 (1975). 18. A. C. Frias and V. C. Sgarbieri, Plant
4. D. J. A. Jenkins et al., Lancet, 1351 (1976). Foods Hum. Nutr., 53, 15 (1998).
5. D. J. A. Jenkins et al., Ann. Intern. Med., 19. M. Krotkiewski, Acta Med. Scand., 222,
86, 20 (1977). 43 (1987).
6. F. H. Kratzer et al., Poultry Sci., 46, 1489 20. P. A. Todd et al., Drugs, 39, 917
(1967). (1990).
7. R. S. Thakur and K. Pradham, Indian J. 21. F. Lagier et al., J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.,
Anim. Sci., 45, 880 (1975). 85, 785 (1990).
8. J. Tuomilehto et al., Acta Med. Scand., 22. A. Roesch et al., Contact Dermatitis, 52,
208, 45 (1980). 307 (2005).
9. A. Aro et al., Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 39, 911 23. T. F. X. Collins et al., Food Chem.
(1984). Toxicol., 25, 807 (1987).
10. A. Lakdhar et al., Br. Med. J., 296, 1471 24. K. M. Behall, Diabetes Care, 12, 357
(1988). (1989).
11. S. A. Rajala et al., Compr. Gerantol. A, 2, 25. B. N. Patel, Drug Cosmet Ind., 95, 337
83 (1988). (1964).
12. J. Tuomilehto et al., Atherosclerosis, 76, 26. G. Meer et al., Food Technol, 29, 22
71 (1989). (1975).
13. M. Uusitupa et al., Int. J. Clin. Pharmcol. 27. P. Kovacs and R. S. Igoe, Food Prod.
Ther. Toxicol., 28, 153 (1990). Dev., 10, 32 (1976).
14. P. R. Turner et al., Atherosclerosis, 81, 28. Anon., Aust. Adv. Drug React. Bull.
145 (1990). (Aug. 1989).
350 Guarana
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BRUNETON; DUKE 2; DUKE 3; FEMA; FURIA AND BELLANCA;
MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; STAHL; TERRELL; TYLER 1; UPHOF.
1. H. T. Erickson et al., Econ. Bot., 38, 273 7. H. Fukumasu et al., Cancer Lett., 233,
(1984). 158 (2006).
2. P. Avato et al., Lipids, 38, 773 (2003). 8. A. R. Campos et al., Phytother. Res., 17,
3. H. Benoni et al., Z. Lebensm. Unters. 1199 (2003).
Forsch., 203, 95 (1996). 9. D. O. Kennedy et al., Pharmacol.
4. A. Basile et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 102, Biochem. Behav., 79, 401 (2004).
32 (2005). 10. S. P. Bydlowski et al., Braz. J. Med. Biol.
5. R. Mattei et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 60, Res., 24, 421 (1991).
111 (1998). 11. C. A. da Fonseca et al., Mutat. Res., 321,
6. H. Fukumasu et al., Food Chem. Toxicol., 165 (1994).
44, 862 (2006).
352 Hawthorn
resistance; decrease in pulmonary arterial and as i.m. or i.v. injections) are used in Europe for
capillary pressures; reductions in blood pres- declining cardiac performance, corresponding
sure at rest and during exercise; and improved to stages I and II of the New York Heart
metabolic parameters (ESCOP 2).27 Association (NYHA) classification, senile
Compounds associated with cardiotonic heart conditions not requiring digitalis, and
activity include hyperoside, vitexin, vitexin- mild stable forms of angina pectoris, and mild
20 -rhamnoside, oligomeric procyanidins, and forms of dysrythmia. Flowering tops are used
()-epicatechin. The flavonoids and oligo- in sleep-inducing preparations (ESCOP 2).
meric procyanidins have a tonic effect on the
cardiac muscles, are negatively chronotropic Food. Fruits of various hawthorn species have
and dromotropic, and also show the bradycar- served as food in Europe, Asia, and at least a
diac effect commonly noted for Crataegus dozen species were used by American Indian
(LIST AND HÖRHAMMER).1 Flavonoids may also tribes. Candied fruit slices, jam, jelly, and wine
be the major constituents responsible for the available in major American Chinatowns.
hypolipidemic effect of hawthorn by regulat-
ing lipoprotein lipases expression.28,29 Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Fruits
Similar activity has been reported for (or flowers) used in tea, tablets, capsules,
C. pinnatifida; also, oral administration of the tinctures, and so on.1
fruit extract facilitates the clearance of serum
cholesterol but does not prevent absorption Traditional Medicine. In traditional Chi-
(WANG). nese, medicine hawthorn fruits (dried, stir-
Hawthorn extract or decoction is antibac- fried, or charred) are used to stimulate
terial against Shigella flexneri, S. sonneni, digestion, promote function of the stomach,
Proteus vulgaris, and Escherichia coli (WANG). and stimulate blood circulation in epigastric
Antioxidant and free radical scavenging distension, diarrhea, abdominal pain, amenor-
activities of the extracts of C. pinnatifida and rhea, abdominal colic, indigestion, enteritis,
C. monogyna have been reported.5,30–33 This acute bacillus dysentery, hypertension, hyper-
effect may play a role in the cardioprotective lipemia, and coronary heart disease. Charred
and hepatoprotective effects of hawthorn.32–35 fruits are used to promote digestion in stagna-
Other reported activities of hawthorn and tion of undigested meat, diarrhea, and with
its preparations include stomachic, hypogly- inadequate discharge from the bowels (TU).
cemic, and analgesic/anti-inflammatory.36–39 Up to 500 g of the fruits are eaten to treat
Many reviews on the pharmacology and ther- tapeworm infections; externally as a wash for
apeutic applications of hawthorn have been lacquer sores, itching, and frost bite.
published recently.40–43 In European tradition, the fruits, flowers,
leaves, or a combination thereof reportedly
used as astringent, antispasmodic, cardiotonic,
TOXICOLOGY diuretic, hypotensive, and antisclerotic
(STEINMETZ).
No toxic effects, contraindications, or drug American Indian groups reportedly used a
interactions are known (ESCOP 2). A single poultice of the leaves for boils, sores, ulcers;
case of immediate-type hypersensitivity to root decoction a gastrointestinal aid, diuretic,
C. monogyna has been reported.44 and to increase circulation (MOERMAN).
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. Crude, and extracts (e.g., powdered, solid, and
Various drug preparations (oral or parenteral liquid). Tablets and parenteral dosage forms
354 Hawthorn
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BARNES; BARRETT; BLUMENTHAL 1 & 2; BISSET; CSIR II; ESCOP 2;
HSU; JIANGSU; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MABBERLY; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MOERMAN; STEINMETZ; TU;
TUCKER AND LAWRENCE; TYLER 1; WANG; WEISS; WREN.
1. C. Hobbs and S. Foster, HerbalGram, 22, 17. W. Stepka and A. D. Winters, Lloydia, 36,
19 (1990). 146 (1973).
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334 (2005). Med., 43, 105, 209, 313 (1981).
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Prod. Res., 5, 131 (2003). 20. S. Popping et al., Arnziem.-Forsch., 45,
4. P. C. Zhang et al., J. Asian Nat. Prod. Res., 1157 (1995).
3, 77 (2001). 21. R. Jayalakshmi and D. S. Niranjali,
5. Z. Zhang et al., J. Nutr. Biochem., 12, 144 J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 56, 921 (2004).
(2001). 22. M. Veveris et al., Life Sci., 74, 1945
6. J. Fisel, Arzniem.-Forsch., 15, 1417 (2004).
(1965). 23. B. Gabhard and E. Schuler in N. Rietbrock
7. P. Ficcara et al., Farmaco Ed. Prat., 39, et al., eds., Wandlungen in der Therapie
148 (1984). der Herzinsuffizienz, Friedr. Vieweg &
Soyn, Wiesbaden, 1983, p. 43.
8. M. Simova and T. Pangarova, Pharmazie,
38, 791 (1983). 24. J. Guendjev, Arnziem.-Forsch., 27, 1576
(1977).
9. Monograph Crataegus, Bundesanzeiger,
no. 85 (December 22, 1983); revised (May 25. F. H. Degenring et al., Phytomedicine, 10,
5, 1988). 363 (2003).
10. T. Hockerts and G. M€ulke, Arzniem.- 26. J. G. Zapfe, Phytomedicine, 8, 262
Forsch., 5, 755 (1955). (2001).
11. U. Svedstrom et al., Phytochemistry, 60, 27. A. F. Walker et al., Phytother. Res., 16, 48
821 (2002). (2002).
12. B. Min and C. M. White, Conn. Med., 68, 28. C. Fan et al., J. Pharmacol. Sci., 100, 51
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13. C. Roddewig and H. Hensel, Arnziem.- 29. Z. Zhang et al., J. Nutr., 132, 5 (2002).
Forsch., 27, 1407 (1977). 30. C. Y. Chu et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 51,
14. F. Occhiuto et al., Plant. Med. Phytother., 7583 (2003).
20, 52 (1986). 31. C. Quettier-Deleu et al., Pharmazie, 58,
15. Z. C. Kocyildiz et al., Phytother. Res., 20, 577 (2003).
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16. S. H. Kim et al., Life Sci., 67, 121 1086 (1996).
(2000).
Henna 355
33. Y. R. Dai et al., Planta Med., 53, 309 39. J. Vibes et al., Prostaglandins Leukot.
(1987). Essent. Fatty Acids, 50, 173 (1994).
34. C. J. Thirupurasundari et al., J. Med. 40. W. T. Chang et al., Am. J. Chin. Med., 33, 1
Food, 8, 400 (2005). (2005).
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(2004). (2003).
36. M. Fujisawa et al., Am. J. Chin. Med., 33, 42. H. H. Fong and J. L. Bauman,
167 (2005). J. Cardiovasc. Nurs., 16, 1 (2002).
37. E. S. Kao et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 53, 43. J. M. Rigelsky and B. V. Sweet, Am.
430 (2005). J. Health Syst. Pharm., 59, 417 (2002).
38. H. Jouad et al., J. Herb. Pharmacother., 3, 44. H. K. Steinman et al., Contact Dermatitis,
19 (2003). 5, 321 (1984).
Contains 0.55–1.0% lawsone (2-hydroxy-1,4- Lawsone has various biological activities, in-
naphthoquinone);1,2 1,4-naphthoquinone;3 cluding antifungal (fungicidal and fungistatic)
2-methoxy-3-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone;4 activities toward Alternaria, Aspergillus,
flavonoids, coumarins, and phenolic acids;4 Absidia, Penicillium, and other species, being
356 Henna
REFERENCES
See the General References for GUPTA; BALSAM AND SAGARIN; DUKE 4; BRUNETON; JIANGSU; LUST; GRIEVE;
MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; MORTON 2; ROSE; TERRELL; UPHOF; WREN.
1. M. S. Karawaya et al., Lloydia, 32, 76 4. B. R. Mikhaeil et al., Z. Naturforsch. C,
(1969). 59, 468 (2004).
2. A. Latif, Indian J. Agric. Sci., 29, 147 (1959). 5. D. K. Bhardwaj et al., Phytochemistry, 16,
3. Y. Abd-el-Malek et al., Zentralbl. 1616 (1977).
Bakteriol., Parasitenk., Infektionskr. 6. D. K. Bhardwaj et al., Phytochemistry, 15,
Hyg., Abt. 2, 128, 61 (1973). 1789 (1976).
Honey 357
7. B. S. Siddiqui and M. N. Kardar, 24. A. N. Kok et al., J. Emerg. Med., 29, 343
Phytochemistry, 58, 1195 (2001). (2005).
8. G. J. Kapadia et al., Lloydia, 32, 523 25. R. P. Eager, Eur. J. Emerg. Med., 12, 189
(1969). (2005).
9. O. A. Habbal et al., Saudi. Med. J., 26, 69 26. J. Matulich and J. Sullivan, Contact
(2005). Dermatitis, 53, 33 (2005).
10. R. D. Tripathi et al., Experientia, 34, 51 27. H. Prosen et al., Arh. Hig. Rada Toksikol.,
(1978). 56, 1 (2005).
11. N. R. Farnsworth and G. A. Cordell, 28. I. A. Bukhari, Saudi. Med. J., 26, 142
Lloydia, 39, 420 (1976). (2005).
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Radiopharm., 13, 185 (1998). (2003).
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13, 353 (1993). Clin. Immunol., 12, 62 (2002).
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Antibiot., Univ. Fed. Pernambuco, Recife, 754 (2001).
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15. B. H. Ali et al., Pharmacology, 51, 356 Dermat., 13, 15 (2002).
(1995). 33. P. Raupp et al., Arch. Dis. Child, 85, 411
16. A. Gupta et al., Indian J. Pharmacol., 18, (2001).
113 (1986). 34. S. Lauchli and S. Lautenschlager, Swiss.
17. S. B. Vohara and P. C. Dandiya, Med. Wkly., 131, 199 (2001).
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18. M. Bhandarkar and A. Khan, Indian Immunol., 114, 298 (1997).
J. Exp. Biol., 41, 85 (2003). 36. H. H. Kandil et al., Ann. Trop. Paediatr.,
19. T. Das Gupta et al., Mol. Cell. Biochem., 16, 287 (1996).
245, 11 (2003). 37. I. M. Majoie and D. P. Bruynzeel, Am. J.
20. S. R. Munshi, Planta Med., 31, 73 (1977). Contact Dermat., 7, 38 (1996).
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537, 183 (2003). 39. K. C. Joshi et al., Z. Naturforsch. B, 32B,
22. D. Marzin and D. Kirkland, Mutat. Res., 890 (1977).
560, 41 (2004).
23. R. Wolf et al., Skinmed, 5, 39 (2006).
Source: Sugar secretions collected in honey- Sugar secretions collected and stored in hon-
comb by honeybees (Apis spp.). eycomb by Apis mellifera L., and other Apis
species (Family Apidae). A thick, syrupy,
Common/vernacular names: Purified honey, transparent liquid, honey is extracted from
mel depuratum, clarified honey, and strained bee hives, then strained through a sieve and
honey. allowed to sit in settling tanks for 24 h to allow
358 Honey
REFERENCES
See the General References for CSIR I; HSU; MARTINDALE; NIKITAKIS; TYLER 1.
1. D. Greenwood, Lancet, 341, 191 (1993). 3. R. A. Mangione, Am. Pharm., NS23, 5
2. O. F. Badawy et al., Rev. Sci. Tech., 23, (1983).
1011 (2004).
more hydrophobic ones being the more ac- lotions, especially in Europe, for their alleged
tive.17–20 The essential oils and extracts of skin-softening properties.
different cultivars and varieties were active
against Gram-positive bacteria and the fungus Food. Major use is in beer, with the bitter
Trichophyton mentagrophytes.21 Xanthohu- taste derived primarily from oxidation pro-
mol was also found to be active against ducts of humulone. Extracts and oil are also
Gram-positive bacteria, T. mentagrophytes, used as flavor components in nonalcoholic
HSV-1 and -2, HIV-1 and the malaria parasite beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked
Plasmodium falciparum.22–24 Alcoholic ex- goods, and gelatins and puddings, with the
tracts of hops in various dosage forms have highest average maximum use level of 0.072%
been used clinically in treating numerous reported for an extract (type not indicated) in
forms of leprosy, pulmonary tuberculosis, baked goods.
and acute bacterial dysentery, with varying
degrees of success (JIANGSU). Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Used
Hops has strong spasmolytic effects on in sleeping preparations. Cut strobiles,
isolated smooth muscle preparations;25 hyp- powdered, or dried extract powder for tea,
notic, sedative, and antidepressant effects,26 tincture, capsules, tablets, and so on. Also
supported by the finding that 2-methyl-3- used in “dream pillows,” to promote sleep;
butene-2-ol (present in hops up to 0.15%) has and bath preparations (FOSTER). Use in medic-
sedative effects in rats;27,28 estrogenic29–32 inal bath preparations in Germany has been
and recently reported antiestrogenic proper- disallowed.43
ties due to the observed in vitro inhibitory
effect of hops prenylflavonoids on estrogen Traditional Medicine. Used as a diuretic
synthase.33 Allergenic activity has been and anodyne and in treating nervous diarrhea,
observed in humans, causing contact dermati- insomnia, restlessness, and other nervous con-
tis due to the pollen (JIANGSU; LIST AND ditions as well as intestinal cramps and lack
HÖRHAMMER; MERCK). A stimulant effect on of appetite, among others, usually in the form
gastric secretion has been demonstrated for of a tea; also used in Chinese medicine for
hops in laboratory animals.34 pulmonary tuberculosis and cystitis (JIANGSU).
The prenylflavonoids of hops, including It has reportedly been used in cancers.44
xanthohumol, have displayed antiproliferative
antitumor activities against a number of hu-
man cancer cell lines, such as prostate, breast, COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
ovarian, and colon cancers.1,35–37 Induction of
apoptosis and inhibition of NF-kB may be Crude, extracts, and oil. Crude was formerly
involved in the antitumor activity.35 Cancer official in N.F., and oil is official in F.C.C.
chemopreventive activities of the prenylflavo- Strengths (see glossary) are either expressed
noids have also been reported.38,39 in flavor intensities or in weight-to-weight
Other recently reported activities of hops ratios.
include anti-inflammatory (inhibition of
COX-1 and COX-2 and iNOS expres- Regulatory Status. GRAS with both hops
sion);4,40–42 and hypoglycemic (improved and lupulin listed (§182.20). The strobiles
insulin sensitivity) activities.8 are the subject of a German therapeutic
monograph, with use approved for mood dis-
turbance (unrest, anxiety) and sleep distur-
USES bances. The proposed ESCOP monograph
indicated usage for nervous tension, excitabil-
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. ity, restlessness, sleep disturbances, and lack
Extracts are used in certain skin creams and of appetite (ESCOP 2).
Hops 361
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; BARNES; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1;
DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; ESCOP 2; FEMA; FOSTER; FOSTER AND DUKE; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; HUANG;
JIANGSU; LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; LUST; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TERRELL; UPHOF; WREN;
YOUNGKEN.
1. L. Delmulle et al., Phytomedicine (2006). 20. J. Boatwright, J. Inst. Brew., 82, 334
2. F. Zhao et al., J. Nat. Prod., 68, 43 (2005). (1976).
3. L. R. Chadwick et al., J. Nat. Prod., 67, 21. C. R. Langezaal et al., Pharm. Weekbl.
2024 (2004). Sci., 14, 353 (1992).
4. G. Bohr et al., J. Nat. Prod., 68, 1545 22. C. Gerhauser, Mol. Nutr. Food Res., 49,
(2005). 827 (2005).
5. A. Mijavec and P. Spevok, Bilt. Hmelj. 23. S. Frolich et al., J. Antimicrob.
Sirak., 7, 23 (1975). Chemother., 55, 883 (2005).
6. M. Anguelakova et al., Riv. Ital. Essenze, 24. Q. Wang et al., Antiviral Res., 64, 189
Profumi, Piante Offic., Aromi, Saponi, (2004).
Cosmet., Aerosol, 53, 275 (1971). 25. F. Caujolle et al., Agressologie, 10, 405
7. A. Strenkovskaya, Mezhdunar. Kongr. (1969).
Efirnym Maslam (Mater.), 4, 325 (1971). 26. P. Zanoli et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 102,
8. H. Yajima et al., J. Biol. Chem., 279, 102 (2005).
33456 (2004). 27. R. H€ansel et al., Planta Med., 45, 224
9. A. W. Taylor et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., (1982).
51, 4101 (2003). 28. R. Wohlfart et al., Planta Med, 48, 120
10. Y. Qu et al., Z. Naturforsch. C, 58, 640 (1983).
(2003). 29. C. R. Overk et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
11. R. G. Buttery and L. C. Ling, Brewers 53, 6246 (2005).
Dig., 8, 71 (1966). 30. H. Rong et al., Eur. J. Cell. Biol., 80, 580
12. R. G. Buttery and L. C. Ling, J. Agric. (2001).
Food Chem., 15, 531 (1967). 31. S. R. Milligan et al., J. Clin. Endocrinol.
13. R. D. Hartley and C. H. Fawcett, Metab., 85, 4912 (2000).
Phytochemistry, 8, 1793 (1969). 32. S. R. Milligan et al., J. Clin. Endocrinol.
14. R. G. Buttery et al., Chem. Ind. (London), Metab, 84, 2249 (1999).
28, 1225 (1966). 33. R. Monteiro et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
15. A. S. Morieson, Inst. Brewing (Austral. 54, 2938 (2006).
Sect). Proc. Conv., 6, 102 (1960). 34. St. Tamasdan, Farmacia (Bucharest), 29,
16. T. L. Peppard and F. R. Sharpe, 71 (1985).
Phytochemistry, 16, 2020 (1977). 35. E. C. Colgate et al., Cancer Lett. (2006).
17. M. Teuber and A. F. Schmalreck, Arch. 36. B. Vanhoecke et al., Int. J. Cancer, 117,
Mikrobiol., 94, 159 (1973). 889 (2005).
18. Y. Kuroiwa et al., Jpn. Kokai., 73 58, 114 37. C. L. Miranda et al., Food Chem. Toxicol.,
(1973). 37, 271 (1999).
19. A. F. Schmalreck et al., Can. J. Microbiol., 38. B. M. Dietz et al., Chem. Res. Toxicol.,
21, 205 (1975). 18, 1296 (2005).
362 Horehound
39. C. L. Miranda et al., Drug Metab Dispos., 42. F. Zhao et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 26, 61
28, 1297 (2000). (2003).
40. S. Hougee et al., Planta Med., 72, 228 43. Monograph Lupuli strobulus, Bundes-
(2006). anzeiger, no. 228 (December 5, 1984);
41. M. Lemay et al., Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr., revised (March 13, 1990).
13, S110 (2004). 44. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 97 (1970).
Horehound leaf extract has an antiproli- puddings. Highest average maximum use
ferative and apoptosis-inducing effect on level is 0.073% reported in candy.
human colorectal cancer cells.17
Brazilian horehound extract was reported Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Herb
to possess a hypoglycemic activity in diabetic used as a minor (bitter) flavoring component
rats.18 However, the same effect was not in some tea formulations; also in confection-
significantly displayed in humans.19 aries intended to have a soothing effect on
The volatile oil of horehound has also been coughs and colds (FOSTER).
reported to have vasodilatative and expecto-
rant properties.8 Traditional Medicine. It is used in treating
An aqueous extract of horehound has been sore throat, colds, coughs, and other respira-
reported to be antagonistic toward serotonin tory ailments; also used as a diuretic, bitter
in vitro and was anti-inflammatory in the rat tonic, and diaphoretic as well as in treating
paw edema assay (WREN).20 cancers.22
Weak antioxidant activity is linked to total
hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives (0.6%).21
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BAILEY 1; BARNES; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1;
DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; FOSTER; GOSSELIN; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; LEWIS AND ELVIN-
LEWIS; LUST; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TERRELL; TYLER 1; UPHOF; WREN; YOUNGKEN.
1. D. P. Popa et al., Khim. Prir. Soedin., 4, 6. M. O. Karryev et al., Izv. Akad. Nauk
345 (1968). Turkm. SSR, Ser. Biol., 3, 86 (1976).
2. H. J. Nicholas, J. Pharm. Sci., 53, 895 7. C. H. Brieskorn and K. Feilner,
(1964). Phytochemistry, 7, 485 (1968).
3. D. P. Popa and G. S. Pasechnik, Khim. 8. I. M. Baratarelli, Boll. Chim. Farm., 105,
Prir. Soedin., 11, 722 (1975). 787 (1966).
4. D. P. Popa and L. A. Salei, Rast. Resur., 9, 9. S. Sahpaz et al., Nat. Prod. Lett., 16, 195
384 (1973). (2002).
5. W. W. Paulder and S. Wagner, Chem. Ind. 10. S. Sahpaz et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 79,
(London), 42, 1693 (1963). 389 (2002).
364 Horse chestnut
11. S. El-Bardai et al., Clin. Exp. Hypertens., 18. A. P. Novaes et al., Therapie, 56, 427
26, 465 (2004). (2001).
12. S. El-Bardai et al., Clin. Exp. Hypertens., 19. A. Herrera-Arellano et al., Phyto-
23, 329 (2001). medicine, 11, 561 (2004).
13. S. El-Bardai et al., Br. J. Pharmacol., 140, 20. R. Cahen, C. R. Soc. Biol., 164, 1467
1211 (2003). (1970).
14. S. El-Bardai et al., Planta Med., 69, 75 21. J. L. Lamaison et al., Fitoterapia, 62, 166
(2003). (1991).
15. F. Martin-Nizard et al., J. Pharm. 22. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 32, 247 (1969).
Pharmacol., 56, 1607 (2004). 23. Monograph Marrubii herba, Bundes-
16. R. A. De Jesus et al., Phytomedicine, 7, anzeiger, no. 22 (February 1, 1990).
111 (2000).
17. K. Yamaguchi et al., Oncol. Rep., 15, 275
(2006).
aescin has been found to stimulate an increase has reportedly been used in shampoos, shower
in venous tone, with a decrease in the volume foams, foam baths, skin care products, body
of venous district of the saphenous vein and its and hand creams, lotions, and toothpastes.
collaterals, facilitating return blood flow to the Cosmetic use in Europe has been based on
heart.5,13 Efficacy of a 2%-aescin-containing its clearing and redness reducing properties,
gel in reducing tenderness of experimentally and its effectiveness in preventing cellulitis.29
induced hematoma has recently been con- Numerous clinical studies and published
firmed.14 Anti-inflammatory activity at the case reports confirm the efficacy of aescin-
initial exudation phase of inflammation has containing topical products, especially in the
been confirmed in various in vitro and in vivo treatment of sport injuries, including blunt
models, such as the perfused canine saphe- trauma of the lower limbs,30 joint sprains,
nous vein and the rat paw edema test.15–18 The tendonitis, hematomas, muscle strain, trau-
efficacy of aescin-rich horse chestnut extract matic edema,31 Achilles’ tendonitis; surgical
in the treatment of leg ulceration and chronic outpatient trauma, including fractures,
venous insufficiency in humans has repeatedly sprains, crush injuries, and contusions;32 post-
been demonstrated.19–22 Such efficacy was operative or postpartum edema in obstetrics
shown to be comparable to the use of leg and gynecology;12 and others.
compression stocking.23 The efficacy of horse Intravenous (never extravenous) adminis-
chestnut is probably due to a combination of tration of aescin in ampoules is used clinically
anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antielastase, by physicians in Germany and other European
and antihyaluronidase activities.18,24 countries for treatment of post-traumatic,
Escins Ia, Ib, IIa, IIb, and IIIa have demon- intraoperative or postoperative conditions
strated a hypoglycemic effect in rats;25 while of cerebral edema, and other surgical
escin IIb was shown to inhibit gastric empty- specialties.33
ing in mice.26
In vitro antitumor activity has been ob- Traditional Medicine. Fruits, bark, or seed
served from hippoaesculin and barringtogen- has reportedly been used externally for ulcers;
ol-C-2l-angelate.5,27 a folk cancer remedy. Seeds used for gastritis,
enteritis, and hemorrhoids (DUKE 2). Bark tea
TOXICOLOGY astringent, used in malaria, dysentery; exter-
nally for lupus and skin ulcers (FOSTER AND
Horse chestnut seeds are considered inedible DUKE).
and poisonous. The bitter flavor prevents con- Leaf preparations used in European tradi-
sumption of large amounts. The leaves, flow- tions for eczema, varicose veins, supportive
ers, young sprouts, and seeds are toxic. Symp- treatment of varicose ulcers, phlebitis, throm-
toms of poisoning include nervous muscle bophlebitis, hemorrhoids, menstrual spastic
twitching, weakness, dilated pupils, vomiting, pain, soft tissue swelling from bone fracture
diarrhea, depression, paralysis, and stupor and sprains, and other uses. Effectiveness of
(HARDIN AND ARENA). Incidents of anaphylactic leaf preparation claims is unsubstantiated.34
shock after i.v. injections of horse chestnut
have been reported, along with renal toxicity COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
or failure (FROHNE AND PFANDER).5 Horse chest-
nut pollens are also a common cause of aller- In Germany and other countries topical gels
gic condition in urban children.28 contain 1% aescin; ampoules containing
5.1 mg sodium aescinate (equivalent to 5 mg
USES aescin); sugar-coated tablets; and liquid oral
preparations are available. Topical products
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. are available in Canada.5 No horse chestnut
Horse chestnut extract or aescin (0.25–0.5%) or aescin-containing drug formulations are
366 Horse chestnut
available in the United States, though aescin is heaviness in the legs, varicose veins, post-
available in bulk. thrombotic syndrome; plus post-traumatic and
postoperative swelling of soft tissue, in aver-
Regulatory Status. In Germany, horse chest- age daily doses equivalent to 30–150 mg of
nut seeds are the subject of a positive thera- aescin in liquid or solid preparations for oral
peutic monograph, indicated for chronic ve- administration.35 Horse chestnut leaf prepara-
nous insufficiency, including edema, cramps tion claims are not substantiated, therefore,
in the calves, itching, pain, and sensations of therapeutic use is not recommended.34
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BARNES; BARRETT; BLUMENTHAL 1 & 2; BRUNETON; DER
MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DUKE 2; FOSTERAND DUKE; FROHNE AND PFANDER; GLASBY 2; GUPTA; HARDIN AND
ARENA; HUANG; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MABBERLY; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; STEINMETZ; TUTIN 2; WEISS;
WREN.
1. Y. Li et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett., 9, 16. M. I. Rothkopf and G. Vogel, Arzneim.-
2473 (1999). Forsch., 26, 225 (1976).
2. M. Yoshikawa et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull. 17. H. Matsuda et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 20,
(Tokyo), 44, 1454 (1996). 1092 (1997).
3. T. Konoshima and H. K. Lee, J. Nat. 18. M. Guillaume and F. Padioleau, Arzneim.-
Prod., 49, 650 (1986). Forsch., 44, 25 (1994).
4. P. Ambrogini et al., Boll. Soc. Ital. Biol. 19. A. Suter et al., Adv. Ther., 23, 179 (2006).
Sper., 71, 227 (1995). 20. M. J. Leach et al., Ostomy Wound
5. R. F. Chandler, Can. Pharm. J., 297 (1993). Manage., 52, 68 (2006).
6. M. H. Pittler and E. Ernst, Cochrane 21. M. J. Leach et al., J. Wound Care, 15, 159
Database Syst. Rev., CD003230 (2006). (2006).
7. N. Tiffany et al., J. Herb. Pharmacother., 22. S. Dickson et al., J. Herb. Pharmacother.,
2, 71 (2002). 4, 19 (2004).
8. M. J. Leach, Complement. Ther. Nurs. 23. C. Diehm et al., Lancet, 347, 292 (1996).
Midwifery, 10, 97 (2004). 24. R. M. Facino et al., Arch. Pharm.
9. U. Siebert et al., Int. Angiol., 21, 305 (Weinheim), 328, 720 (1995).
(2002). 25. M. Yoshikawa et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.
10. C. R. Sirtori, Pharmacol. Res., 44, 183 (Tokyo), 42, 1357 (1994).
(2001). 26. H. Matsuda et al., Life Sci., 67, 2921
11. M. D. Lorenz and M. L. Marek, Arzneim.- (2000).
Forsch., 10, 263 (1960). 27. J. De Meirsman and N. Rosselle, Ars.
12. D. Tenhaeff, Arztliche Praxis, 24, 559 Med., 9, 247 (1980).
(1972). 28. W. Popp et al., Allergy, 47, 380 (1992).
13. F. Annoni et al., Arzneim.-Forsch., 29, 29. G. Properio et al., Fitoterapia, 2, 113
672 (1979). (1980).
14. C. C. Calabrese and P. Preston, Planta 30. J. Rothhaar and W. Theil, Med. Welt., 33,
Med., 59, 394 (1993). 1006 (1982).
15. G. Vogel et al., Arzneim.-Forsch., 20, 699 31. C. Zuinen, Rev. Med. Liege, 31, 169
(1970). (1976).
Horsetail 367
HORSETAIL
Equisetum hybrids are extremely variable in
Source: Equisetum arvense L.; E. hymale L. morphological features. It has been sug-
(Family Equisetaceae). gested that hybrid parent species can be
verified with analysis of flavonoid patterns.5
Common/vernacular names: Common horse- Phenolic acids of E. arvense include di-
tail, field horsetail, running clubmoss, shen- E-caffeoyl-meso-tartaric acid; methy esters
jincao (E. arvense); rough horsetail, common of protocatechuic and caffeic acids aconitic,
scouring rush, and muzei (E. hymale). oxalic, malic, tannic, arabinoic, and threonic
acids;6,7 minerals, including silicic acid
and silicates (5–8%) water soluble up to
GENERAL DESCRIPTION 80%,8 potassium, aluminum, and manganese;
sterols, including campesterol isocuosterol,
Rhizomatous cryptogam, with hollow stems, and brassinosteroids;7 and others. Trace
jointed, with 6–16 grooves and ridges up to amounts of nicotine have been found in
5–50 cm tall with internodes; leaves minute, in E. arvense.9
whorls united into a sheath at the base. Spore- The stems of E. arvense contain volatile oil
bearing cones on separate stalks; E. hymale with 25 identified compounds. The major
stems are unbranched, with 10–30 grooves, constituents include hexahydrofarnesyl ace-
30–100 cm high; both species occur in moist tone, geranyl acetone, thymol, and trans-
soils; common in much of temperate Northern phytol.10
Hemisphere (Asia, Europe, North America).1
The part used is the dried stems.
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
ACTIVITIES
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Horsetail is considered mildly diuretic hemos-
E. arvense contains 0.3–1% flavonoids includ- typtic (astringent), and vulnerary.
ing quercetin-3-glucoside, luteolin-5-gluco- A study of four Mexican Equisetum species
side, protogenkwanin-400 -O-glucoside kaemp- revealed that chloroform extracts of E. hymale
ferol, apigenin, isoquercitrin, and others var. affine had the greatest diuretic activity,
(depending on chemo-type).2–4 Two distinct more effective than spironolactone, furose-
chemo-types are recognized, one from Europe, mide, and hydrochlorothiazide. An increase
characterized by quercetin-3-O-sophoroside, in excretion of sodium, chloride, and potassi-
protogenkwanin-40 -O-b-D-glucopyranoside, um, with a rise in urine pH was also
and genkwanin-40 -O-b-D-glucopyranoside. observed.7,11
North American and Asian materials are The essential oil is strongly antimicrobial
characterized by the presence of flavone-5- against Gram-positive and Gram-negative
glucosides and their 600 -malonyl esters, espe- bacteria and fungi.10
cially luteolin. Both chemo-types contain The hydroalcoholic extract showed signifi-
quercetin-3-O-b-D-glucopyranoside and its cant sedative and anticonvulsant effects when
malonyl ester as the major flavonoids.2,3 tested in mice at 200 and 400 mg/kg.12
368 Horsetail
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRADLY; BRUNETON; BISSET; DER MARDEROSIAN
AND BEUTLER; DUKE 2; FOSTER and DUKE; FROHNE AND PFANDER; GLASBY 2; GRIEVE; HARDIN AND ARENA;
JIANGSU; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MABBERLY; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; STEINMETZ; TUTIN 1; WEISS; WREN.
1. R. L. Hauke, New Bot., 1, 89 (1974). 11. R. M. Perez-Guitierrez, J. Enthno-
2. M. Veit et al., Planta Med., 55, 214 (1989). pharmacol., 14, 269 (1985).
3. M. Veit et al., Phytochemistry, 29, 2555 12. S. J. Dos Jr. et al., Fitoterapia, 76, 508
(1990). (2005).
4. N. A. M. Saleh et al., Phytochemistry 11, 13. S. J. Guilherme dos Jr. et al., Pharmacol.
1095 (1972). Biochem. Behav., 81, 593 (2005).
5. M. Veit et al., paper presented at the Bonn 14. H. Oh et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 95, 421
BACANS Symposium, July 17–22, 1990. (2004).
6. I. L. F. Bakke et al., Acta Pharm. Seuc., 15, 15. F. H. Do Monte et al., Pharmacol. Res.,
141 (1978). 49, 239 (2004).
7. N. W. Hamon and D. V. C. Awang, Can. 16. H. Maeda et al., J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol.
Pharm. J., 399 (1992). (Tokyo), 43, 553 (1997).
8. R. Piekos et al., Plant Med., 27, 145 17. J. A. Henderson et al., J. Am. Vet. Med.
(1975). Assoc., 375 (1952).
9. J. D. Phillipson and C. Mellville, 18. M. Viet et al., Dtsch. Apoth. Ztg., 129,
J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 12, 506 (1960). 1591 (1989).
10. N. Radulovic et al., Phytother. Res., 20, 19. Monograph Equisete herba, Bundes-
85 (2006). anzeiger, no. 173, (September 18, 1986).
Source: Hydrangea arborescens L. (Family An erect shrub with large ovate leaves (up to
Saxifragaceae or Hydrangeaceae). 20 cm long); up to about 3 m high; native to
the eastern United States, growing from
Common/vernacular names: Smooth hydran- New York south to Florida and west to Iowa
gea, mountain hydrangea, wild hydrangea, and Oklahoma. Part used is the dried root,
and seven barks. collected in the fall.
370 Hydrangea
REFERENCES
See the General References for APhA; BAILEY 1; BARNES; FOSTER AND DUKE; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; JIANGSU;
KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; LUST; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; UPHOF.
1. J. Gorham, Phytochemistry, 16, 249 (1977). 7. M. Yoshikawa et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.,
2. A. T. Khalil et al., Arch. Pharm. Res., 26, 40, 3121 (1992).
15 (2003). 8. E. C. Bate-Smith, Phytochemistry, 17,
3. M. Tomoda and N. Satoh, Chem. Pharm. 267 (1978).
Bull., 24, 230 (1976). 9. H. Kakegawa et al., Planta Med., 54, 385
4. M. Tomoda and N. Satoh, Chem. Pharm. (1988).
Bull., 25, 2910 (1977). 10. A. Ishih et al., Phytother. Res., 17, 633
5. F. R. Chang et al., J. Nat. Prod., 66, 1245 (2003).
(2003). 11. G. E. Inglett,personal communication.
6. M. Yoshikawa et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.,
40, 3352 (1992).
limonene, and the sesquiterpenes, caryophyl- avoidance and may thus have potential in the
lene, and humulene; xanthones including treatment of old-age dementia associated with
kielcorin, magniferin, 1,3,6,7-tetrahydroxy- depression.31,32 Hypericum extracts have also
xanthone; I3-II8-biapigenin; tannins been tested in alcohol-preferring rats whereby
(3.8–10%, up to 16% in flowers); nicotinic they significantly reduced alcohol intake and
acid; vitamins C and A; b-sitosterol; choline; could thus have potential in the treatment of
pectin; phlobaphene; rhodan; and others.8–11 alcoholism.33–35
Recently identified compounds include a Potent antiretroviral activity has been dem-
novel diterpene, 5-methyl-5-(4,8,12-tri- onstrated for hypericin and pseudohypericin
methyl-tridecyl)-dihydro-furan-2-one, a new in vivo and in vitro. It is postulated that the
chromone, 5-hydroxy-7-methoxy-3-methyl- compounds interfere with viral infections an-
chromen-4-one, and phytol.12 An anti-HIV-1 d/or spread by direct inactivation of the virus
protein has also been isolated from a callus or prevent virus shedding, budding, or assem-
culture of H. perforatum.13 bly at the cell membrane.36 The National
Institutes of Health was involved in human
clinical trials with oral doses of hypericin in
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL HIV positive subjects. The compound was
ACTIVITIES also being developed as an antiretroviral agent
for the transfusion blood supply. Hypericin
The antidepressant activity of hypericum has achieves complete inactivation of more than
been extensively investigated over the last two five logs (more than 100,000 HIV particles/
decades in animal models (forced-swimming mL of blood) of infectious HIV The hypericin
and tail-suspension tests) as well as in humans. dose used for inactivation has been shown to
Clinical trials have demonstrated an improve- be safe to normal blood cells and does not
ment in symptoms of anxiety, dysphoric interfere with standard blood tests.37 Tran-
mood, hypersomnia, anorexia, depression, scription of HIV-1 in different human cells
insomnia, psychomotor retardation, and other associated with brain HIV-1 infection was
subjective indicators.14,15 Potential for the suppressed by a novel protein, p27(SJ) isolat-
treatment of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) ed from callus cultures of H. perforatum.13
also exists.16 Earlier studies also showed that Hyperforin is antibacterial against staphy-
hypericum enhanced mice exploratory activi- lococci (normal and MRSA) and streptococci.
ty in a foreign environment, extended narcotic A butanol fraction was also active against
sleeping time (dose dependent), is a reserpine Helicobacter pylori.6,38
antagonist, and decreased aggression in so- Hepatoprotective activity of hypericin
cially isolated male mice.15,17 Hypericin has has been demonstrated in mice and rats.39 A
been found to inhibit in vitro almost irrevers- flavonoid-rich extract had a hypocholestero-
ibly both type A and B monoamine oxidase lemic effect in rats fed a cholesterol-rich diet
(MAO) in rat brain mitochondria. Type A for 16 weeks.40
MAO (serotonin) inhibition was more pro- Antioxidant neuroprotective effect on brain
nounced,18 but with long-term use (8 weeks cells, spinal cord injury, b-amyloid neurode-
of daily treatment).19 Other mechanisms of gradation and against lipid peroxidation has
action, such as serotonin transport and up- been reported for extracts and flavonoids of
take,20–23 interaction with brain adenosine, St. John’s wort. Different mechanisms seem
GABA and sigma receptors,22,24–27 and the to be involved, such as free radical scaveng-
involvement of IL-6 and brain cortecoster- ing, NOS inhibition and iron chelation, among
oids,25,28 and others,29,30 have been reported. others.41–49
There are indications that hypericum has Hypericum has anti-inflammatory activity
a nootropic effect when tested in animal mod- in vitro and in different animal models of
els of cognitive dysfunction and passive pancreatitis, pleuritis, and edema possibly
Hypericum 373
due to inhibition of iNOS and COX-2 for mild antidepressant action (MAO inhibi-
expression.50–54 Analgesic and antinocicep- tor) or nervous disturbances; externally, oil is
tive effects were also demonstrated in some used for the treatment of wounds, abrasions,
studies.52,54,55 myalgias, and first-degree burns; antiphlogis-
Other recently reported activities of tic activity for topical preparations.70
St. John’s wort include in vitro and in vivo Synthetic hypericin is currently under
antispasmodic, smooth muscle relaxing, and development as an antiretroviral agent for the
bronchodilating effects (rabbit jejunum, guin- transfusion blood supply.
ea pig tracheal preparations, rat bladder, and
whole mice);56,57 anticonvulsant effects in ep- Food. Hypericin-free extract used in alco-
ileptic mice;58 as well as inhibition of prolactin holic beverages.
secretion in mice (100 mg/kg, 15 days).59
Different extracts (methanolic, petroleum Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Hyper-
ether, chloroform, etc.) possess photosensitiz- icum is used in herbal teas, tinctures, capsules,
ing and/or proapoptotic antitumor activity tablets, and other product forms; fresh flowers
against a number of human cancer cells of soaked in mineral or olive oil used topically
the bladder, prostate, blood, and others.60–66 (FOSTER).
Constituents other than hyperforin and flavo-
noids are believed to be responsible for the Traditional Medicine. Fresh flowers in tea,
antitumor activity. tincture, or olive oil, reportedly a popular
Extensive reviews about the chemistry, domestic medicine for treatment of external
general pharmacology, and antidepressant ulcers, wounds (especially with severed nerve
activity of St. John’s wort have been pub- tissue), sores, cuts, bruises, and so on. Tea, a
lished.67–69 folk remedy for bladder ailments, depression,
dysentery, diarrhea, and worms; folk cancer
remedy (FOSTER AND DUKE).
TOXICOLOGY
Modern applications of hypericum (except
antiviral use) date back 2000 years.71
Hypericin is absorbed in the intestine and
concentrates near the skin. Photosensitization
has been described for cattle, sheep, and other
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
livestock. Moderate doses, up to 4 g crude,
30 mL of 1 : 5 tincture (40% EtOH), or 240 mg
Crude dried or fresh herb, fresh or dried
of 1 : 5 powdered extract (calculated at 0.125%
flowers in olive oil, extracts, tinctures, syn-
hypericin), have been reported not to cause
thetic hypericin, and so on. Hypericum oil,
photodermatitis in humans; however, light-
prepared by maceration of fresh flowers in
skinned persons should be cautioned to avoid
sunlight for several weeks (usually in olive oil)
direct sunlight after ingestion.15
acquires a red hue usually ascribed to hyper-
icin or lipophilic substituted compounds with
USES a hypericin-like color and fluorescence.72
Hyperforin is found in freshly macerated oil
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. but is unstable, breaking down within 30–90
Hypericum extract is reportedly used in vari- days; stability can be increased to 6 months in
ous types of skin care products, including face, storage by excluding air and using alternate
body, and hand creams and lotions, night preparation methods.72
creams and lotions, skin fresheners, and skin
cleansers. Regulatory Status. Hypericin-free extract
In European phytomedicine, a dose of has been affirmed GRAS for use in alcoholic
2–4 g of herb (0.2–1.0 mg hypericin) is used beverages (§121.1163). Herb is subject of
374 Hypericum
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BARNES; BARRETT; BLUMENTHAL 1 & 2; DER MARDEROSIAN AND
BEUTLER; DUKE 2; FOSTER; FOSTER AND DUKE; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NIKITAKIS;
STEINMETZ; WEISS; WREN.
1. C. W. Crompton et al., Can. J. Plant Sci., 19. V. Butterweck et al., Brain Res., 930, 21
68, (1988). (2002).
2. G. Jurgenliemk and A. Nahrstedt, Planta 20. K. Hirano et al., J. Pharm. Pharmacol.,
Med., 68, 88 (2002). 56, 1589 (2004).
3. O. Ploss et al., Pharmazie, 56, 509 (2001). 21. S. Schulte-Lobbert et al., J. Pharm.
4. M. D. Shan et al., J. Nat. Prod., 64, 127 Pharmacol., 56, 813 (2004).
(2001). 22. V. Butterweck, CNS Drugs, 17, 539
5. L. Verotta et al., J. Nat. Prod., 62, 770 (2003).
(1999). 23. G. Calapai et al., Pharmacopsychiatry,
6. P. Maisenbacher and K.-A. Kovar, Planta 34, 45 (2001).
Med., 58, 291 (1992). 24. T. Mennini and M. Gobbi, Life Sci., 75,
7. A. Wirz et al., Phytochemistry, 55, 941 1021 (2004).
(2000). 25. M. Franklin et al., Eur. Neuropsycho-
8. I. Schwob et al., C. R. Biol., 325, 781 pharmacol., 14, 7 (2004).
(2002). 26. M. Gobbi et al., Pharmacopsychiatry, 34
9. G. Hahn, J. Naturopathic Med., 3(1), 94 (Suppl. 1), S45 (2001).
(1992). 27. C. E. Muller, Farmaco, 56, 77 (2001).
10. D. V. C. Awang, Can. Pharm. J., 124, 33 28. G. Calapai et al., Pharmacopsychiatry, 34
(1991). (Suppl 1), P S8 (2001).
11. E. V. Rao and Y. R. Prasad, Fitoterapia, 29. U. Simmen et al., J. Recept. Signal.
63(5), 473 (1992). Transduct. Res., 19, 59 (1999).
12. M. D. Shan et al., Nat. Prod. Res., 18, 15 30. J. M. Cott, Pharmacopsychiatry, 30
(2004). (Suppl. 2), 108 (1997).
13. N. Darbinian-Sarkissian et al., Gene 31. A. E. Khalifa, J. Ethnopharmacol., 76, 49
Ther., 13, 288 (2006). (2001).
14. H. Muldner and M. Zoller, Arzneim.- 32. V. Kumar et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 72,
Forsch., 34, 918 (1984). 119 (2000).
15. C. Hobbs, HerbalGram, 18/19, 24 33. I. Panocka et al., Pharmacol. Biochem.
(1989). Behav., 66, 105 (2000).
16. C. Stevinson and E. Ernst, BJOG, 107, 34. V. J. De et al., Eur. Neuropsycho-
870 (2000). pharmacol., 9, 461 (1999).
17. S. N. Okpanyi, Arzzneim.-Forsch., 43, 10 35. M. Perfumi et al., Alcohol Alcohol, 34,
(1987). 690 (1999).
18. O. Suzuki et al., Planta Med., 50, 272 36. D. Meruelo et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.,
(1984). 85, 5320 (1988).
Hyssop 375
37. America On-Line Business News Wire, 56. A. H. Gilani et al., Fundam. Clin.
VIMRx Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Stamford, Pharmacol., 19, 695 (2005).
CT (November 23, 1993). 57. R. Capasso et al., Urology, 64, 168 (2004).
38. J. Reichling et al., Pharmacopsychiatry, 58. H. Hosseinzadeh et al., J. Ethnophar-
34(Suppl. 1), S116 (2001). macol., 98, 207 (2005).
39. Y. Özturk et al., Phytother. Res., 6, 44 59. C. G. Di et al., Phytomedicine, 12, 644
(1992). (2005).
40. Y. Zou et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 53, 60. L. A. Schmitt et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
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41. Y. Zou et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 52, 61. N. E. Stavropoulos et al., J. Photochem.
5032 (2004). Photobiol. B (2006).
42. L. Luo et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 93, 221 62. C. Quiney et al., Leukemia, 20, 491
(2004). (2006).
43. J. Benedi et al., Life Sci., 75, 1263 (2004). 63. D. Skalkos et al., Planta Med., 71, 1030
44. D. A. El-Sherbiny et al., Pharmacol. (2005).
Biochem. Behav., 76, 525 (2003). 64. D. Martarelli et al., Cancer Lett., 210, 27
45. M. H. Jang et al., Neurosci. Lett., 329, 177 (2004).
(2002). 65. G. Roscetti et al., Phytother. Res., 18, 66
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Exp. Biol., 37, 567 (1999). 66. K. Hostanska et al., J. Pharm. Phar-
47. T. Genovese et al., Shock, 25, 608 (2006). macol., 55, 973 (2003).
48. Y. H. Lu et al., Am. J. Chin. Med., 32, 397 67. K. Linde et al., Cochrane. Database. Syst.
(2004). Rev., CD000448 (2005).
49. B. A. Silva et al., Neurotox. Res., 6, 119 68. A. R. Bilia et al., Life Sci., 70, 3077
(2004). (2002).
50. T. Genovese et al., Shock, 25, 161 (2006). 69. J. Barnes et al., J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 53,
51. M. Menegazzi et al., Free Radic. Biol. 583 (2001).
Med., 40, 740 (2006). 70. Monograph Hyperici herba, Bundes-
52. O. M. bdel-Salam, Scientific World anzeiger, no. 228 (December 5, 1984);
Journal, 5, 586 (2005). revised (March 2, 1989).
53. G. M. Raso et al., J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 71. C. Hobbs, Pharm. Hist., 32(4), 166
54, 1379 (2002). (1990).
54. V. Kumar et al., Indian J. Exp. Biol., 39, 72. P. Maisenbacher and K.-A. Kovar, Planta
339 (2001). Med., 58, 351 (1992).
55. I. A. Bukhari et al., Pak. J. Pharm. Sci.,
17, 13 (2004).
Source: Hyssopus officinalis L. (Family La- A perennial aromatic subshrub with slender
biatae or Lamiaceae). herbaceous stems arising from a woody base;
376 Hyssop
up to about 0.5 m high; leaves linear; flowers Hyssop extracts and the syringoylglycerol
generally blue, rarely pink or white, native to glucosides were recently found to inhibit
southern Europe and temperate Asia; natural- a-glucosidase that might be useful in the
ized in the United States. Parts used are the management of hyperglycemia.2,11 The essen-
leaves and flowering tops from which hyssop tial oil was also reported to have a muscle
oil is obtained by steam distillation. Major relaxing effect on the isolated guinea pig
producing countries include France, Hungary, ileum.12
and Holland.
TOXICOLOGY
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
One report indicated that hyssop oil was non-
Contains 0.3–2% volatile oil;1 hyssopin irritating and nonsensitizing to human skin as
(a glucoside); syringoylglycerol glucosides;2 well as nonphototoxic to mice and swine
5–8% tannin; flavonoid glycosides (5–6% skin.13
hesperidin and 3–6% diosmin); sterols and
triterpenes: ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, stig-
masterol, b-sitosterol;3 marrubiin (a bitter USES
substance, see horehound); a polysaccharide
(MAR-10);4 resin, gum, and others (KARRER; Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
LIST AND HÖRHAMMER). Hyssop oil is used as a fragrance component
The essential oil contains mainly pinocam- in soaps, creams, lotions, and perfumes, with a
phone, isopinocamphone, a- and b-pinenes, maximum use level of 0.4% in perfumes.13
camphene, and a-terpinene, which together
constitute about 70% of the oil.5 Other con- Food. Hyssop, its extracts, and its oil are
stituents present include pinocampheol, used in the formulation of bitters and liqueurs
cineole, linalool, terpineol, terpinyl acetate, as well as in pickles and meat sauces. The
bornyl acetate, cis-pinic acid, cis-pinonic extract is also used as a flavor component in
acid, myrtenic acid, myrtenol methyl ether, candy. The oil is also used in nonalcoholic
d-2-hydroxy-isopinocamphone, methyl myr- beverages, candy, baked goods, and gelatins
tenate, cadinene, and other unidentified com- and puddings. Highest average maximum use
pounds totaling more than 50 (KARRER; LIST level reported for hyssop herb used in alco-
1,5–7
AND HÖRHAMMER). holic beverages is 0.06%, that reported for
Crude also contains 0.5% rosmarinic acid hyssop extract (type not indicated) is 0.03%
and total hydroxycinnamic derivatives at both in alcoholic beverages and in candy, and
2.2%.8 that reported for the oil is about 0.004%
(36.9 ppm) in alcoholic beverages.
Hyssop extracts have been reported to exhibit Traditional Medicine. Reportedly used in
antiviral activities (against herpes simplex treating sore throat, coughs, colds, breast and
virus), which may be due to the presence of lung problems, digestive disorders, intestinal
tannins (see balm).9 The extract and its MAR- ailments, menstrual complaints, and others,
10 polysaccharide were found to inhibit the usually in the form of a tea or gargle; exter-
replication of HIV-1 in vitro.4,10 nally as a diaphoretic (in baths) and in treating
Hyssop has mild antioxidant activity, due skin irritations, burns, bruises, and frostbite.14
probably to its rosmarinic acid.8 It has also been used in tumors.15
Hyssop 377
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1;
DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; FOSTER; GUENTHER; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; LUST; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; ROSE;
TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. K. K. Khodzhimatov and N. Ramazanova, 8. J. L. Lamaison et al., Fitoterapia, 62, 166
Rastit. Resur., 11, 238 (1975). (1991).
2. H. Matsuura et al., Phytochemistry, 65, 91 9. E. C. Herrmann Jr. and L. S. Kucera, Proc.
(2004). Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 124, (1967).
3. Z. Skrzypek and H. Wysokinska, 10. W. Kreis et al., Antiviral Res., 14, 323
Z. Naturforsch. C, 58, 308 (2003). (1990).
4. S. Gollapudi et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. 11. H. Miyazaki et al., J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol.
Commun., 210, 145 (1995). (Tokyo), 49, 346 (2003).
5. D. Joulain, Riv. Ital. Essenze Profumi, 12. M. Lu et al., Planta Med., 68, 213
Piante Off., Aromi, Saponi, Cosmet., (2002).
Aerosol, 58, 479 (1976). 13. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
6. D. Joulain and M. Ragault, Riv. Ital. 16, 783 (1978).
Essenze, Profumi, Piante Off., Aromi, 14. Monograph Hyssopi herba/Hyssopi
Saponi, Cosmet., Aerosol, 58, 129 (1976). aetheroleum, Bundesanzeiger (August 29,
7. L. N. Misra et al., Planta Med., 54, 165 1992).
(1988). 15. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 32, 247 (1969).
378 Immortelle
in before- and after-sun products making use clude chronic bronchitis, asthma, whooping
of the UV absorption properties of the flavo- cough, psoriasis, burns, rheumatism, head-
noids present.11 ache, migraine, allergies, and liver ailments,
among others; usually in the form of a decoc-
Food. Extracts are used as flavor compo- tion or infusion.5
nents (fruit types) in major food products,
including alcoholic and nonalcoholic bev- Others. The absolute is used in flavoring
erages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked certain tobaccos.
goods, and gelatins and puddings. Use levels
are generally below 0.003% reported for im-
mortelle extract (type not given). COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; FEMA; GUENTHER; KARRER; LIST
AND HO€ RHAMMER; POLUNIN AND SMYTHIES.
1. L. Optiz and R. H€ansel, Arch. Pharm. 8. L. Trabaud, Fr. Ses Parfums, 12, 215
(Weinhem), 304, 228 (1971). (1969).
2. L. Optiz and R. H€ansel, Tetrahedron 9. L. Peyron and M. Roubaud, Soap,
Lett., 38, 3369 (1970). Perfum. Cosmet., 43, 726 (1970).
3. T. Mezzitti et al., Planta Med., 18, 326 10. L. Peyron et al., Perfum. Flav., 3, 25
(1970). (1978).
4. C. Bicchi et al., Planta Med., 28, 389 11. G. Prosperio, Cosmet. Toilet., 91, 34
(1975). (1976).
5. P. Manitto et al., Phytochemistry, 12. O. P. Prokopenko et al., Farm. Zh. (Kiev),
11, 2112 (1972). 27, 3 (1972).
6. N. N. Chirkina and E. A. Osipova, Biol. 13. F. Tomas-Lorente et al., Fitoterapia,
Nauki, 17, 86 (1974). 62, 521 (1991).
7. S. Tira et al., Tetrahedron Lett., 2, 14. E. Czinner et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
143 (1967). 73, 437 (2000).
America (Nicaragua, Panama, etc.) and It also has amebicidal activities that are due
Colombia. Cephaelis ipecacuanha is also cul- to its contained alkaloids. Emetine is much
tivated in southern Asia (e.g., India, Burma, more active than cephaeline and less toxic,
and Malaysia). Parts used are the dried roots causing less nausea and vomiting than
and rhizome collected during the dry season; cephaeline.
roots are generally annulated. Cartagena ipe- An ipecac extract has been reported to
cac roots are thicker than those of Rio ipecac. exhibit anti-inflammatory effects in Wistar
rats.9
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
TOXICOLOGY
Contains 1.8–4% (usually 2–3%) alkaloids
that are mainly emetine and cephaeline with Toxic effects of ipecac and its alkaloids in-
minor amounts of O-methylpsychotrine, psy- clude gastrointestinal irritation (nausea, vo-
chotrine, emetamine, protoemetine, and miting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, etc.), dizzi-
others; most of the alkaloids are present in ness, hypotension, dyspnea, and tachycardia,
the cortex below the cork. Emetine constitutes among others (GOODMAN AND GILMAN; USD
60–75% of the total alkaloids present in C. 26th).6 Side effects can result from abuse by
ipecacuanha and only 30–50% of the total individuals with eating disorders. Cardiac side
alkaloids in C. acuminata, the remaining be- effects can be severe, for example, myocardi-
ing mostly cephaeline. Cephaelis acuminata tis, cardiomyopathies, and arrhythmias, or
generally contains higher amounts of total even lethal.10,11
alkaloids than C. ipecacuanha. More cephae- Severe allergenic reactions (e.g., asthmatic
line analogs (e.g., neocephaeline free and attacks) have been reported in people who
glycoside, and cephaeline glycoside) were have inhaled ipecac powder (dust); the aller-
also isolated from the dried roots of C. gen has been identified as a mixture of
acuminata.1 glycoproteins.3
Other constituents include starch (30–40%),
tannins (e.g., ipecacuanhin), choline, alkaloi-
dal tetrhaydroisoquinoline monoterpene gly- USES
cosides2 (e.g., alangiside, isoalangiside, and
ipecoside), resins, an allergen composed of a Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
mixture of glycoproteins with average molec- Ipecac Syrup U.S.P. is widely used as a do-
ular weight of about 35,000–40,000,3,4 and mestic emetic for children, but it should not be
others (LIST AND HO€ RHAMMER; MORTON 3; STAHL). used if the swallowed poisons are alkalis,
strong acids, strychnine, petroleum distillates,
and cleaning fluids.
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL Crude and extracts are used as components
ACTIVITIES in cold and cough medicines as well as
in diaphoretic, analgesic, and antipyretic
Ipecac has emetic properties, acting both cen- preparations.
trally (possibly through the involvement of a 5- Emetine hydrochloride is used to treat
HT4 receptor)5 and locally to cause vomiting.6 amebic infections; however, the clinical use
Emetic action starts to fade after 30 min from of etnetine and related compounds is limited
administration.7 In small doses it has diapho- because of severe side effects.12
retic,expectorant,andstimulantproperties(USD
26th). Ipecac also reduces absorption of in- Traditional Medicine. Used in treating ame-
gested substances in a time-dependent fashion. bic dysentery and, in small doses, to stimulate
This effect becomes insignificant after ca. the appetite. Also has been reported used in
90 min from administration of ipecac syrup.8 cancers (LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS).13
Ipecac 381
REFERENCES
See the General References for CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; GOODMAN AND GILMAN; GOSSELIN;
€ RHAMMER; MARTINDALE; MORTON 3; NANJING; UPHOF; YOUNGKEN.
LIST AND HO
1. A. Itoh et al., Phytochemistry, 52, 1169 8. A. S. Manoguerr and D. J. Cobaugh, Clin.
(1999). Toxicol. (Phila), 43, 1 (2005).
2. A. Itoh et al., Phytochemistry, 59, 91 9. M. Kroutil and J. Kroutilova, Acta Univ.
(2002). Palacki. Olomu. Fac. Med., 48, 55 (1968).
3. L. Berrens and E. Young, Int. Arch. 10. T. J. Silber, J. Adolesc. Health, 37, 256
Allergy Appl. Immunol., 21, (1962). (2005).
4. L. Berrens and E. Young, Int. Arch. 11. P. C. Ho et al., Clin. Cardiol., 21, 780
Allergy Appl. Immunol., 22, (1963). (1998).
5. M. Hasegawa et al., Jpn. J. Pharmacol., 12. M. H. Ansari and S. Ahmad, Fitoterapia,
89, 113 (2002). 62, (1991).
6. B. R. Mano and E. J. Manno, Clin. 13. L. J. Hartwell, Lloydia, 34, (1971).
Toxicol., 10, (1977). 14. P. Rozsa, Acta Pharm. Hung., 31, (1961).
7. A. Saincher et al., J. Toxicol. Clin. 15. I. P. Ionescu-Stoain et al., Farmacia
Toxicol., 35, 609 (1997). (Bucharest), 15, 333 (1967).
382 Jasmine
undesirable rough notes, jasmine has been and often for different purposes. Thus, flowers
widely used in fragrance formulations. of J. officinale var. grandiflorum (L.) Kobuski
Jasmine absolute is reported to be used in are used mainly to treat hepatitis, pain due to
creams, lotions, and perfumes, with maximum liver cirrhosis, and abdominal pain due to
use level of 0.3% in perfumes.5 dysentery, while flowers of J. sambac are
used to treat conjunctivitis, skin ulcers
Food. Jasmine absolute and oil are widely and tumors, as well as abdominal pain due
used as flavor ingredients in most major food to dysentery. The root of J. sambac is used to
products, including alcoholic (e.g., liqueurs) treat headaches, insomnia, and pain due to
and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy dislocated joints and broken bones; it is re-
desserts, candy, baked goods, and gelatins ported to have anesthetic properties. The root
and puddings. The concrete is also used in all and stem of J. lanceolarium Roxb. are also
the above foods, but less extensively. Average used to alleviate pain around the waist and
maximum use levels are generally much lower near the joints due to rheumatism and to
than 0.001% (usually 1–3 ppm). treat headaches and the other conditions as
Dried jasmine flowers (J. sambac) are used J. sambac.
as an ingredient of Chinese jasmine tea. Several Jasminum species have been used
Traditional Medicine. The flowers and in cancers.16
volatile oil of several Jasminum species are
used in Western culture mainly as a calmative COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
as well as an aphrodisiac.
In China, numerous Jasminum species Concrete, absolute, and oil.
are also used in medicine. Different parts of
the plants (flowers, leaves, roots, etc.) are used Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.20).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BAUER; FEMA; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; KIRTIKAR; LUST;
MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MORTON 2; NANJING; ROSE; TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. R. Kaiser and D. Lamparsky, Tetrahedron 9. E. P. Demole in E. T. Theimer, ed.,
Lett. (38), 3413 (1974). Fragrance Chemistry—The Science of
2. E. H. Polak, Cosmet. Perfum., 88(6), 46 the Sense of Smell, Academic Press,
(1973). New York, 1982, p. 349.
3. L. Peyron and J. Acchiardi, Riv. Ital. 10. J. Garnero et al., Riv. Ital., 62, 8 (1980).
Essenze, Profumi, Piante Offic., Aromi, 11. P. Shrivastav et al., Aust. N. Z. J. Obstet.
Saponi, Cosmet., Aerosol, 58, 2 (1976). Gynaecol., 28, 68 (1988).
4. M. S. Karawya et al., Bull. Fac. Pharm., 12. A. H. Atta and A. Alkofahi, J.
Cairo Univ., 13, 183 (1974). Ethnopharmacol., 60, 117 (1998).
5. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 13. M. Lis-Balchin et al., Phytother. Res.,
14, 337 (1976). 16, 437 (2002).
6. S. Lemberg, Int. Congr. Essent. Oils 14. J. P. Guillot et al., Perfums. Cosmet.,
(Pap.), 6, 91 (1974). Aromes, 18, 61 (1977).
7. M. Calvarano, Essenze Deriv. Agrum., 36 15. S. Kato, Perfum. Flavor., 9(2), 137
237 (1966). (1984).
8. B. D. Mookherjee et al., Int. Congr. 16. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 288 (1970).
Essent. Oils (Pap.), 6, 150 (1974).
384 Job’s tears
via at least four different mechanisms involv- Traditional Medicine. Traditional Chinese
ing signal transduction, gene expression, medicine considers Job’s tears to have
and enzyme inhibition.11 spleen-invigorating, diuretic, heat-dissipating,
Alcohol extractives retarded the oxidation and pus-expelling (pai nong) properties. It has
of linoleic acid in vitro.12 The six compounds been on Chinese medical records for more than
isolated from Coix hull possessed free 2000 years for treating stiff and painful joints,
radical scavenging activity in the DPPH rheumatism, and edema; also used in chronic
assay.5 The methanolic extract of the seed enteritis, diarrhea (pi xu xie xie), lung abscess-
also inhibited the production of nitric oxide es, and acute appendicitis (chang yong), as well
and superoxide ions in activated macrophages asflat wartandeczema(CHEUNG AND LI; CHP).Itis
in vitro, which supports the anti-inflammatory often cooked and eaten with or without other
effect of job’s tears.13 herbs or meat for its nutritional qualities as well
as to help ease movement of stiff joints.
USES Others. Concentrated boiling water extract
has metal cleansing (e.g., stainless steel) prop-
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. erties that could be utilized for producing a
Mainly used in Asia: fixed oil primarily in biodegradable natural cleansing product.
hair care products; aqueous and alcoholic
extracts in facial creams (especially for acne
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
and freckles), body lotions and bath prepara-
tions for their traditional/alleged skin soften-
Crude: both raw and roasted. Care should be
ing, soothing, whitening, moisturizing, and
taken to ensure that what is offered is not
sun screening properties (ETIC; ZHOU).
regular barley (Hordeum spp.).
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Pow-
dered roasted seed and extracts of both raw Regulatory Status. Class 2b dietary supple-
and roasted seed are used in tonic, antioxidant, ment (not used during pregnancy). It is an
and pain relief formulas in liquid (e.g., soy ethnic food.
milk and herbal drinks), dried tea, tablet, or
capsule form.
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; CHEUNG AND LI; CHP; JIXIAN; IMM-3; JIANGSU; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
WANG; ZHOU.
1. R. K. Arora, Econ. Bot., 31, 358 (1977). 8. Y. Bao et al., J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol.,
2. M. Numata et al., Planta Med., 60, 356 20, 1046 (2005).
(1994). 9. H. Ostuka et al., J. Nat. Prod., 51, 74 (1988).
3. Y. G. Gu, Zhongchengyao, 12, 38 (1990). 10. H. P. Tzeng et al., J. Toxicol. Environ.
4. M. Takahasi et al., Planat Med., 50 Health A, 68, 1557 (2005).
(1986). 11. S. M. Hsia et al., Int. J. Impot. Res., 18,
5. C. C. Kuo et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 50, 264 (2006).
5850 (2002). 12. Y. L. Zhou and X. R. Xu, Zhongguo
6. H. Otsuka et al., J. Nat. Prod., 51, 74 (1988). Zhongyao Zazhi, 17, 368 (1992).
7. C. C. Ruan et al., Chin. J. Cancer, 8, 29 13. W. G. Seo et al., Immunopharmacol.
(1989). Immunotoxicol., 22, 545 (2000).
386 Jojoba
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Used Crude wax (as ‘‘jojoba oil’’), hydrogenated
primarily in cosmetic products available wax, jojoba beads, jojoba butter (isomerized
through health and natural food outlets; crude oil).
oil topically as a skin moisturizer and emol-
lient (ROSE).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DUKE 2; DUKE 3; HICKMAN;
MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NIKITAKIS; TYLER 1.
1. U.S. NATIONAL Research Council, 9. M. K. Shrestha et al., J. Agric. Food
Jojoba: New Crop for Arid Lands, New Chem., 50, 5670 (2002).
Material for Industry, NATIONAL 10. S. Hantus et al., Carbohydr. Res., 304, 11
Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1985. (1997).
2. H. S. Gentry, Econ. Bot., 12, 261 (1958). 11. R. R. Habashy et al., Pharmacol. Res., 51,
3. A. Yaron et al., Lipids, 17(3), 169 (1982). 95 (2005).
4. R. Wilson, Drug Cosmetic Ind., 43, 1992. 12. M. Cokelaere et al., Food Chem.
5. A. Benzioni and M. Forti in G. Robbelen Toxicol., 39, 247 (2001).
et al., eds., Oil Crops of the World,
13. C. N. Boozer and A. J. Herron, Int. J.
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1989, p. 448.
Obes. (Lond), 30, 1143 (2006).
6. C. A. Elliger et al., J. Org. Chem., 39,
2930 (1974). 14. S. Lievens et al., Physiol. Behav., 78, 669
(2003).
7. M. Van Boven et al., J. Agric. Food
Chem., 49, 4278 (2001). 15. G. Flo et al., Horm. Metab. Res., 30, 504
8. F. Leon et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 52, (1998).
1207 (2004). 16. G. Flo et al., Appetite, 34, 147 (2000).
388 Jujube common
recorded use dates back to the Shan Hai Jing ulcers, inflammatory conditions, asthma, and
(ca. 800 BC). It is a common food, normally eye diseases, and as a blood purifier.4
eaten in candied form or in soups, often in
winter, to normalize dry skin and to relieve
itching. Traditionally regarded as sweet tast- COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
ing and warming, invigorating vital energy (bu
qi), promoting the secretion of body fluids Mainly crude, whole. Due to its high
(sheng jin), regulating body nutritional bal- content of sugar and other nutrients, common
ance and defense (tiao he ying wei), tonifying jujube is prone to mold and insect attack if not
blood and tranquilizing, and neutralizing drug treated and stored properly. One effective
toxicities. Traditionally used in treating lack method is to store it in a wood container in
of appetite, fatigue, and diarrhea due to spleen an airy place mixed with black ashes of rice
deficiency; hysteria; also more recently in husks.7
treating anemia, hypertension, and purpura.
In Arab system of medicine, common Regulatory Status. It is an ethnic food; U.S.
jujube is used in treating fever, wounds and regulatory status not clear.
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; CHP; CMH; FOSTER AND YUE; HONGKUI; IMM-3; JIANGSU; JIXIAN; LU
AND LI; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; PETRIDES.
1. S. Z. Li and B. Zhang, Zhongcaoyao, 6. H.Kohda et al., Planta Med., 52, 119
14(10), 39 (1983). (1986).
2. N. Okamura et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 7. H. P. Huang, Zhongguo Yaoxue Zazhi,
29, 676 (1984). 25, 142 (1990).
3. R. Q. Zhang and Q. Z. Yang, Zhongcaoyao, 8. K. Yoshikawa et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.,
23, 609 (1992). 40, 2275 (1992).
4. A. H. Shah et al., Phytother. Res., 3, 232 9. W. H. Peng et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 72,
(1989). 435 (2000).
5. K. Hanabusa et al., Planta Med., 42, 380 10. R. Suttisri et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 47,
(1981). 9 (1995).
generally called ‘‘berry’’ because of its berry- gastrointestinal antiseptic and irritant
like appearance. An essential oil is obtained properties.
by steam distillation of the crushed, dried, Antimicrobial activity of the essential
partially dried, or fermented berries; the es- oil shas been reported against many fungal
sential oil produced from unfermented berries (yeasts and dermatophytes) and bacterial
is considered to be superior in flavor qualities. strains.21–23
Major producing countries include Italy, Moderate anti-inflammatory activity may
Hungary, France, Austria, Czech Republic, be present in different juniper extracts as
Slovakia, Germany, Poland, Russia, and shown by their ability to inhibit human
Spain. Berries collected in northern Italy, 12(S)-lipoxygenase (12(S)-LOX) in vitro. The
Hungary, France, Austria, and the Czech Re- activity was attributed to cryptojaponol,
public are considered superior in quality than b-sitosterol, and unsaturated fatty acids.24
those collected in other regions. Juniper oil inhibited caspase-3 activation
resulting from heat shock in human astrocytes,
thus preventing the onset of apoptosis in these
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
cells.25
An aqueous decoction of the berries
Berries contain 0.2–3.42% (usually 1–2%)
reduced blood glucose levels in normal and
volatile oil, depending on the geographic loca-
hyperglycemic rats when administered at 250
tion, altitude, degree of ripeness, and other
and 125 mg/kg, respectively, for 24 days.26
factors;1–4 sugars (glucose and fructose); glu-
The oil has an antispasmodic effect on
curonic acid; L-ascorbic acid;5 resin (ca. 10%);
smooth muscles.20
catechins, proanthocyanidins;6 fatty acids
(lauric, palmitic, oleic, linoleic, etc.), sterols
(b-sitosterol, campesterol, cholesterol, etc.);7
TOXICOLOGY
gallotannins;8 geijerone (a C12 terpenoid);9
1,4-dimethyl-3-cyclohexen-1-yl methyl ke-
Juniper berry oil has been reported to be gener-
tone;10 diterpene acids (myrceocommunic,
ally nonsensitizing, nonphototoxic, and only
cis- and trans-communic, sandaracopimaric,
slightly irritating when applied externally to
isopimaric, torulosic, labdatrienoic acids,
human and animal skins.27
etc.);11,12 b-elemen-7a-ol;13 flavonoid (rutin,
Phytomedicine preparations in Europe
isoquercitrin, etc.), neolignan, monoterpene,
are contraindicated in pregnancy and inflam-
and megastigmane glycosides;14–16 and others
matory kidney diseases. Prolonged use or
(LIST AND HöRHAMMER; MARTINDALE).
overdose may cause kidney damage.27 Studies
The volatile oil is composed mainly of
using albino rats showed that juniper extract
monoterpenes (ca. 58%), which include a-
reduced fertility and had an abortifacient
pinene, myrcene, and sabinene as the major
effect.28
components, with limonene, p-cymene, g-ter-
pinene, b-pinene, a-thujene, camphene, and
others also present in minor amounts;17 small
USES
amounts of sesquiterpenes (caryophyllene,
cadinene, elemene); 1,4-cineole; terpinen-4-ol;
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
esters; and others (LIST AND HöRHAMMER).17–20
Berries and extracts are used as components
in certain diuretic and laxative preparations.
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL Liquid and solid product forms for oral use.27
ACTIVITIES Oil is used as a fragrance component in soaps,
detergents, creams, lotions, and perfumes,
Juniper berry oil is generally considered with maximum use level of 0.8% reported
to have diuretic properties; it also has in perfumes.
Juniper berries 391
Food. Berries are widely used as a flavor snakebite, intestinal worms, and gastrointes-
component in gin and also in alcoholic bitters. tinal infections; vapor (with steam) used in
Extracts and oils are used in most major food bronchitis. Also reportedly used in cancers.29
categories, including alcoholic and nonalco-
holic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy,
baked goods, gelatins and puddings, and meat COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
and meat products. Highest average maximum
use level reported for the oils is 0.006% in Crude, extracts (e.g., fluid and solid), and oil;
alcoholic beverages and 0.01% for the extract crude and fluid extract were formerly official
in alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages. in N.F., and oil is official in F.C.C. Strengths
(see glossary) of extracts are expressed in
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Dried flavor intensities or in weight-to-weight ratios.
fruits (whole, crushed, and powdered) used
as tea flavoring; also in capsules, tablets, Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.20). Sub-
tincture, and so on, presumed for diuretic and ject of a German therapeutic monograph;
digestive activities, and in combination with dried berries at a daily dosage of 2–10 g,
other botanicals for bladder and kidney pre- calculated to 20–100 mg of essential oil, al-
parations (FOSTER AND DUKE). lowed for dyspeptic complaints.27
REFERENCES
See the General References for APhA; APPLEQUIST; ARCTANDER; BARNES; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA;
BLUMENTHAL 1; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; FOSTER AND DUKE; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; GUENTHER;
HORTUS 3RD; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; LIST AND HöRHAMMER; LUST; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; TERRELL;
UPHOF.
1. M. Mihajlov and J. Tucakov, Bull. Acad. 9. A. F. Thomas, Helv. Chim. Acta, 55, 2429
Serbe Sci. Arts, Cl. Sci. Med., 44, 19 (1972).
(1969). 10. A. F. Thomas, Helv. Chim. Acta, 56, 1800
2. M. V. Staicov et al., Riv. Ital. Essenze, (1973).
Profumi, Piane Offic., Oli Vegetali, 11. A. M. Martin et al., Phytochem. Anal., 17,
Saponi, 39, 559 (1957). 32 (2006).
3. M. Mihajlov, Lek. Sirovine, 6, 75 12. J. de Pascual Teresa et al., An. Quim., 69,
(1968). 1065 (1973).
4. H. Hoerster, Planta Med., 26, 45 13. J. de Pascual Teresa et al., An. Quim., 73,
(1974). 463 (1977).
5. M. I. Panaitov, Bulgar. Akad. Nauk, 14. T. Nakanishi et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.
Izvest. Khim. Inst., 6, 113 (1958). (Tokyo), 53, 783 (2005).
6. M.J.Schulz andK.Herrmann, Z.Lebensm. 15. T. Nakanishi et al., Phytochemistry, 65,
Unters. Forsch., 171, 278 (1980). 207 (2004).
7. G. J. Guerra Hernandez et al., Cienc. Ind. 16. E. Lamer-Zarawska, Pol. J. Chem., 54,
Farm., 7, 8 (1988). 213 (1980).
8. A. Baytop and N. Tanker, Bull. Fac. Med. 17. E. Klien and H. Farnow, Dragoco Rep.,
Istanbul, 23, 113 (1960). 11, 223 (1964).
392 Juniper berries
18. J. Taskinen and L. Nykanen, Int. Flav. 24. I. Schneider et al., Planta Med., 70,
Food Addit., 7, 228 (1976). 471 (2004).
19. H. Hoerster et al., Rev. Med. (Tirgu- 25. H. J. Na et al., Clin. Chim. Acta, 314,
Mures, Rom.), 20, 215 (1974). 215 (2001).
20. Monograph Juniperi fructus, Bundesanze- 26. M. F. de Sanchez et al., Planta Med., 60,
iger, no. 228 (Dec. 5, 1984). 197 (1994).
21. C. Cavaleiro et al., J. Appl. Microbiol., 27. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
100, 1333 (2006). 14, 307 (1976).
22. S. Pepeljnjak et al., Acta Pharm., 55, 28. Anon., Int. J. Toxicol., 20(Suppl. 2),
417 (2005). 41 (2001).
23. N. Filipowicz et al., Phytother. Res., 17, 29. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 288 (1970).
227 (2003).
Karaya gum 393
Karaya gum polysaccharide has also been poorly water-soluble drugs;9 (iii) transdermal
reported to be partially acetylated and has the delivery enhancer for AZT;10 (iv) denture
tendency of splitting off free acetic acid on adhesive;11 and (v) gel component for skin
storage (FURIA; WHISTLER AND BEMILLER).3–5 contact electrodes.12
REFERENCES
See the General References for ADA; APhA; CSIR X; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; FURIA;
GLICKSMAN; GOSSELIN; LAWRENCE; MARTINDALE; MORTON 3; TERRELL; WHISTLER AND BEMILLER.
1. K. R. Kirtikar and B. D. Basu, Indian 3. R. C. Ordonez et al., Rev. Farm. (Buenos
Medicinal Plants, International Book Aires), 110, 112 (1968).
Distributors, Dehradun, India, 1999, 4. G. O. Aspinall and G. R. Sanderson,
p. 366. J. Chem. Soc. C, 16, 2256 (1970).
2. R. W. Raymond and W. C. Nagel, 5. G. O. Aspinall and G. R. Sanderson,
Carbohydr. Res., 30, 293 (1973). J. Chem. Soc. C, 16, 2259 (1970).
Kava 395
6. M. Tariq et al., Short Reports of Short 10. S. Y. Oh et al., J. Control Release, 51, 161
Lectures and Poster Presentations, Bonn (1998).
BACANS Symposium, P372, July 17–22, 11. K. D. Collys et al., Eur. J. Prosthodont.
1990, p.199. Restor. Dent., 5, 63 (1997).
7. C. R. Park and D. L. Munday, Drug Dev. 12. B. R. Eggins, Analyst, 118, 439 (1993).
Ind. Pharm., 30, 609 (2004).
13. D. M. Anderson, Food Addit. Contam.,
8. N. K. Jain et al., Pharmazie, 47, 277 6, 189 (1989).
(1992).
14. Annon., Fed. Regist., 39(185), 34209
9. G. V. Murali Mohan Babu et al., Int. J. (1974).
Pharm., 234, 1 (2002).
comparable to 200 mg/kg of aspirin. Local may also result in skin lesions and drying up of
anesthesia is produced in the mouth in masti- the epidermis, producing advance exanthema
cation of fresh kava, especially by kavain. characterized by urticarial patches with pro-
However, subcutaneous injections of an alco- nounced itching.22 A case of altered mental
holic extract of kavain produces anesthesia for status accompanied with ataxia has recently
several hours (or days) but can cause paralysis been associated with acute kava overdosing.23
of peripheral nerves; therefore, it is an unsuit- A number of recent reports about the pos-
able local anesthetic drug.1 Kavain and flavo- sible involvement of kava in liver toxicity,
kavains A and B have anti-inflammatory ac- possibly due to inhibition of CYP450 and/or
tivity mediated through activation of NF-kB reduction of glutathione levels, resulted in its
and/or inhibition of COX-2.7,8 withdrawal from the U.S. market even though
Among the kavalactones, dihydromethys- kava’s role in such an adverse effect may be
ticin was earlier reported to have the highest remote.24–29
potentiating effect on barbituric narcosis.1
More recent research further demonstrated
that kava extracts possess anxiolytic and anti- USES
depressant activities.9,10 Possible mechanisms
include serotonin reuptake inhibition, MAO Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
inhibition, and GABA binding modula- In German phytomedicine, the dried rhizome
tion.9,11–15 Further experimentally supported and its preparations were used for conditions
CNS activities include enhancement of cog- of nervous anxiety, stress, and unrest. Com-
nitive performance and quality of sleep in bined with pumpkin seed oil, kava extracts
animals and humans.16–18 have been used in the treatment of irritable
Dihydrokavain and dihydromethysticin bladder syndrome. Use is contraindicated dur-
have been described as muscle relaxants ing pregnancy, lactation, and depression. The
superior to propanediol, benzazoles, and ben- German monograph on the plant also notes
zodiazepines. The muscular relaxant activity that continuous use can cause temporary yel-
is the result of a direct effect on muscular low discoloration of the skin, hair, and nails, or
contractility rather than inhibition of neuro- rare allergic skin reactions. May interact with
muscular transmission.1 alcohol, barbiturates, and other psychophar-
Kavalactones inhibit the growth of Asper- maceuticals or interfere with operation of
gillus niger, Fusarium oxysporum, F. solani, machinery or vehicles (WEISS).6,29–31
and Trichoderma viride. They also have her-
bicidal activity.19 Food. Melanesians, Micronesians, and Poly-
Kawain has antithrombotic effect on hu- nesians grind the fresh or dry roots to prepare a
man platelets.20 Flavokavain A has antiproli- traditional beverage, often imbibed in social or
ferative activity against human bladder cancer ceremonial settings. Its cultural role in the
cells.21 Pacific societies is compared with the role of
Kava has been classified as a narcotic and wine in southern Europe.22
hypnotic; however, it is neither hallucinogenic
nor stupefying, is nonaddictive, and does not Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Dried
cause dependency.22 root used in teas, capsules, tablets, tinctures,
primarily as a mild relaxant or weak euphoric
(DUKE 2).
TOXICOLOGY
Traditional Medicine. In Pacific islands, a
Excessive consumption may result in photo- decoction of the rootstock has been used for
phobia and diplopia or rarely temporary ocu- the treatment of gonorrhea, chronic cystitis,
lomotor paralysis. Heavy kava consumption urogenital infections, menstrual problems,
Kava 397
REFERENCES
See the General References for BARRETT; BLUMENTHAL 1 & 2; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DUKE 2;
GRIEVE; MARTINDALE; STEINMETZ; WEISS.
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University Press, New Haven, CT, 1992. Med., 64, 504 (1998).
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(2003). 18. S. Lehrl, J. Affect. Disord., 78, 101
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58, 111 (1992). 19. T. D. Xuan et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
6. Monograph Piperis methystici rhizoma, 54, 720 (2006).
Bundesanzeiger, no. 101 (June 1, 1990). 20. J. Gleitz et al., Planta Med., 63, 27
7. F. Folmer et al., Biochem. Pharmacol., (1997).
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701 (2002). 22. V. Lebot in P. A. Cox and S. A. Banack,
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398 Kola nut
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Med., 69, 496 (2003). Dispos., 33, 1555 (2005).
29. L. Zou et al., Phytomedicine, 11, 285
(2004).
Food. Extracts are widely used as a flavor Crude and extracts (alcoholic and aqueous);
ingredient in cola drinks. Other food products crude and fluid extract were formerly official
in which kola extracts are used include alco- in N.F. Strengths (see glossary) of extracts are
holic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, expressed in flavor intensities.
baked goods, and gelatins and puddings.
Highest average maximum use level is about Regulatory Status. GRAS; both cola nut and
0.045% (446 ppm) reported in frozen dairy kola nut are listed (§182.20). Subject of a
desserts. German therapeutic monograph as an analep-
tic for use in mental and physical fatigue.12
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Used
in diet and ‘‘energy’’ formulas, especially in
combination with ephedra (before ephedra
was banned).11
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; CLAUS; LIST AND HöRHAMMER; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN
1 & 2; UPHOF.
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See the General References for BRUNETON; CHEUNG AND LI; CHP; CMH; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER;
FOSTER AND YUE; HUANG; IMM-1; JIANGSU; JILIN; JIXIAN; NATIONAL; WANG; XIAO.
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One study has indicated the presence in the Regulatory Status. Has been approved for
plant (C. ladanifer) of an alcohol-extractable food use (§172.510).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; FEMA; GUENTHER; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; POLUNIN AND
SMYTHIES; STEINMETZ; TUCKER AND LAWRENCE; TUTIN 2.
406 Lavender
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1024 (1977). 15. H. Mekhfi et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 94,
5. C. Tabacik and M. Bard, Phytochemistry, 317 (2004).
10, 3093 (1971). 16. M. Aziz et al., Fitoterapia, 77, 425 (2006).
6. J. De Pascual Teresa et al., 17. G. Attaguile et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
Phytochemistry, 21, 899 (1982). 92, 245 (2004).
7. P. G. G€ ulz, Parf€um. Kosmet., 56, 344 18. T. Sosa et al., J. Chem. Ecol., 30, 1087
(1975). (2004).
ulz, Int. Congr. Essent. Oils (Pap),
8. P. G. G€ 19. G. Attaguile et al., Pharmacol. Res., 31,
6, 125 (1974). 29 (1995).
9. R. K€ onigs and P. G. G€ulz, Z. 20. E. Ballesteros Moreno, An. Inst. Invest.
Pflanzenphysiol., 72, 237 (1974). Vet. (Madrid), 14–15, 77 (1964).
10. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 6, 43 21. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
(1981). 14, 335 (1976).
11. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 9, 49 22. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
(1984). 12, 403 (1974).
herniarin),5 flavonoids (e.g., luteolin), triter- The volatile oil of Spanish lavender
penoids (e.g., ursolic acid), and others (L. stoechas) contains pulegone (40%), men-
(KARRER; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER). thol (18%), and menthone (12%) as the main
Spike lavender contains 0.5–1% volatile oil constituents.21 At least 13 triterpenes, includ-
and triterpenoids (e.g., ursolic, and oleanolic ing two new oleanane-type acids, have been
acids) (LIST AND HÖRHAMMER). isolated from the root.22
Lavandin is reported to have a higher vola-
tile oil content than lavender and spike laven- PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
der. Due to its hybrid nature, the composition ACTIVITIES
of its essential oil is much more variable than
either of its parents. Lavender oil has been demonstrated to exhibit
Lavender oil has been reported to contain CNS-depressive activities on experimental
more than 100 components, including linalool, animals (e.g., mice).23 Such activities include
linalyl acetate, lavandulyl acetate, terpinen- anticonvulsive effects, inhibition of the spon-
l-ol-4, 1,8-cineole, camphor, b-phellandrene, taneous motor activity, and potentiation of
terpinolene, a-thujene, n-hexanal, n-heptanal, the narcotic effects of chloral hydrate.24,25
methyl amyl ketone, ethyl amyl ketone, The hydroalcoholic extract of the flowers of
perillaldehyde, perillyl alcohol, d-borneol, L. stoechas has similar activities.26 Spike
a-terpineol, a-pinene, limonene, lactones lavender oil has been reported to have spas-
(4-butanolide, dihydrocoumarin, 4-methyl-4- molytic effects on smooth muscles of labora-
vinyl-4-butanolide, 5-pentyl-5-pentanolide, tory animals.27 The mode of antispasmodic
4,4-dimethyl-2-buten-4-olide, etc.), sesquiter- action is believed to occur postsynaptically.28
penes (caryophyllene, cadinene, etc.), fatty Lavender has recently been included in aro-
acids (propionic acid, isobutyric acid, caproic matherapy preparations that were shown to be
acid, p-coumaric acid, etc.), and others (LIST effective in dysmenorrhea, in reducing anger,
4,6–17
AND HÖRHAMMER). pain and anxiety, and in producing a state of
Spike lavender oil and lavandin oil contain calmness and enhanced well-being.29–34 The
many of the constituents present in lavender tincture of L. angustifolia was also found to be
oil. The important components include effective as an adjuvant to imipramine in the
linalool, 1,8-cineole, camphor, and linalyl treatment of mild to moderate depression.35
acetate. Lavender oil has also been reported to have
The major distinction among the three oils antimicrobial (antibacterial, antifungal) and
is in their relative contents of linalyl acetate, antiparasitic activities.36–38
linalool, 1,8-cineole, and camphor. Lavender Other activities reported for lavender oil
oil contains high concentrations of linalyl and lavender extracts include antimutagenic,
acetate (ca. 40%) but only traces of 1,8-cine- neuroprotective, local anesthetic, analgesic,
ole and camphor (ca. 1%), while spike laven- and anti-inflammatory.7,39–41 Such activities
der oil contains large amounts of 1,8-cineole and others have been reviewed.42
and camphor (40–60%) with only small Available data from one source indicate
amounts of linalyl acetate (ca.1%).9,14,18 The spike lavender oil, lavandin oil, and lavender
linalool concentration is usually higher in absolute to be nonirritating and nonsensitizing
spike lavender oil than in lavender oil.9,12,18 to human skin, though lavender absolute has
The amounts of linalool, linalyl acetate, cine- been reported elsewhere as a sensitizer. No
ole, and camphor in lavandin oil are between human phototoxicity data were reported.43–45
those of the other two oils.9,14 Presence of
lower priced, lower quality lavandin oils has TOXICOLOGY
reduced the demand and use of higher quality
oils.19 Wide variation of constituents in vari- When tested by subcutaneous administration
ous cultivars has also been determined.20 in mice, lavender oil exhibited low toxicity.46
408 Lavender
Large doses of lavender oil, however, are 0.004% in frozen dairy desserts (35.6 ppm),
considered to be a narcotic poison; one source candy (35.2 ppm), baked goods (43.5 ppm),
reports that the oil can cause dermatitis and and gelatins and puddings (35.0 ppm).
that more toxicological studies are needed.3
This statement supported by the recent finding Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Flow-
that lavender oil, rich in linalyl acetate and ers and oil used as flavoring in tea formula-
linalool, was cytotoxic to human skin cells tions; oil also used in aromatherapy (FOSTER).
in vitro.6
Traditional Medicine. Lavender is reported-
ly used as an antispasmodic, carminative, stim-
USES ulant, diuretic, sedative, tonic, and stomachic.
Conditions for which it is used include flatu-
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. lence, spasms, colic, giddiness, nervous head-
Among the several lavender products, laven- ache, migraine, toothache, sprains, neuralgia,
der oil is usually the one used in pharmaceu- rheumatism, acne, pimples, sores, nausea,
ticals; it is used as a fragrance component in vomiting, and others, usually in the form of an
products such as antiseptic ointments, creams, infusion, a decoction, or the oil, both internally
lotions, and jellies, among others. and externally.
All types of lavender products (especially Spike lavender has been used in Europe to
essential oils) are used as fragrance ingredi- promote menstruation and to treat cancers.48
ents (some extensively) in cosmetic products,
including soaps, detergents, creams, lotions, Other. Lavandin oil is sometimes used as
and perfumes (e.g., lavender waters and other a source of linalool and linalyl acetate. Lav-
colognes), spike lavender oil being more ex- ender oil is sometimes used externally as an
tensively used in soaps and detergents. Maxi- insect repellent (MARTINDALE).
mum use levels are 1.2, 1.0, and 0.8% reported
for lavandin oil, lavender absolute, and spike
lavender oil, respectively, in perfumes.43–45 COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
In Europe used in phytomedicine prepara-
tions for digestive and mild nervous disorders Crudes (lavender and lavandin) and oils are
as an antispasmodic, carminative, and mild readily available; concrete and absolute of
tranquilizer.47 lavender also available. All three oils are
Food. Lavender oil and, to a lesser extent, official in F.C.C.; lavender oil is also official
other lavender products (e.g., lavender abso- in N.F.
lute and concrete, lavandin oil, and spike
lavender oil) are used as flavor components Regulatory Status. GRAS (lavender, §182.10
(e.g., fruit types) in food products, including and §182.20; lavandin, §182.20; spike laven-
alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen der, §182.20). L. angustifolia flowers subject
dairy desserts, candy, baked goods, gelatins, of a German therapeutic monograph, indicated
puddings, and aromatic vinegars. Average for sleep disorders, restlessness, and functional
maximum use levels reported are generally abdominal pains (e.g., nervous irritation of the
below 0.002%, except for spike lavender oil stomach, Roehmheld syndrome, and nervous
whose highest maximum use level is about intestinal syndromes).47
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BAILEY 2; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1;
FEMA; FOSTER; FURIA AND BELLANCA; LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS; LUST; ROSE; STAHL; TERRELL; UPHOF.
Lavender 409
1. A. O. Tucker, Baileya, 21, 131 (1981). 22. G. Topcu et al., Pharmazie, 56, 892
2. A. O. Tucker and K. J. W. Hensen, (2001).
Baileya, 22, 168 (1985). 23. G. Buchbauer et al., Z. Naturforsch. C,
3. M. De Vincenzi and M. R. Dessi, 46, 1067 (1991).
Fitoterapia, 62, 39 (1991). 24. S. Atanasova-Shopova et al., Izv.
4. C. De La Torre and P. Carmen, Int. Congr. Inst. Fiziol. Bulg. Akad. Nauk, 15, 149
Essent. Oils (Pap.), 6, 81 (1974). (1973).
5. L. G. Ianova et al., Khim. Prir. Soedin., 1, 25. S. Atanasova-Shopova and K. S. Rusinov,
111 (1977). Izv. Inst. Fiziol. Bulg. Akad. Nauk, 13, 69
(1970).
6. A. Prashar et al., Cell Prolif., 37, 221
(2004). 26. A. H. Gilani et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
71, 161 (2000).
7. C. Ghelardini et al., Planta Med., 65, 700
(1999). 27. T. Shipochliev, Vet. Med. Nauki, 5, 63
(1968).
8. I. Ognyanov and L. Panaiotova, Riv. Ital.
Essenze, Profumi, Piante Offic., Aromi, 28. M. Lis-Balchin and S. Hart, Phytother.
Saponi, Cosmet., Aerosol, 55 (1973). Res., 13, 540 (1999).
9. R. Ter Heide et al., J. Chromatogr., 50, 29. S. H. Han et al., J. Altern. Complement
127 (1970). Med., 12, 535 (2006).
10. R. Timmer et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 30. M. Imura et al., J. Midwifery Womens
23, 53 (1975). Health, 51, e21 (2006).
11. L. Peyron, C. R. Seances Acad. Agric. Fr., 31. J. Lehrner et al., Physiol. Behav., 86, 92
57, 1368 (1971). (2005).
12. A. I. Karetnikova et al., Maslo Zhir. 32. T. Field et al., Int. J. Neurosci., 115, 207
Prom., 35, 23 (1969). (2005).
13. R. Vlakhov et al., Riechst., Aromen, 33. N. Morris, Complement. Ther. Med., 10,
K€ orperpflegem., 19, 293 (1969). 223 (2002).
14. A. Herisset et al., Plant. Med. Phytother., 34. M. Louis and S. D. Kowalski, Am. J.
5, 305 (1971). Hosp. Palliat. Care, 19, 381 (2002).
15. R. Kaiser and D. Lamparsky, Tetrahedron 35. S. Akhondzadeh et al., Prog. Neuropsy-
Lett., 7, 665 (1977). chopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry, 27, 123
(2003).
16. Y. R. Naves et al., Helv. Chim. Acta, 44,
316 (1961). 36. T. Moon et al., Parasitol. Res., 99, 722
(2006).
17. B. D. Mookherjee and R. W. Trenkle,
J. Agric. Food Chem., 21, 298 (1973). 37. F. D. D’Auria et al., Med. Mycol., 43, 391
(2005).
18. G. Franchi, Riv. Ital. Essenze, Profumi,
Piante Offic., Aromi, Saponi, Cosmet., 38. B. N. Uzdennikov, Nauch. Tr. Tyumen.
Aerosol, 53, 245 (1971). Sel. Khoz. Inst., 7, 116 (1970).
19. E. F. K. Denny et al., Perfum. Flav., 6, 23 39. M. G. Evandri et al., Food Chem.
(1981). Toxicol., 43, 1381 (2005).
20. A. O. Tucker et al., Perfum. Flav., 9, 49 40. V. Hajhashemi et al., J. Ethno-
(1984). pharmacol., 89, 67 (2003).
21. A. Goren et al., Z. Naturforsch. C, 57, 797 41. M. E. Buyukokuroglu et al., J. Ethno-
(2002). pharmacol., 84, 91 (2003).
410 Lemon oil (and lemon petitgrain oil)
LEMON OIL (AND LEMON geranial); alcohols and esters (linalool, octa-
PETITGRAIN OIL) nol, nonanol, decanol, terpinen-4-ol, a-terpin-
eol, geraniol, neryl acetate, geranyl acetate,
Source: Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. (syn. etc.);2,3 small amounts of sesquiterpenes
C. limonum Risso) (Family Rutaceae). (bisabolene, a-bergamotene, and caryophyl-
lene);2,4 waxes; and 0.41–0.87% coumarins,
Common/vernacular names: Expressed lemon consisting primarily of bergamottin, 7-meth-
oil, cedro oil (terpeneless). oxy-5-geranoxy coumarin, and limettin (ci-
tropten), with imperatorin, isoimperatorin,
phellopterin, 8-geranoxypsoralen, and others
also present.5–8
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
A study to examine storing comminuted
lemon before oil production showed that
A small evergreen tree with very fragrant
a-terpineol rose from 0.21% to 10% and that
flowers and stiff thorns; up to about 6 m high;
the chemical and organoleptic qualities of
native to Asia; now cultivated worldwide,
the oil changed completely.9
especially in the United States (e.g., California
Some components in the waxes have been
and Florida), Italy, Cyprus, and Guinea. Parts
reported to have antioxidant properties.7
used are the peel as well as the leaves and
Lemon petitgrain oil contains large
twigs together with undeveloped fruits. Lem-
amounts of citral (up to 50%); other compo-
on oil is obtained from the peel by cold
nents present include limonene, a-pinene,
expression, while lemon petitgrain oil is pro-
linalool, and nerol.10
duced from the leaves and twigs, sometimes
including undeveloped small fruits by steam
distillation. Major lemon oil producers in- PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
clude the United States, Italy, Guinea, and ACTIVITIES
Cyprus. Major producers of lemon petitgrain
oil include Guinea and Italy. Lemon oil has been reported to promote tumor
formation on the skin of mice by the primary
carcinogen 9,10-dimethyl-l,2-benzanthra-
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION cene.11 Coumarins from the fruit, however,
have been reported to inhibit TPA-induced
Lemon oil contains about 90% monoterpene tumor promotion, as well as superoxide and
hydrocarbons, composed mainly of limonene nitric oxide generation in vitro.12
(ca. 70%), with lesser amounts of g-terpinene, Lemon oil has a cidal effect on the larvae
b-pinene, sabinene, a-pinene, and myrcene;1 of Culex quinquefasciatus mosquito.13 It has
2–6% aldehydes (mainly citral, neral and also exhibited antimicrobial activities.11,14–16
Lemon oil (and lemon petitgrain oil) 411
Certain coumarin derivatives are known for lemon oil and lemon petitgrain oil, respec-
to be phototoxic and allergenic to humans as tively, in perfumes.10,16
well as effective in treating psoriasis (see
bergamot oil). Lemon oil has been reported Food. Lemon oil and terpeneless lemon oil
to have phototoxic effects, most likely due to are extensively used as flavor ingredients
its coumarins.16 in most food products, including alcoholic
Available data from one source indicate (bitters, vermouths, sweet liqueurs, etc.) and
lemon oil to be nonirritating and nonsensitiz- nonalcoholic beverages (soft drinks, drink
ing to human skin, though some samples have mixes, etc.), frozen dairy desserts, candy,
been demonstrated to be irritating to the backs baked goods, gelatins and puddings, meat and
of hairless mice.16 meat products, breakfast cereals, and fats and
The flavonoid diosmin extracted from lem- oils, among others. Lemon extract and lemon
on is used clinically for treatment of venous petitgrain oil are also used in many of above
insufficiency. Increased vascular tone has food categories but to a much lesser extent.
been observed after in vivo oral administra- Highest average maximum used levels are
tion.17 Anti-inflammatory, antihistamine, and 0.968% and 1.208% reported for the extract
diuretic activities are also reported (WREN). (type not specified) in candy and baked goods,
respectively. Average maximum use levels
for the other ingredients are much lower, with
TOXICOLOGY the highest reported being about 0.046%
(457 ppm) for lemon oil in candy.
Lemon petitgrain oil has been reported to be
nonirritating, nonsensitizing, and nonphoto- Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Essen-
toxic to human skin.10 tial oil used as a flavoring ingredient in herb
tea formulations.
USES
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
Lemon oil is used in pharmaceuticals mainly Lemon oil (California, Italian, etc.), lemon
as a flavoring agent. petitgrain oil, and lemon peel extracts. Lemon
Lemon oil is used as a fragrance ingredient oil is official in N.F. and F.C.C.
in soaps, detergents, creams, lotions, and per-
fumes (e.g., colognes). Lemon petitgrain oil is Regulatory Status. GRAS; listed under
used in creams, lotions, and perfumes. Maxi- lemon, lemon peel, and petitgrain lemon
mum use levels reported are 1.0% and 0.3% (§182.20)
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BARRETT; BISSET; BRUNETON; CLAUS; FEMA; FURIA AND
BELLANCA; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TERRELL; WREN.
1. L. Pennisi and A. Di Giacomo, Riv. Ital. 4. G. Rispoli and A. Di Giocomo, Riv. Ital.
Essenze, Profumi, Piante Offic., Aromi, Essenze, Profumi, Piante Offic., Aromi,
Saponi, Cosmet., Aerosol, 47, 370 (1965). Saponi, Cosmet., 47, 650 (1965).
2. S. A. Vekiari et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 5. G. Calabro and P. Curro, Essenze Deriv.
50, 147 (2002). Agrum., 46, 215 (1976).
3. G. L. K. Hunter and M. G. Moshonas, 6. W. L. Stanley and L. Jurd, J. Agric. Food
J. Food Sci., 31, 167 (1966). Chem., 19, 1106 (1971).
412 Lemongrass
7. A. Di Giacomo et al., Essenze Deriv. 13. G. L. Mwaiko, East Afr. Med. J., 69, 223
Agrum., 40, 143 (1970). (1992).
8. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 14, 41 14. M. S. Subba et al., J. Food Sci., 32, 225
(1989). (1967).
9. I. Calvarava and G. Di Giacomo, Essenze 15. A. Poretta and A. Casolari, Ind. Conserve
Deriv. Agrum., 54, 200 (1984). (Parma), 41, (1966).
10. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 16. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
16(Suppl. 1), 807(1978). 12, 725 (1974).
11. F. J. C. Rose and W. E. H. Field, Food 17. A. Codignola et al., Planta Med., 58(S1),
Cosmet. Toxicol., 3, 311 (1965). A628(1992).
12. Y. Miyake et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
47, 3151 (1999).
Common/vernacular names: West Indian West Indian lemongrass (C. citratus) contains
lemongrass, Madagascar lemongrass, Guate- a volatile oil (usually 0.2–0.4% yield from
mala lemongrass (C. citratus); East Indian fresh grass); an unknown alkaloid; a saponin;
lemongrass, Cochin lemongrass, native b-sitosterol; hexacosanol and triacontanol;2
lemongrass, and British Indian lemongrass cymbopogonol (a triterpenoid);3 flavonoids
(C. flexuosus). (orientin, isoorientin, isoscoparin, swertiaja-
ponin) and phenolic acids (chlorogenic and
caffeic);4 and others (KARRER; LIST AND
GENERAL DESCRIPTION HÖRHAMMER).
West Indian lemongrass oil contains citral
Perennial grasses both native to tropical Asia. (65–85%) as its major component.5,6 Camer-
East Indian lemongrass (C. flexuosus) is cul- oonian C. citratus contains geranial (33%) as
tivated mainly in western India and nearby the major component.7 Other compounds pres-
countries, while West Indian lemongrass ent include myrcene (12–20%), dipentene,
(C. citratus) is cultivated in the tropics methylheptenone, b-dihydropseudoionone,
worldwide (West Indies, Central and South neral, b-pinene, alcohols (linalool, methylhep-
America, Africa, and tropical Asia). Leaf tenol, a-terpineol, geraniol, nerol, farnesol,
blades are linear, long attenuate toward the citronellol, etc.), volatile acids (isovaleric,
base tapering upward to a long setaceous point geranic, caprylic, citronellic, etc.), and others
ca. 90 0.6 cm, glaceous green more or less (GUENTHER; JIANGSU; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER).7
smooth, less rough upward.1 Parts used are the East Indian lemongrass contains a volatile
freshly cut and partially dried leaves of culti- oil in about 0.5% yield from fresh grass. It
vated plants from which the essential oils are probably also contains many of the other con-
obtained by steam distillation. India is the stituents present in West Indian lemongrass.
Lemongrass 413
East Indian lemongrass oil contains nor- antinociceptive, antipyretic, and antioxidant
mally citral as its major component in a properties.12,23,24 The antioxidant activity was
70–85% concentration.8 Other components displayed by some oil components such as
include geraniol and methyleugenol as well citral and phenolic constituents.4,25
as many of the compounds present in the West The oil has antimutagenic and antihepato-
Indian oil (e.g., dipentene, myrcene, methyl- carcinogenic effects both in vivo and
heptenol, farnesol, n-decanal, guanic acid, and in vitro.26–28 Citral is also an inducer of cas-
others). pase-3 and apoptosis in hematopoietic and
Geraniol-rich strains of East Indian lemon- cancer cell lines at 44.5 mM.29
grass have been reported to yield oils that Available data from one source indicate
contain citral only as a minor component the oil to be mildly to moderately irritating
(10–20%), with their major components being to the skin of experimental animals but nonir-
gerianol (35–50%) and methyl eugenol (ca. ritating and nonsensitizing to human skin. Its
20%).9,10 Another type is reported to contain phototoxicity on human skin has not been
no citral at all but has borneol (ca. 30%) as one determined.30
of its major components (LISTAND HÖRHAMMER). The aqueous extract of the leaves lowered
East Indian lemongrass oil usually contains the rate of isolated rat hearts without affecting
a slightly higher content of citral than West their contractile force.31
Indian lemongrass oil; it is also more soluble East Indian lemongrass oil has been re-
in 70% alcohol than the West Indian oil ported to exhibit antifungal properties.32,33
(GUENTHER).11 Available data from one source indicate it to
be mildly to moderately irritating to the skin of
laboratory animals but nonirritating and non-
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL sensitizing to human skin. Its phototoxicity on
ACTIVITIES human skin is not known.34
Food. Lemongrass oil is used in most major Others. Lemongrass oils (both types) are
categories of foods, including alcoholic and used as starting materials for the synthesis of
nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, ionones and vitamin A as well as the produc-
candy, baked goods, gelatins and puddings, tion (isolation) of natural citral. The oil pos-
meat and meat products, and fats and oils. sesses biological activity against storage pests
Highest average maximum use levels reported and has been used as a postharvest pesticide
are about 0.003% and 0.004%, respectively, for some food commodities.36
in candy (33.3 ppm) and baked goods
(36.3 ppm).
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Dried
leaves widely used as a ‘‘lemon’’ flavor ingre- Both East and West Indian lemongrass oils;
dient in herb teas, and other formulations. they are official in F.C.C. Also crude.
Traditional Medicine. West Indian lemon- Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.20). Sub-
grass is used in Chinese medicine to treat ject of a German therapeutic monograph as
colds, headache, stomachache, abdominal a mild astringent and stomachic; efficacy not
pain, rheumatic pain, and others (JIANGSU). documented.39
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DER MARDEROSIAN
AND LIBERTI; FEMA; GUENTHER; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2.
1. K. R. Kirtikar and B. D. Basu, Indian 11. W. D. Fordham, Chemical Technology:
Medicinal Plants, International Book Dis- An Encyclopedia Treatment, Barnes and
tributors, Dehradun, India, 1999, p. 2681. Noble, New York, 1972, p. 1.
2. A. A. Olaniyi et al., Planta Med., 28, 186 12. D. O. Gyane, Drug Cosmet. Ind., 118, 36
(1975). (1976).
3. S. W. Hanson et al., Phytochemistry, 15, 13. F. M. Ramadan et al., Chem. Mikrobiol.
1074 (1976). Technol. Lebensm., 1, 96 (1972).
4. J. Cheel et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 53, 14. G. A. Helal et al., J. Basic Microbiol., 46,
2511 (2005). 375 (2006).
5. M. Saleem et al., Nat. Prod. Res., 17, 159 15. S. A. Bankole et al., J. Basic Microbiol.,
(2003). 45, 20 (2005).
6. C. K. Kokate and K. C. Varma, Sci. Cult., 16. P. A. Paranagama et al., Lett. Appl.
37, 196 (1971). Microbiol., 37, 86 (2003).
7. F. Tchoumbougnang et al., Planta Med., 17. T. Ohno et al., Helicobacter, 8, 207
71, 20 (2005). (2003).
8. K. S. Ayyar et al., Perfum. Essent. Oil 18. M. Minami et al., Microbiol. Immunol.,
Records, 59, 669 (1968). 47, 681 (2003).
9. R. K. Thappa et al., Cultiv. Util. Med. 19. J. E. Betoni et al., Mem. Inst. Oswaldo
Aromat. Plants, 227 (1977). Cruz, 101, 387 (2006).
10. C. K. Atal and B. L. Bradu, Indian J. 20. K. K. Wong et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
Pharm., 38, 63 (1976). 53, 4633 (2005).
Licorice root 415
21. K. Y. Mumcuoglu et al., Isr. Med. Assoc. 31. R. Gazola et al., Pharmacol. Res., 50, 477
J., 6, 756 (2004). (2004).
22. A. O. Oyedele et al., Phytomedicine, 9, 32. B. G. V. N. Rao and P. L. Joseph,
259 (2002). Riechst., Aromen, Korperpflegem., 21,
23. G. Seth et al., Indian J. Exp. Biol., 14, 370 405 (1971).
(1976). 33. A. Dikshit and A. Husain, Fitoterapia,
24. G. S. Viana et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 55, 171 (1984).
70, 323 (2000). 34. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
25. S. I. Rabbani et al., Pak. J. Pharm. Sci., 14, 455 (1976).
19, 108 (2006). 35. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
26. R. Puatanachokchai et al., Cancer Lett., 14, 197 (1976).
183, 9 (2002). 36. A. K. Mishra et al., Phytother. Res., 6,
27. R. Suaeyun et al., Carcinogenesis, 18, 279 (1992).
949 (1997). 37. E. A. Carlinin et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
28. U. Vinitketkumnuen et al., Mutat. Res., 17, 37 (1986).
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14, 457 (1976). 1990).
equal amounts of licorice and black beans or U.S.P. Licorice, licorice extract (solid), and
mung beans are decocted together and the licorice fluid extract are official in N.F. The
liquid taken orally. strength (see glossary) of the fluid extract is
Licorice has been reported used in many 1:1, but that of the solid extract is not precisely
countries to treat cancer.81 specified in N.F.
Others. Licorice extracts are used in flavor- Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.10 and
ing tobaccos. §182.20) with both licorice and glycyrrhiza
listed; ammoniated glycyrrhizin is also GRAS
(§182.20). Licorice root is the subject of a
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS German therapeutic monograph, indicated
for catarrhs of the upper respiratory tract and
Crude, extracts, and ammoniated glycyrrhi- gastric/duodenal ulcers.58
zin. Licorice syrup was formerly official in
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BLUMENTHAL 1 & 2; FEMA; FOSTER AND YUE; JIANGSU;
MARTINDALE; MORTON 3; NANJING.
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Licorice root 419
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420 Ligustrum
71. A. E. van den Bosch et al., Neth. J. Med., 76. Z. Y.Wang and D. W. Nixon, Nutr.
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(1977).
81. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 97 (1970).
75. R. A. Isbrucker and G. A. Burdock,
Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol., (2006).
alloxan diabetic mice (HU, WANG).18 sweet tasting and neutral. It is one of the
Recent studies showed that ligustrum may major yin tonics with vision-brightening and
be helpful in the treatment of PMS osteopo- hair-darkening properties (ming mu wu fa).
rosis through its modulating effect on calcium It invigorates the liver and kidney and is
balance and bone turnover.19 Other recently traditionally used for treating premature gray-
reported activities include antibacterial ing of hair, dizziness, and tinnitus, sore back
against periodontic pathogens,20 antiviral and knees, and blurred vision; now also used
against HSV-1, Flu A, Para 31, and RSV to treat habitual constipation in the elderly
viruses,21 and antioxidant radical-scavenging as well as chronic benzene poisoning
activity.6,21,22 (NATIONAL).
It is generally accepted that oleanolic acid
(ligustrin) is responsible for most of the bio- Others. As it contains the highest concen-
logical effects of ligustrum (e.g., immunomo- tration of oleanolic acid (4.33%) among 216
dulating, anti-inflammatory, and hypolipemic Chinese herbal drugs from 18 genera tested,
and antiatherosclerotic). In addition, it also ligustrum is a potential source of this
has hepatoprotective effects (lowering SGPT, compound.5
protecting from carbon tetrachloride dam-
age),23 as well as antiallergic, mild cardioton-
ic, diuretic, sedative, and antitumor (vs.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
S-180) effects.2,11,24–26
Mainly crude (whole or powdered) and
extracts.
TOXICOLOGY
Oral toxicity is low: a single dose of 75 g of Regulatory Status. Class 1 dietary supple-
ripe fruit fed to rabbits did not elicit any toxic ment (can be safely consumed when used
symptoms (WANG). appropriately). It is an ethnic food.
422 Lime oil
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; CHP; CMH; FOSTER AND YUE; JIXIAN; HU; IMM-3; JIANGSU; HUANG; LU
AND LI; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NATIONAL; WANG; ZHU.
1. H. Liu et al., J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal., 32, 14. M. Shoemaker et al., Phytother. Res., 19,
479 (2003). 649 (2005).
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Yaoxue Zazhi, 27, 393 (1992). (1993).
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Zhongyao Zazhi, 14, 41 (1989). Zazhi (PJCM), 6, 168 (1993).
4. H. Y. Liu et al., Zhongcaoyao, 24, 219 17. Y. Dai et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi,
(1993). 14, 47 (1989).
5. N. J. Wu et al., Zhongcaoyao, 23, 467 18. Z. Q. Hao et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao
(1992). Zazhi, 17, 429 (1992).
6. Z. D. He et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull. 19. Y. Zhang et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 29,
(Tokyo), 49, 780 (2001). 291 (2006).
7. Z. D. He et al., Phytochemistry, 56, 327 20. Q. Wang et al., Zhonghua Kou Qiang Yi
(2001). Xue Za Zhi, 37, 388 (2002).
8. N. J. Wu et al., Zhongcaoyao, 24, 4 21. S. C. Ma et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.
(1993). (Tokyo), 49, 1471 (2001).
9. K. H. Li and C. S. Li, Zhongchengyao, 22. H. Li and Q.Wang, Anal. Bioanal. Chem.,
12, 32 (1990). 378, 1801 (2004).
10. D. Ma et al., Arch. Anim. Nutr., 59, 439 23. T. K. Yim et al., Phytother. Res., 15, 589
(2005). (2001).
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72 (1990). 381 (1989).
12. Y. Sun et al., J. Biol. Response Mod., 2, 25. Y. Dai et al., Zhongguo Yaoli Xuebao, 9,
227 (1983). 562 (1988).
13. B. H. S. Lau et al., Phytother. Res., 3, 148 26. Y. Dai et al., Chin. J. Pharmacol.
(1989). Toxicol., 3, 96 (1989).
LIME OIL
bluntly pointed, at tips, rounded to cunate at
Source: Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swin- base; flowers large fragerant;1 native to south-
gle (syn. C. medica L. var. acida Brandis) ern Asia; cultivated in south Florida, the West
(Family Rutaceae). Indies (e.g., Cuba),2 and Central America (e.g.,
Mexico). Part used is the fresh peel of the green
Common/vernacular names: Bitter orange, unripe fruit from which lime oil is obtained by
Sour or Seville orange. cold expression (expressed lime oil). Distilled
lime oil is obtained by steam distillation of the
whole crushed fruit or juice of the crushed
GENERAL DESCRIPTION fruit. Another essential oil, centrifuged lime
oil, is obtained by centrifuging the pulp and oil
Evergreen tree with stiff sharp spines; up to mixture of the fruit in high-speed centrifuges,
about 4.5 m high; leaves medium sized, ovate, thus separating the oil from the pulp.
Lime oil 423
Lime oil (30% in mustard oil) has a mosquito Lime oil (distilled, expressed, and terpene-
repellent effect that lasts for up to 5 h.15 The oil less). Distilled lime oil is official in F.C.C.
also has insecticidal activity against mosqui-
toes, cockroaches, and houseflies.16 Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.20).
424 Lobelia
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; FEMA; GUENTHER; BRUNETON; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
MORTON 2.
1. W. Swingle, The Botany of Citrus and its 11. L. Haro-Guzman and R. Heut, Fruits, 25,
Wild Relatives of the Orange Subfamily, 887 (1970).
1943, p. 403. 12. G. L. K. Hunter and M. G. Moshonas,
2. J. A. Pino and R. Tapanes, J. Food J. Food Sci., 31, 167 (1966).
Technol., 18, 523 (1983). 13. S. Jiwajinda et al., Biosci. Biotechnol.
3. J. Perez Zayas and R. Tapanes, Rev. Biochem., 64, 420 (2000).
CENIC, Cienc. Fis., 5, 1 (1974). 14. J. Stoffelsma and K. B. de Roos, J. Agric.
4. C. A. Slater, J. Sci. Food Agric., 12, 732 Food Chem., 21, 738 (1973).
(1961). 15. N. G. Das et al., J. Vector. Borne. Dis., 40,
5. C. A. Slater, Chem. Ind. (London), 833 49 (2003).
(1961). 16. F. C. Ezeonu et al., Bioresour. Technol.,
6. B. C. Clark et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 76, 273 (2001).
35, 514 (1987). 17. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
7. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 16, 59 12, 731 (1974).
(1991). 18. F. J. C. Roe and W. E. H. Field, Food
8. W. L. Stanley and L. Jurd, J. Agric. Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 3, 311 (1965).
Chem., 19, 1109 (1971). 19. W. E. H. Field and F. J. C. Roe, J. Natl.
9. J. H. Tatum and R. E. Berry, Cancer Inst., 35, 771 (1966).
Phytochemistry, 16, 1091 (1977). 20. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
10. W. L. Stanley and S. H. Vannier, 12, 729 (1974).
Phytochemistry, 6, 585 (1967).
Source: Lobelia inflata L. (Family Campa- Contains about 0.48% pyridine (piperidine)
nulaceae). alkaloids composed mainly of lobeline, with
lesser amounts of lobelanine and lobelanidine.
Common/vernacular names: Indian tobacco, Other alkaloids present include norlobelanine
wild tobacco, asthma weed, gagroot, emetic (isolobelanine), lelobanidine, norlelobanidine,
herb, and vomit wort. norlobelanidine, lobinine, isolobinine, lobina-
nidine, isolobinanidine, 8-methyl-10-ethyllo-
belidiol, and 8-methyl-10-phenyllobelidiol,
GENERAL DESCRIPTION among others.1,2
It also contains resin, gum, fats, chelidonic
A hairy annual or biennial herb with alternate acid, b-amyrin palmitate, and others (KARRER;
3–5
leaves with light blue flowers; up to about 1 m LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MARTINDALE).
high; native to North America from Labrador The formation of lobeline and related al-
to Georgia and west to Arkansas. Part used is kaloids by L. inflata in tissue culture has been
the aboveground herb. reported.6
Lobelia 425
Apart from L. inflata, the pyrrolidine alka- ent in several brands of antismoking (smok-
loids radicamine A and B have been isolated ing deterrent) preparations. Lobelia and
from L. chinensis.7 A bioactive (a-glucosidase its extracts are used as ingredients in
inhibitor) homonojirimycin glycoside has cough preparations and in counterirritant
been isolated from L. sessilifolia.8 preparations.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
TOXICOLOGY
Overdosage may lead to convulsions and Crude and extracts. Crude, fluid extract,
collapse, with disputed fatal results and tincture were formerly official in N.F.
(MARTINDALE).14 Strengths (see glossary) of extracts are ex-
pressed in weight-to-weight ratios.
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BARNES; FOSTER; FOSTER AND DUKE; GOSSELIN; JIANGSU; LEWIS
AND ELVIN-LEWIS; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TYLER 1.
1. W. A. Ayer and T. E. Habgood in R. H. F. 9. A. Subarnas et al., J. Pharm. Pharmacol.,
Manske, ed., The Alkaloids, Vol. 11, 45, 545 (1993).
Academic Press, New York, 1968, p. 459. 10. A. Subarnas et al., J. Pharm. Sci., 81, 620
2. D. Gross in W. Herz et al., eds., (1992).
Fortschritte der Chemie Organischer 11. L. P. Dwoskin and P. A. Crooks, Biochem.
Naturstoffe, Vol. 29, Springer-Verlag, Pharmacol., 63, 89 (2002).
Vienna, 1971, p. 1.
12. L. Teng et al., J. Neurochem., 71, 258
3. A. Subarnas et al., Life Sci., 52, 289(1993). (1998).
4. M. S. Karawya et al., J. Assoc. Offic. Anal. 13. D. Y. Lim et al., Auton. Neurosci., 110, 27
Chem., 54, 1423 (1971). (2004).
5. T. E. Wallis, J. Pharma. Pharmacol., 9, 14. E. G. C. Clarke in R. H. F. Manske, ed.,
663 (1957). The Alkaloids, Vol. 12, Academic Press,
6. H.Wysokinska, Farm. Pol.,33, 725(1977). New York, 1970, p. 513.
7. M. Shibano et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull. 15. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 31, 71 (1968).
(Tokyo), 49, 1362 (2001). 16. L. Israelsen, Personal Communication,
8. K. Ikeda et al., Carbohydr. Res., 323, 73 1993.
(2000).
moisture, ash, etc.) comparable in quantities to viscosity and decrease the bioavailability of
those of guar gum. Its molecular weight has their calcium content.5
been reported to be 310,000. It has a structure
similar to that of guar gum, except that its USES
D-galactose side chain is not attached to every
other D-mannose unit as in guar but is attached Locust bean gum has gum, many of which are
to every consecutive mannose unit in blocks interchangeable (see guar gum).
of 25 units separated by unsubstituted blocks It is also used in place of tragacanth in some
of 85 mannose units each. Thus, locust bean pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications
gum contains fewer galactose units than guar (see tragacanth).
gum.1 A single heptasaccharide, digalactosyl-
mannopentaose, was identified after enzymat- Food. Gum is used in ice cream, cheese,
ic hydrolysis of the gum.2 meat and fish sauces, pie filling, soups, bakery
goods, and so on.6
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
ACTIVITIES Others. Gum used in manufacture of papers
as a sizing, bonding fibers together more
Like guar gum, locust bean gum does not seem efficiently than starch.6
to be digested by animals. Its growth-depressing
effects in laboratory animals have been rep-
orted, with inconclusive results as in guar gum.3 COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
In a pilot trial, inclusion of guar gum in
semisolid nutrient products, such as rice pud- Various grades with different viscosities and
ding, delayed gastric emptying rate in healthy particle sizes. It is official in F.C.C.
human subjects.4
The presence of locust bean gum in infant Regulatory Status. Has been affirmed as
milk formulas was shown to increase their GRAS (§184.1343).
REFERENCES
See the General References for FURIA; GLICKSMAN; GRIEVE; LAWRENCE; MARTINDALE; MERCK; WHISTLER AND
BEMILLER.
1. C. W. Baker and R. L. Whistler, 4. G. Darwiche et al., BMC. Gastroenterol.,
Carbohydr. Res., 45, 237 (1975). 3, 12 (2003).
2. A. L. Davis et al., Carbohydr. Res., 271, 43 5. D. Bosscher et al., Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr.,
(1995). 54, 261 (2003).
3. S. E. Davis and B. A. Lewis, ACS Symp. 6. R. L. Whistler, Econ. Bot., 36, 195 (1982).
Ser., 15, 296 (1975).
Source: Levisticum officinale W. D. J. Koch A large, nonhairy perennial herb with a stout
(syn. Angelica levisticum Baill.) (Family hollow stem; up to about 2 m high; native to
Umbelliferae or Apiaceae). the mountains of southern Europe; naturalized
in North America; cultivated in central and
Common/vernacular names: Smellage, smal- southern Europe (e.g., France, Belgium,
lage, and maggi herb. Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, and
428 Lovage root
Germany). Parts used are the dried rhizome warfarin and the possibility of increasing the
and roots of 2- to 3-year-old plants, collected risk of bleeding are also a concern.15
in the spring. Lovage oil is obtained by steam Available data from one source indicate
distillation of the fresh root. lovage root oil to be nonirritating and non-
sensitizing to human skin, though one case of
sensitization has been reported from another
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
source. The phototoxic effects of lovage oil on
humans are not known.16
Contains up to 1.8% (usually 0.5–1.0%) vola-
tile oil composed of 70% phthalides (butyli-
dene, dihydrobutylidene, and butylphthalides; USES
sedanonic anhydride; ligustilide; senkyuno-
lide; validene-4,5-dihydrophthalide; etc.), Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
with lesser amounts of terpenoids (a- and, Lovage oil is used as a fragrance component
b-pinenes, a- and b-phellandrenes, g-terpi- in soaps, creams, lotions; and perfumes; with
nene, carvacrol, and l-a-terpineol), volatile maximum use level of 0.2% reported in
acids (butyric acid, isovaleric acid, maleic perfumes.16
acid, angelic acid, etc.),1–4 0.1–4.3% coumar-
Food. Lovage oil and lovage extracts are
ins (coumarin, umbelliferone, bergapten, pso-
ralen, etc.);5–8 b-sitosterol and its glucoside,9 used as flavor components in major food
gum, and resin, among others (KARRER; LIST products, including alcoholic (liqueurs, etc.)
AND HÖRHAMMER; STAHL). Heptanal, trans-2-
and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy
nonenal, and cis-3-hexenyl butyrate are ob- desserts, candy, baked goods, gelatins and
tained by direct solvent extraction of the root, puddings, meat and meat products, and sweet
but are not in the root oil.10 sauces, among others. Average maximum use
The leaf oil contains a-terpinyl acetate levels are generally below 0.005%, with the
(29%), cis- and trans-ligustilides (18%), exceptions of 0.017% and about 0.013%
a-phellandrene (17%), and a-terpineol (125 ppm) reported for lovage extract (type
(5%).10,11 b-Phellandrene was recently re- not indicated) in sweet sauces and in frozen
ported to be the major volatile oil component dairy desserts, respectively.
(36–79%) in all organs except the roots.12 Lovage (crude) is also reported used in alco-
holic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy,
and baked goods. Highest average maximum
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL use level is 0.015% in alcoholic beverages.
ACTIVITIES
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Root
Lovage extracts and oil have been reported to occasionally used in digestive formulations
exhibit strong diuretic effects on rabbits and in capsules, tablets, and also as tea ingredient
mice (LIST AND HÖRHAMMER); and also spasmo- (FOSTER).
lytic effects.13 Lovage root has recently been
included in a review about herbals used for Traditional Medicine. Used as a diuretic,
urinary tract problems.14 stomachic, expectorant, and emmenagogue.
Phthalides have been reported to have sed- Conditions for which it is used include diges-
ative activities on mice (see celery). tive problems, flatulence, gastric catarrh, skin
problems, and menstrual difficulties.
TOXICOLOGY During China’s Cultural Revolution, the
root was used as a substitute for wild-harvested
Some of the coumarins are known to be pho- danggui (Angelica sinensis), until cultivated
totoxic to humans as well as useful in treating supplies of the drug were developed (FOSTER
psoriasis (see bergamot). Interaction with AND YUE).
Lycium fruit 429
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; BLUMENTHAL 1; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER;
FEMA; FERNALD; FOSTER; FOSTER AND YUE; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; LUST; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
ROSE; STAHL.
1. M. Sekulic and M. Smodlaka, Arh. Farm. 9. B. E. Nielsen and H. Kofod, Acta Chem.
(Belgrade), 11, 177 (1961). Scand., 17, 1167 (1963).
2. G. Tibori et al., Rev. Med. (Tirgu-Mures, 10. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 15, 57
Rom.), 20, 222 (1974). (1990).
3. G. Pattenden, Fortschritte der Chemie 11. Toulemonde et al., in B. M. Lawrence
Organischer Naturstoffe, Springer-Verlag, et al., eds., Flavors and Fragrances: A
Vienna, 1978, p. 133. World Perspective, Elsevier Science
4. M. J. M. Gijbels et al., Planta Med., 44, Publishers B.V.,Amsterdam, 1988, p. 641.
207 (1982). 12. E. Bylaite et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
5. D. Albulescu et al., Farmacia (Bucharest), 48, 6183 (2000).
23, 159 (1975). 13. Monograph, Levistici radix, Bundesan-
6. A. D. Dauksha, Aktual. Vop. Farm., 23, zeiger, no. 101 (June 1, 1990).
(1968). 14. E. Yarnell, World J. Urol., 20, 285 (2002).
7. J. Karlsen et al., Medd. Nor. Farm. Selsk., 15. A. M. Heck et al., Am. J. Health Syst.
30, 169 (1968). Pharm., 57, 1221 (2000).
8. F. C. Fischer and A. B. Svendsen, 16. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
Phytochemistry, 15, 1079 (1976). 16(Suppl. 1), 813 (1978).
Part used is the ripe fruit collected in summer betaine;9 b-carotene (7.38–8.88 mg/100 g);
or fall from both wild and cultivated plants, rid vitamins B1, B2, C (and a vitamin C glyco-
of stalk, left in a shady and airy area until skin is side);10 nicotinic acid;2,11,12 58–64% carbo-
wrinkled, and then sun dried or oven dried until hydrates (47–56% sugars, 5.4–8.2% polysac-
skin is dried but the whole fruit is still soft to the charides);2,13 scopoletin and low levels of
touch. Lycium fruit comes in numerous grades; atropine;14,15 taurine and g-aminobutyric
top grades consist of fruits that are large, bright acid;4 monomethyl succinante,16 cinnamic
red or purplish red, soft to the touch, and sweet acid; fats (8–12%) glycolipids and sphingoli-
in taste. Ningxia is the major producing prov- pids (cerebrosides);17,18 proteins (11–20%),
ince, which also produces the best grades (ZHU); glycoproteins and cyclic peptides;19–21 trace
most of the lycium fruit imported into the minerals; and others (HU).2,22,23
United States comes from Ningxia produced Bioactive phenolic amides (caffeoyl
from L. barbarum.2 tyramines and feruloyl octopamine) and
pyrrole derivatives were recently isolated
from the bark and fruit of L. chinense,
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION respectively.24,25
years significantly improved vision and dark hydroxyproline level (by 15.5%) in mice in-
adaptation, with serum vitamin A reaching dicating increased collagen synthesis, and
saturation level at 1.16 0.15 mol/L after promoting human fibroblast survival resulting
34 days of intake.12 in skin protection.49,50 Antimicrobial (anti-
Many studies indicate that the polysac- bacterial/antifungal);24,51 and aphrodisiac ef-
charides are responsible for most of the bio- fects have also been reported for lyceum.52,53
logical activities of lycium fruit, including Juice expressed from fresh young leaves of
antiperoxidative effects on cell membrane L. barbarum or L. chinense collected in spring
of Xenopus oocytes, with activity comparable and summer was used in topically treating
to that of SOD;29 preventing lipid peroxida- 1853 cases of mosquito and insect stings/bites
tion in liver, spleen, and brain tissues of rats with great success: 1703 cases cured with one
and mice induced by physical stress and by to three applications, leaving no scars or pig-
carbon tetrachloride;30 increasing the inter- mentation; only 10 cases did not respond.54
leukin-2 (IL-2) activity in adult mice and Possible interaction between L. barbarum
restoring the level of IL-2 activity of aged and warfarin has been reported. The authors
mice to that of adult mice;31 markedly ele- advised against the concomitant use of these
vating the cellular immune response in mice, entities.55
raising level of splenic plaque forming cells
in aged mice to that of adult mice and en-
hancing T-lymphocyte proliferation and cy- USES
totoxicity of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes and
natural killer cells in normal mice as well as Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
in immunosuppressed mice treated with cy- Traditionally considered of benefit to the com-
clophosphamide;32,33 reducing the dosage of plexion and to prolong life (mei rong yan
Corynebacterium parvum in a synergistic nian), lycium fruit has been consumed for
effect on the tumoristatic activity of mouse 2000 years in China for these purposes; in
peritoneal macrophages against P815 and recent years it is also used successfully in the
P388 cells;34 and protecting genetic material topical treatment of burns, ulcers, bedsores,
from genetic damage (antimutagenic) by mi- frostbite, canker sores, and furuncles.56 Its
tomycin both in vitro and in healthy subjects high contents of free amino acids, b-carotene,
over 60 years old.35,36 and bioactive polysaccharides as well recent
The above-mentioned findings are further evidence of its ability to increase skin hy-
supported by recent research that demon- droxyproline levels and at the same time with
strated that lyceum has antioxidant,11,37,38 no known human toxicity make it a potentially
neuroprotective (retinal ganglia and brain useful cosmetic ingredient.
cells),39,40 cytoprotective,37 hepatoprotective
(extract, glycolipids, pyrroles, and physa- Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Pow-
lien),17,18,25,41,42 immunomodulatory (poly- der and extracts (water and hydroalcoholic)
saccharides) and anticancer activities in vari- are used in tonic formulas (especially for
ous animal models.43–47 vision and male problems) in tablet, capsule,
Other biological effects include hypogly- or liquid form; also sold as whole for making
cemic (possibly by decreasing insulin resis- tea (use 1–2 tablespoons/cup).
tance),11,48 hypolipemic, preventing fatty
liver, hypotensive, and increasing weight gain Traditional Medicine. First described in the
in mice (when used with ginseng) among Ming Yi Bie Lu (ca. AD 200), lycium fruit is one
others (WANG); markedly increasing tolerance of the most commonly used Chinese yin to-
to anoxia as well as increasing dermal nics. Traditionally regarded as sweet tasting
432 Lycium fruit
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; CHP; FERNALD; FOSTER AND YUE; JIXIAN; HU; JIANGSU; HUANG;
LU AND LI; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; WANG; ZHU.
1. S. Y. Zee and L. H. Hui, Hong Kong Food 16. R. D. Hiserodt et al., J. Agric. Food
Plants, The Urban Council, Hong Kong, Chem., 52, 3536 (2004).
1981, p. 27. 17. S. Y. Kim et al., J. Nat. Prod., 60, 274
2. Z. S. Qi et al., Zhongyao Tongbao, 11, 41 (1997).
(1986). 18. K. Jung et al., Arch. Pharm. Res., 28,
3. X. Z. Meng et al., Zhongyao Tongbao, 12, 1381 (2005).
42 (1987). 19. S. Yahara et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.
4. H. Q. Chen et al., Zhongguo Yaole Daxue (Tokyo), 41, 703 (1993).
Xuebao, 22, 53 (1991). 20. X. Qin et al., Carbohydr. Res., 333, 79
5. Y. X. Gong, Zhongcaoyao, 18, 37 (1987). (2001).
6. J. Wang et al., Shandong Zhongyi Zazhi, 21. X. Peng and G. Tian, Carbohydr. Res.,
10, 42 (1991). 331, 95 (2001).
7. Y. Peng et al., Plant Foods Hum. Nutr., 22. Q. H. Yuan, Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi,
60, 161 (2005). 14, 42 (1989).
8. P. Weller and D. E. Breithaupt, J. Agric. 23. Y. Q. Shao et al., Shandong Zhongyi
Food Chem., 51, 7044 (2003). Zazhi, 9, 38 (1990).
9. Y. G. Shin et al., J. Chromatogr. A, 857, 24. D. G. Lee et al., Biotechnol. Lett., 26,
331 (1999). 1125 (2004).
10. Y. Toyoda-Ono et al., J. Agric. Food 25. Y. W. Chin et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem.
Chem., 52, 2092 (2004). Lett., 13, 79 (2003).
11. Q. Luo et al., Life Sci., 76, 137 (2004). 26. P. G. Xiao and K. J. Chen, Phytother.
12. Y. Shen et al., Acta Nutrimenta Sinica, Res., 2, 55 (1988).
12, 420 (1990). 27. W. Li et al., Zhongcaoyao, 22, 251
13. Q. Wang et al., Zhongcaoyao, 22, 67 (1991).
(1991). 28. D. Y. Li et al., 20, 10, (1989).
14. M. Adams et al., Phytochem. Anal., 17, 29. X. Zhang and X. C. Xie, Zhongguo
279 (2006). Zhongyao Zazhi, 18, 110 (1993).
15. C. S. Li et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi, 30. H. Zhan et al., Chin. J. Pharmacol.
15, 43 (1990). Toxicol., 3, 163 (1989).
Lycium fruit 433
alkaloid) have recently been identified in M. factor activities at IC50 38 and 100 nM,
x soulangiana.15 respectively;13 while tiliroside had potent antic-
omplement activity at IC50 54 nM.9
5. Transdermal absorption of drugs. The essential
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
oil of M. fargesii enhanced the in vitro skin
ACTIVITIES
permeation of theophylline and catechin.24
Magnolia flower has numerous biological ac-
tivities, including antihistaminic in guinea pig TOXICOLOGY
trachea (due to volatile oil, alcoholic, and
water extracts);16,17 protective against allergic Magnolia flower has very low toxicity: i.v.
asthma in guinea pig (volatile oil);17 inhibition injection of decoction in dogs (1.0 g/kg) and
of histamine release from rat mast cells;14 rabbits (4.75 g/kg) produced no fatalities. The
anti-inflammatory in mice (magnoshinin and LD50 (i.p.) of its tincture (after alcohol remov-
magnosalin);7,11 inhibitor of TNF-a in murine al) in rats and mice were 22.5 0.96 and
macrophages;18 Ca2 þ -antagonistic on the tae- 19.9 0.25 g/kg, respectively, based on the
nia coli of guinea pig (neolignans);6 central crude drug (WANG).
dopaminergic modulating in mice (d-coclaur-
ine and d-reticuline);8 neuromuscular block-
ing in isolated frog skeletal muscle and nerve- USES
muscle preparations (alkaloids);3 hypotensive
in several species of experimental animals Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
(alcoholic and water extracts); uterus stimu- Extracts used in skin care products to mini-
lating in animals (decoction and fluid extract); mize or counteract undesirable irritant effects
antifungal, antibacterial, and antiviral (decoc- of other cosmetic ingredients; also used for its
tion); frog skeletal muscle contracting (decoc- traditional skin-whitening properties.
tion) and relaxant (alkaloids); local anesthetic
in animals (decoction and infusion); and
others (JIANGSU; WANG). Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Used
Magnolia flower in various forms (decoc- in allergy and cold preparations (JIANGSU).
tion, alcoholic extract, volatile oil, etc.) and in
combination with other herbal drugs has been Traditional Medicine. Traditionally consid-
reported highly effective both locally and ered acrid tasting and warming; disperses
internally in treating allergic rhinitis (e.g., hay wind and cold (san feng han) and clears the
fever), chronic rhinitis, and paranasal sinusitis nasal cavity. Chinese traditional use records
(WANG).19,20 date back 3000 years to the Wu Shi Er Bing
Magnolia extracts and/or their constituents Fang (Prescriptions for 52 Diseases; 1065-
have also been investigated in the following 771 BC). Used both internally and externally to
activities/conditions: treat nasal congestion, running nose, the com-
mon cold, and headache as well as facial dark
1. Diabetic nephropathy in rats (magnolol). Re-
spots; also used topically to treat toothache.
duced fasting blood glucose and retarded the
development of complications.21
2. Acetlycholinesterase inhibition (taspine). Dose-
dependent inhibition (IC50 0.33 mM).15 COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
3. Apoptosis/Angiogenesis. Induction of mitochon-
drial- and caspase-dependent apoptosis in mast Crude and extracts (mainly hydroalcoholic
cells;22 and antiangiogenic activity (magnosalin) and hydroglycolic).
in rat vascular endothelial cells.23
4. Platelet activation and complement fixation. Regulatory Status. United States regulatory
Magnone A & B exhibited antiplatelet-activating- status not determined.
436 Marjoram (sweet, pot, and wild)
REFERENCES
See General References for JIANGSU; JIXIAN; HU; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NATIONAL; WANG; HONGKUI;
1. Z. F. Wu et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao 13. K. Y. Jung et al., J. Nat. Prod., 61, 808
Zazhi, 16, 13 (1991). (1998).
2. W. Z. Song, Zhongcaoyao, 15, 26 (1984). 14. T. Tsuruga et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.
3. I. Kimura et al., Planta Med., 48, 43 (Tokyo), 39, 3265 (1991).
(1983). 15. J. M. Rollinger et al., J. Nat. Prod., 69,
4. Y. Y. Tong and W. Z. Song, Yaoxue 1341 (2006).
Xuebao, 20, 22 (1985). 16. R. D. Xiang et al., Zhongcaoyao, 16, 22
5. Z. L. Xu et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao (1985).
Zazhi, 14, 38 (1989). 17. D. Q. Zhouo et al., Zhongcaoyao, 22, 81
6. C. C. Chen et al., Planta Med., 54, 438 (1991).
(1988). 18. S. H. Chae et al., Arch. Pharm. Res., 21,
7. M. Kimura et al., Planta Med., 51, 291 67 (1998).
(1985). 19. T. C. Wang et al., Chin. J. Integr. Trad.
8. H. Watanabe et al., Planta Med., 42, 213 Western Med., 4, 728 (1984).
(1981). 20. Y. Ren, Zhongyao Tongbao, 10, (1985).
9. K. Y. Jung et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 21, 21. E. J. Sohn et al., Life Sci., (2006).
1077 (1998). 22. G. C. Kim et al., Int. Arch. Allergy
10. J. Li et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull. (Tokyo), Immunol., 131, 101 (2003).
53, 235 (2005). 23. S. Kobayashi et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull.,
11. J. Du et al., J. Asian Nat. Prod. Res., 3, 19, 1304 (1996).
313 (2001). 24. J. Y. Fang et al., J. Pharm. Pharmacol.,
12. M. Kuroyanagi et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull. 56, 1493 (2004).
(Tokyo), 48, 832 (2000).
AND BELLANCA). According to ROSENGARTEN, O. sweet marjoram oil (GUENTHER; LIST AND
vulgare has been known as wild marjoram (in € RHAMMER).2–6
HO
agreement with ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; and Other compounds present in sweet marjo-
TERRELL) and is one of the two major sources ram include flavonoid glycosides (luteolin-7-
of oregano (European oregano). The other diglucoside, apigenin-7-glucoside, and dios-
major type of oregano, Mexican oregano, is metin-7-glucuronide), 6-hydroxyluteolin and
mostly derived from Lippia species, especial- 6-hydroxyapigenin glycosides, arbutin,
ly L. graveolens H. B. K. (ROSENGARTEN; methylarbutin,7,8 tannins, caffeic acid, carno-
TERRELL) (See oregano). The source of pot sic acid, carnosol,9 labiatic acid, rosmarinic
marjoram is attributed to a single species, acid,10 steroids (e.g., b-sitosterol), triterpe-
M. onites, also called O. Onites (BAILEY 1; noids (oleanolic acid, ursolic acid, etc.), par-
ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL). The major source of affins (e.g., n-triacontane), protein (ca. 13%),
Spanish origanum is not an Origanum species vitamins (especially A and C), and others (LIST
but is Thymus capitatus (L.) Hoffmgg. et AND HO € RHAMMER; MARSH).9,11–13
Link. Nevertheless, Origanum species are Pot marjoram is reported to contain
used and thus add to the confusion (see origa- 1.4–2.4% volatile oil, consisting mainly
num oil, Spanish). of carvacrol, linalool, and thymol (LIST AND
Sweet marjoram is a tender, bushy peren- HO€ RHAMMER). A Turkish variety was recently
nial hairy herb, up to about 0.6 m; leaves reported to contain carvacrol, thymol, p-cym-
woolly hairy ovate to ovate lanceolate, slightly ene, and g-terpinene as the major constitu-
toothed; flowers purple rarely white in com- ents.14 Fatty acids (e.g., linolenic, linoleic, and
pact heads, forming a terminal trichotomous oleic) and tochopherols (a-, b-, g- and d-) are
panicle;1 native to the Mediterranean region; also present with g-tochopherol being the
cultivated as an annual in colder climates. Part major homologue.15,16
used is the dried flowering herb from which
sweet marjoram oil is obtained by steam
distillation in 0.2–0.8% yield. Major oil- PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
producing countries include France, Tunisia, ACTIVITIES
Morocco, and Bulgaria.
Pot marjoram is a sturdy perennial herb Extracts of sweet marjoram have antioxidant/
with coarse hairy, erect stems and sessile, free radical scavenging properties that are in
hairy (long and soft) leaves; native to the part due to labiatic, ursolic and carnosic
Mediterranean region. Parts used are the dried acids, and carnosol and phenolic com-
leaves. It is considered of low quality and not pounds.9,11,17–19 The antioxidant activity is
much used. reflected in the ability of the volatile oil and
different marjoram extracts to act as liver and
kidney chemopreventive agents against lead
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION acetate toxicity in mice.20
The methanolic extract of sweet marjoram
Sweet marjoram contains up to 3% volatile exhibited moderate antibacterial activity
oil (usually less than 1%), consisting primar- against Helicobacter pylori.21 Its aqueous ex-
ily of a-terpinene, g-terpinene, p-cymene, tract has also been reported to have antiviral
4-terpineol, sabinene, linalool, borneol, car- activities against herpes simplex in vitro.22
vacrol, cis-sabinene hydrate, and trans-sabi- Sweet marjoram is considered to have car-
nene hydrate with linalyl acetate, ocimene, minative, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, and di-
cadinene, geranyl acetate, citral, estragole, uretic properties. Ursolic acid has been re-
eugenol, and 3-carene, totaling more than 50 ported to inhibit acetylcholineesterase and
compounds. cis-Sabinene hydrate is reported may thus have potential in the management
to be responsible for the typical aroma of of Alzheimer’s disease.23 Larvicidal activity
438 Marjoram (sweet, pot, and wild)
of pot marjoram against Culex mosquito lar- frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked goods,
vae has also been reported.24 gelatins and puddings, meat and meat pro-
ducts, condiments and relishes, and others.
Average maximum use levels reported are
TOXICOLOGY generally below 0.004%.
Sweet marjoram is also used in baked
Fresh sweet marjoram may cause inflamma- goods, meat and meat products, condiments,
tion of the skin and eyes (LIST AND and relishes, soups, snack foods, processed
HO€ RHAMMER). vegetables, and others, with highest average
Sweet marjoram oil has been reported to be maximum use level of about 1% (9946 ppm)
nonirritating and nonsensitizing to human reported in baked goods.
skin.25
Traditional Medicine. Sweet marjoram has
been used for treating similar types of condi-
USES tions as Origanum vulgare (see oregano). It
has also been used in cancers.26
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
Sweet marioram oil is used as a fragrance
component in soaps, detergents, creams, lo- COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
tions, and perfumes, with maximum use level
of 0.6% reported in perfumes.25 Sweet marjoram crude, oil, and oleoresin.
Sweet marjoram oil is official in F.C.C.
Food. Sweet marjoram oil and oleoresin are
used as flavor ingredients in most food cate- Regulatory Status. GRAS (Sweet marjoram,
gories, including alcoholic (bitters, ver- §182.10 and §182.20; pot marjoram, §182.10).
mouths, etc.) and nonalcoholic beverages,
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; FEMA; GUENTHER; GRIEVE; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN
1 & 2; ROSE; ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL.
1. K. R. Kiritikar and B. D. Basu, Indian 8. M. H. Assaf et al., Planta Med., 53, 343
Medicinal Plants, International Book (1987).
Distributors, 1999, p. 1985. 9. E. Vagi et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 53,
2. J. Novak et al., Biochem. Syst. Ecol., 28, 17 (2005).
697 (2000). 10. U. Gerhardt and A. Schroeter,
3. R. Granger et al., Riv. Ital. Essenze, Fleischwirtschaft, 63, 1628 (1983).
Profumi, Piante Offic., Aromi, Saponi, 11. H. J. Heo et al., Mol. Cells, 13, 5 (2002).
Cosmet., 57, 446 (1975). 12. W. Olechnowicz-Stepien and E. Lamer-
4. J. Taskinen, Acta Chem. Scand., Ser. B, Zarawska, Herba Pol., 21, 347 (1975).
28, 1121 (1974). 13. G. Lossner, Planta Med., 16, 54 (1968).
5. G. Graner, Pr€ap. Pharm., 4, 86 (1968). 14. F. Demirci et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
6. E. Sarer et al., Planta Med., 46, 236 52, 251 (2004).
(1982). 15. V. Lagouri and D. Boskou, Int. J. Food
7. J. Kawabata et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Sci. Nutr., 47, 493 (1996).
Biochem., 67, 445 (2003). 16. N. Azcan et al., Lipids, 39, 487 (2004).
Milk thistle 439
17. Y. Saito et al., Eiyo To Shokuryo, 29, 505 22. E. C. Herrmann and L. S. Kucera, Proc.
(1976). Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 124, 874 (1967).
18. K. Herrmann, Z. Lebensm. Unters. 23. Y. K. Chung et al., Mol. Cells, 11, 137
Forsch., 116, 224 (1962). (2001).
19. S. Zalewski, Przemysl Spozywczy, 16, 24. Cetin H and A. Yanikoglu, J. Vector
237 (1962). Ecol., 31, 118 (2006).
20. I. M. el-Ashmawy et al., Basic Clin. 25. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
Pharmacol. Toxicol., 97, 238 (2005). 14, 469 (1976).
21. G. B. Mahady et al., Phytother. Res., 19, 26. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 32, 247 (1969).
988 (2005).
Hepatoprotective activity of silymarin has ranging from fatty liver through fatty liver
been demonstrated in numerous experimental hepatitis to actual hepatic cirrhosis, caused
models of toxic liver damage, including car- by toxic substances, drugs, or exposure to
bon tetrachloride, alcohol, galactosamine, irradiation.6
thioacetamide, hepatotoxic cold-blood frog The chemopreventive effects of milk thistle
virus (FV3), lanthanides, and the toxins of have been investigated in various studies.
Amanita phalloides (deathcap fungus) phal- Silybin was found to protect the following
loidin and a-amanitin.1,15,16 Efficacy is based organs from chemical- or radiation-induced
on several separate mechanisms of action. toxicities: rat cardiac muscle cells,27,28 kidney
Silymarin stimulates RNA polymerase A, en- cells of rats and monkeys,29,30 skin cells of
hancing ribosome protein synthesis and re- mice,31–33 and rat gastric mucosa and pancre-
sulting in activating the regenerative capacity as.34,35 Silymarin was also found to inhibit
of the liver through cell development.1,5,17 carcinogenesis in rat colon cells,36 mice uri-
Silybin inhibits Kupffer cell functions respon- nary bladder,37 rat tongue cells,38 and human
sible for the formation of ROSs and mediators breast cancer cells.39
of inflammation.18 Silymarin interacts with The anticancer effect of milk thistle has
hepatic cell membranes, blocking binding equally been investigated in numerous animal
cites and hindering the uptake of toxins as models and in human patients. Silybin was
demonstrated in rabbit liver microsomes19 and found to arrest cell growth and progression of
mononuclear lipid layers.20 Strong antioxi- lung and prostate tumors in mice and rats,40–42
dant (free radical scavenging activity 10-fold and to inhibit human hepatocellular, prostate,
greater than vitamin E), blocking the release and bladder carcinomas.43–48 Mechanisms at-
of malonyldialdehyde, and antiperoxidative tributed to the anticancer effect include inacti-
activity has been reported.9,11,21,22 Clinical vation of MAPK and other kinase signaling
studies have suggested that pretreatment with pathways,43,45,49 suppression of Topo-II gene
silymarin inhibits alcohol-, industrial- chemi- expression,44 reduced metastasis by inhibiting
cal-, and psychopharmaceutical-induced liver urokinase-plasminogen activator and matrix
damage, accelerating normalization of im- metalloproteinase,50 inhibition of telomerase,47
paired liver function.1,17 Patients who re- and caspase 3-controlled apoptosis.41,46,51
ceived silymarin showed an accelerated im- Milk thistle extract and its flavanolignans
provement of increased serum levels of GOT, were recently found to display immuno-
GPT, and g-GT.23 Silibinin administered in i.v. modulatory/stimulatory,13,52–54 antimicrobial
infusion has shown protective and curative (silybin against Gram-positive bacteria),55
effect on liver damage resulting from the anti-inflammatory56,57 (proinflammatory at
highly toxic compounds phalloidin and a- high dose),57 antidiabetic,58,59 P-glycoprotein
amanitin (from Amanita phalloides). The anti- inhibitory,60,61 and cholesterol-lowering
hepatotoxic effect of silymarin was found to effects.62–64
depend on the time interval in which poison-
ing and therapy took place as well as the
degree of liver damage. A multicenter trial TOXICOLOGY
involving 220 cases of Amanita poisoning
treated in German, French, Swiss, and Even in large doses silymarin is devoid of
Austrian hospitals was carried out from toxic effects and in particular has no harmful
1979 to 1982, using silibinin in supportive action an the embryo.1,6,17 In isolated cases, a
treatment. Use of silibinin as an adjunct to mild laxative effect has been observed.16 Also,
current methods has lowered mortality rates in a recent study, dietary silymarin adminis-
below any levels that have previously been tration enhanced mammary carcinogenesis in
achieved.24–26 Silymarin products were used rats and mice possibly due to an estrogen-like
with success in toxic-metabolic liver damage, activity.65
Milk thistle 441
Many reviews of the pharmacological ac- Traditional Medicine. Milk thistle seeds
tivities, clinical efficacy, and new potentials of have been used continuously for 2000 years
milk thistle have been published.40,66–77 for liver conditions (first mentioned by Pliny
in the 1st century).1 Historical references are
particularly abundant in herbals of the Middle
USES Ages, including the hepatoprotective activity.6
Eclectic physicians in 19th-century America
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. used seeds for liver congestion. Use of the seed
In Europe, clinical use is widespread for toxic for treatment of liver diseases was revitalized
liver damage in supportive treatment of chron- by the German physician Rademacher in the
ic inflammatory liver disorders and cirrhosis, mid-19th century. Reinvestigation of the value
including chronic hepatitis and fatty infiltra- of milk thistle in modern practice began with
tion of the liver by alcohol and other chemi- H. Schulz in 1929 and G. Madaus in 1938.6
cals. In infusion therapy, silibinin preparations
used for supportive treatment of Amanita
mushroom poisoning.16 COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BARNES; BARRETT; BISSET ET AL.; BLUMENTHAL 1 & 2;
BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DER MARDEROSIAN AND LIBERTI; DUKE 4; FELTER AND LLOYD;
FOSTER; FOSTER AND DUKE; GRIEVE; HUANG; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; STEINMETZ; TYLER 1–3; UPHOF;
WEISS; WREN.
1. S. Foster, Milk Thistle-Silybum World Scientific Pub. Co., Singapore,
Marianum, Botanical Series, no. 305, 1985, p. 247.
American Botanical Council, Austin, 5. D. V. C. Awang, Can. Pharm. J., 403
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442 Milk thistle
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Source: Peppermint Mentha piperita L. Closely related perennial aromatic herbs with
(hybrid of M. spicata L. and M. aquatica runners or stolons by which they are propa-
L.); Spearmint Mentha spicata L. (syn. M. gated; leaves of spearmint are sessile
viridis L.); Cornmint Mentha arvensis L. (no petioles), while those of peppermint and
var. piperascens Malinvaud (Family Labia- cornmint are petioled and short petioled, re-
tae or Lamiaceae). spectively; up to about 1 m high; cultivated
worldwide. Each species has numerous varie-
Common/vernacular names: Field mint, ties, strains, or chemotypes that produce
Japanese mint (M. arvensis). essential oils with widely different chemical
444 Mints
compositions.1,2 There are 20 true species of vone,25 menthone, menthol, pulegone, piper-
Mentha, represented by as many as 2300 itenone, piperitenone oxide,26cis-carveyl ace-
named variations, half of which are synonyms; tate,27 carveol, myrcene, a-and b-pinenes,
half are legitimate infraspecific names.3 Com- cineole, linalool, a-terpineol, terpinen-4-ol,
mercial varieties of mints produce oils that can terpinolene,1 dihydrocarveol, dihydrocarveol
be distinguished by their relative contents of acetate; caryophyllene, 3-octyl acetate, 3-oc-
menthol and carvone. Parts used are the dried tanol; menthofuran,28 and cis-hexenyl isova-
leaves and the fresh or partially dried whole, lerate, among others (JIANGSU; REMINGTON).29
aboveground flowering herb. The former fur- Other constituents present in spearmint
nishes the spice, while the latter is used for the include flavonoids (e.g., diosmin and diosme-
production of the essential oil. tin),30 monoterpene glycosides (spicatoside A
United States is the major producer of and B)31 and probably similar compounds as
peppermint and spearmint and their essential those found in peppermint.
oils, especially in Idaho, Indiana, Oregon, Monomenthyl succinate is a common con-
Washington, and Wisconsin (USDA). Major stituent in peppermint and spearmint.32
producers of cornmint and cornmint oil in- Cornmint contains 1–2% volatile oil that
clude Japan, Taiwan, and Brazil. consists of a high concentration of menthol
(70–95%),33–35 menthone (10–20%),36
menthyl acetate, isomenthone, thujone, api-
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION nene, phellandrene, piperitone, menthofuran,
and others (JIANGSU; LIST AND HO€ RHAMMER;
28
Peppermint yields 0.1–1.0% (usually MORTON 3).
0.3–0.4%) of volatile oil that is composed A cultivar of M. arvensis has been reported
mainly of menthol (29–48%), menthone to contain high concentrations of menthofuran
(20–31%), and menthyl acetate (ca. 310%), (42%) and lesser amounts of menthol (21%),
with smaller amounts of menthofuran (1–7%) menthyl acetate (14%), and menthone
and limonene.1,4–6 Other constituents present in (0.71%).37
peppermint oil include viridiflorol,7,8 pulegone Other compounds present in cornmint in-
(1–11%),9 1,8-cineole (6–7.5%), piperitone, clude oligosaccharides (raffinose and sta-
caryophyllene, bisabolene, isomenthone, iso- chyose),38 resin, tannin, and rosmarinic acid
menthol, a- and b-pinenes,10 neomenthol,5 (JIANGSU).22
ledol, d-trans-sabinene hydrate,11 and bicy-
cloelemene, among others (REMINGTON).12
Other constituents present in peppermint PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
include flavonoids (e.g., menthoside, isorhoi- ACTIVITIES
folin, hesperetin, eriodictyol-7-O-rutinoside,
luteolin-7-O-rutinoside, rutin, narirutin, dios- Volatile oils obtained from peppermint, corn-
min, and hesperidin),13–15 phytol, tocopherols mint, and other mint species have antimicro-
(a and g), carotenoids (e.g., a- and b-caro- bial, antimalarial and antigiradial activities in
tenes), betaine, choline, azulenes, chromone vitro.39–50 Peppermint extracts have been re-
glycosides,14 caffeic and rosmarinic ported to have antiviral activities against New-
acids,13,16 and tannin.17–22 An O-acetylated castle disease, herpes simplex, vaccinia, Sem-
xyloglucan polysaccharide was isolated from liki Forest, and West Nile viruses in egg and
the cell suspension cultures of peppermint.23 cell culture systems (see balm).51,52 The ethyl
Spearmint yields normally about 0.7% vol- acetate extract of Moroccan M. longifolia was
atile oil, consisting of 50–70% carvone, with also found to possess inhibitory activity
lesser amounts of dihydrocarvone, phellan- against HIV-1 reverse transcriptase.53
drene, and limonene.24 Other compounds Peppermint oil has been demonstrated
reported to be present include 6-hydroxycar- to exhibit spasmolytic activity on smooth
Mints 445
Traditional Medicine. Peppermint, spear- and spearmint oil are official in N.F. Pepper-
mint, and their oils reportedly used in both mint oil, spearmint oil, and dementholized
western and eastern cultures as aromatic, sto- cornmint oil are official in F.C.C.
machic, stimulant, antiseptic, local anesthetic,
and antispasmodic in treating indigestion, Regulatory Status. Peppermint, spearmint,
nausea, sore throat, diarrhea, colds, head- and their derivatives (e.g., oils) are GRAS
aches, toothaches, and cramps (LEUNG). (§182.10 and §182.20). Peppermint-derived
Cornmint is used in China for treating entities (oil, extracts, and leaves) are also
similar conditions; also used in relieving ear- considered to be safe when used in cosmetic
ache and treating tumors and sores. formulations.84
All three mints have been reported to be The European monograph suggests use of
used in cancers.83 the oil, only under the direction of a physician,
for bile duct and gallbladder inflammation and
Others. Peppermint oil and menthol are gallstones; also for spasms of the upper gas-
widely used in flavoring tobacco. trointestinal tract, flatulence, symptomatic
Cornmint oil is mainly used for the produc- treatment of irritable bowel syndrome, and
tion of menthol. Due to the high concentra- catarrh of the respiratory tract. External use
tions of menthol in this oil, it will solidify at includes oral mucosa inflammations, rheu-
room temperature. Much of the menthol can matic conditions, and local muscle and nerve
be removed from the crude oil (which may pain, as well as skin conditions such as pruri-
contain about 90% menthol) by freezing. The tus and urticaria (ESCOP 3).
‘‘dementholized’’ oil still contains about 55% Peppermint leaf and oil are subjects of
menthol; this oil is the commercial cornmint German therapeutic monographs; leaves in
oil. It can be further used as a source of infusion, or extract for spastic complaints of
menthol. the gastrointestinal tracts as well as gallblad-
der and bile ducts, at average daily dose of
3–6 g of the leaves; 5–15 g tincture.85,86
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
REFERENCES
See the General References for APhA; ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; BLUMENTHAL 1 & 2; ESCOP 3; FARNSWORTH 1–4;
FEMA; FOGARTY; FOSTER; GOSSELIN; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; LIST AND HO € RHAMMER; MARTINDALE; NANJING;
REMINGTON; ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL; UPHOF; USD 26TH.
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5. K. Belafi-Rethy et al., Acta Chim. Respub. Beloruss., Mater Nauch. Knof.,
(Budapest), 76, 167 (1973). 2, 225 (1973).
Mints 447
10. I. Calvarano, Essenze Deriv. Agrum., 39, 32. C. Marin and C. Schippa, J. Agric. Food
77 (1969). Chem., 54, 4814 (2006).
11. Y. Ono et al., Bunseki Kagaku, 24, 589 33. M. L. Sharma et al., Indian Perfum., 16,
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Med., 50, 361 (1984). Essent. Oils (Pap.), 6, 10 (1974).
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448 Mistletoe
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27, 571 (1964).
angiosperms and gymnosperms; most of Eur- A single study, however, reported that isolated
ope; naturalized in one California county. polysaccharides from the stem (a galacturo-
The part used is the herb. nan), and from the berries (an arabinogalac-
tan), failed to increase phagocytosis of
granulocytes and macrophages.31
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
The most studied activity for mistletoe over
the last decade is its antitumor effect. Numer-
All plant parts contain b-phenylethylamine,
ous reports have been published on its efficacy
tyramine, and related compounds; polypep-
in various human cancer conditions, and
tides, including viscotoxins I, II, III, IVb (II,
against many tumors and cancer cell lines in
III, IVb identical to viscotoxins B, A-2, and A-
vivo and in vitro, respectively.2,32–41 Antitu-
3, respectively);2–4 glycoprotein lectins, in-
mor mechanisms involve the immunomodu-
cluding viscumin and lectins 1, II, and III;5–13
latory effect mentioned above for lectins, as
flavonoids/phenylpropanoids, including syr-
well as apoptosis, antiangiogenesis, cell cycle
ingin, coniferin, syringenin apiosylglucoside
disruption, and direct cytotoxic effects on
and 4,400 -diglucoside (eleutheroside E), 5,7-
cancer cells.19,42–51
dimethoxyflavanone apiosylglucoside, 5,7-
Isolated polypeptides, viscotoxins II, III,
dimethoxynaringenin, 20 -hydroxy-40 ,60 -di-
and IVb, have been associated with cardio-
methoxychalcone glucoside, and others;14–16
toxicity but have also been found to exhibit
phenolic acids (nature depends on the plant on
cytotoxic activity against human tumor cells
which mistletoe grows), for example, caffeic,
of the KB and HeLa lines in tissue culture.4 A
gentisic, vanillic, digallic, and salicylic
peptide with a molecular weight of 5000 was
acids;17 polysaccharides18 rich in glucose,
found to be cytotoxic to Dalton’s lymphoma
galactose, rhamnose, arabinose, xylose, and
ascites tumor cells in vitro in mice, without
galacturonic acid (WREN).
affecting normal lymphocytes, indicating a
Sterols and triterpenes (b-amyrin, b-sitos-
cell-dependent specificity;52 also cyctotoxic
terol, lupeol, stigmasterol, viscin, betulinic
to Ehrlich ascites cells, both prophylactically
acid, oleanolic acid, and ursolic acid),19,20
and after tumor development.53 Commercial
fatty acids (oleic, linoleic, palmitic, and stea-
mistletoe products have been used to treat
ric acids),19 and an acyclic monoterpene gly-
various cancers in Europe with clinical suc-
coside (2,6-dimethylocta-2,7-diene-1,6-diol
cess. A group of 50 cases of carcinomatous
4-O-apiosylglucoside) have recently been iso-
pleural effusions were treated with a topical
lated from mistletoe.21
preparation for an average of 3.3 application
over 18 days; exudation disappeared in 92% of
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL the patients.54 In postoperative ovarian cancer
ACTIVITIES patients, a mistletoe preparation statistically
increased survival.55
Various pharmacological activities include Anti-inflammatory activity has been
immunostimulant, antineoplastic, hypoten- reported for mistletoe extract, its agglutinin-
sive, cardiotonic, sedative, and antispasmodic I lectin and its flavonoid constituents in the
(WREN). carrageenan-induced rat paw edema, in chron-
Immunostimulatory activity has been con- ic hepatitis and in the inflammatory response
firmed in many in vitro and in vivo models in through neutrophils.14,56,57
addition to human clinical studies.22–29 Pro- The aqueous extract and phenolic fractions
posed mechanisms include stimulation of both of mistletoe exhibited in vitro vasodilating
the cellular (increased production of lympho- effect on the coronary blood vessels, rat aortic
cytes, leukocytes, and natural killer cells) and rings, and perfused heart model. The effect
humoral (the production of lymphokines may be mediated through modulation of nitric
by lymphocytes) immune responses.23,25–30 oxide production.15,58 Lignans are believed to
450 Mistletoe
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 1; DER MARDEROSIAN AND LIBERTI;
FOSTERANDDUKE; GRIEVE; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; STEINMETZ; TUTIN 1; TYLER 1; WEISS; WREN.
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27. T. Hajto et al., Anticancer Drugs, (2000).
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(1996). (1988).
31. E. Jordan and H. Wagner, Oncology, 43, 8 53. G. Kuttan et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 29,
(1986). 35 (1990).
452 Monosodium glutamate (MSG)
54. G. Slazer and H. Muller, Praxis 66. G. S. Kienle et al., Eur. J. Med. Res., 8,
und Klinik der Pneumologia, 32, 721 109 (2003).
(1978). 67. P. J. Mansky, Semin. Oncol., 29, 589
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56. K. J. Tusenius et al., Arzneim.-Forsch., 25, 374 (2002).
55, 749 (2005). 69. U. Mengs et al., Anticancer Res., 22, 1399
57. V. Lavastre et al., Clin. Exp. Immunol., (2002).
137, 272 (2004). 70. N. Zarkovic et al., Cancer Biother.
58. F. A. Tenorio et al., Fitoterapia, 76, 204 Radiopharm., 16, 55 (2001).
(2005). 71. C. Bauer et al., Ann. Allergy Asthma
59. H. Wagner et al., Planta Med., 52, 102 Immunol., 94, 86 (2005).
(1986). 72. M. Augustin et al., Arzneim.-Forsch., 55,
60. U. E. Onay et al., Fitoterapia (2006). 38 (2005).
61. D. D. Orhan et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 73. A. M. Burger et al., Anticancer Res., 23,
98, 95 (2005). 3801 (2003).
62. A. M. Gray and P. R. Flatt, J. Endocrinol., 74. W. M. van et al., Am. J. Ther., 6, 37
160, 409 (1999). (1999).
63. A. Karagoz et al., Phytother. Res., 17, 75. Monograph Visci albi herba, Bunde-
560 (2003). sanzeiger, no. 228 (December 5, 1984).
64. S. Elluru et al., Arzneim.-Forsch., 56, 461 76. I. A. Bowman, HerbalGram, 26, 16
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(2003). sanzeiger, no. 228 (July 14, 1993).
grown aerobically in a liquid nutrient medium ative findings.15,18,26 The other laboratories
containing a carbon source (e.g., dextrose or have observed consistently either one or
citrate), a nitrogen source such as ammonium the other but not both.13,14,16,17,22–25,29 Three
ions or urea, and mineral ions and growth recent reports further support the lack of seri-
factors. The bacteria selected for this process ous side effects for MSG in humans.36–38
have the ability to synthesize and excrete Other recent studies, however, showed that
glutamic acid into the medium where it accu- MSG can induce diabetes, hepatotoxicity,
mulates. The glutamic acid is separated from nephrotoxicity, and visual impairment in mice
the fermentation broth by filtration, concen- and rats.39–41
tration, acidification, and crystallization, fol- Monosodium glutamate has also been re-
lowed by conversion to its monosodium salt ported to have emetic properties in experimen-
MSG.5,6 tal animals (dogs, cats, and monkeys),42 to
Monosodium glutamate is considered to induce clonic movements and tonic-clonic
be a flavor enhancer, which enhances or in- seizures in rats,43,44 to cause obesity in mice,45
tensifies the flavor of other foods and salty to cause sterility in female mice, and other
taste.7,8 Its flavor-enhancing property was dis- activities.19,28,46
covered in the early 1900s by the Japanese
who first started producing it in a commercial
scale and have since been the major producer.9 USES
Monosodium glutamate has a sweetish, meaty
taste. Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
MSG is used as flavor enhancer in certain
liver and protein hydrolysate preparations.
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
ACTIVITIES Food. MSG is very popular in Japanese and
Chinese cooking. It is liberally used in restau-
Monosodium glutamate has been used in treat- rants, especially in soups and vegetarian
ing mental retardation and hepatic coma that is dishes.
accompanied by a high blood level of ammo- MSG is used very extensively in processed
nia. It has been reported to be effective in foods, including nonalcoholic beverages, can-
lowering the blood level of ammonia in many dy, baked goods, meat and meat products,
cases, though the mechanism of action is still condiments and relishes, breakfast cereals,
unknown (MARTINDALE; USD 26TH). milk products, cheeses, processed fruits, pro-
cessed vegetables, soups, snack foods, nut
products, gravies, seasonings and flavorings,
and fish products, among others. Highest aver-
TOXICOLOGY
age maximum use levels are about 24.68%
(246,785 ppm), 1.07%, and about 0.803%
Many scientific investigations have demon-
(8034 ppm) reported in seasonings and flavor-
strated MSG to cause brain damage in infant
ings, breakfast cereals, and soups, respectively.
experimental animals (mice, rats, rhesus mon-
keys, etc.) and to produce the so-called
Chinese restaurant syndrome (burning sensa-
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
tion, facial pressure, and chest pain) in hu-
mans.10–23 However, as many research efforts
Monosodium glutamate. It is official in N.F.
have been spent by as many different groups
and F.C.C.
of investigators resulting in negative find-
ings.24–35 It should be noted that only one
laboratory has reported both positive and neg- Regulatory Status. GRAS.
454 Monosodium glutamate (MSG)
REFERENCES
See the General References for FEMA; FURIA; MARTINDALE; MERCK; USD 26TH.
1. A. White et al., Principles of 20. S. Ungthavorn et al., J. Fac. Med.
Biochemistry, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, Chulalongkorn Univ., Bangkok, 16,
New York, 1959. 265 (1971).
2. K. Hess and E. Hille, Z. Lebensm. Unters. 21. H. H. Schaumburg et al., Science, 163,
Forsch., 115, 211 (1961). 826 (1969).
3. H. Ludewig and T. Messing, Ger. (East), 22. J. W. Olney and L. G. Sharpe, Science,
37074 (1965). 167, 1017 (1970).
4. E. Magyar et al., Staerke, 15, 12 (1963). 23. J. W. Olney, Science, 165, 1029
5. W. L. Faith et al., Industrial Chemicals, (1969).
3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 24. R. Heywood et al., Toxicol. Lett., 1, 151
1965, p. 521. (1977).
6. R. Powell, Monosodium Glutamate and 25. G. Owen et al., Toxicol. Lett., 1, 217
Glutamic Acid, Noyes Development (1978).
Corp., Park Ridge, NJ, 1968. 26. W. A. Reynolds et al., Science, 172, 1342
7. F. Bellisle, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 855, 438 (1971).
(1998). 27. P. Morselli and S. Garattini, Nature
8. A. Okiyama and G. K. Beauchamp, (London), 227, 611 (1970).
Physiol. Behav., 65, 177 (1998). 28. G. Bazzano et al., Science, 169, 1208
9. H. J. Sanders, Chemistry, 40, 23 (1970).
(1967). 29. A. J. Newman et al., Toxicology, 1,
10. T. Uehara et al., Okinawa-ken Kogai (1973).
Eisei Kenkyusho Ho, 10, 34 (1976). 30. M. E. Semprini et al., Nutr. Metab., 16,
11. M. J. Kuhar, Res. Commun. Chem. 276 (1974).
Pathol. Pharmacol., 2, 95 (1971). 31. B. L. Oser et al., Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
12. T. Fujiwara et al., Jutsugo Taisha Kenkyu 13, 7 (1975).
Kaishi, 10, 385 (1976). 32. N. J. Adamo and A. Ratner, Science, 169,
13. E. A. Arees and J. Mayer, Science, 170, 673 (1970).
549 (1970). 33. I. P. Barchenko and S. G. Vasiliu, Vop.
14. P. E. Araujo and J. Mayer, Am. J. Physiol., Ratsion Pitan., 6, 21 (1970).
225, 764 (1973). 34. I. Rosenblum et al., Toxicol. Appl.
15. N. Lemkey-Johnston and W. A. Pharmacol., 18, 367 (1971).
Reynolds, J. Neuropathol. Exp. 35. S. Matsuyama et al., Natl. Inst. Anim.
Neurol., 33, 74 (1974). Health Q., 13, 91 (1973).
16. N. Snapir et al., Pathol. Eur., 8, 265 36. M. Freeman, J. Am. Acad. Nurse Pract.,
(1973). 18, 482 (2006).
17. B. Robinson et al., Poult. Sci., 54, 234 37. K. Beyreuther et al., Eur. J. Clin. Nutr.,
(1975). (2006).
18. N. Lemkey-Johnston et al., J. Comp. 38. R. Walker and J. R. Lupien, J. Nutr., 130,
Neurol., 167, 481 (1976). 1049S (2000).
19. J. L. Everly, Diss. Abstr. Int. B, 33, 1351 39. M. Nagata et al., Exp. Anim., 55, 109
(1972). (2006).
Musk 455
carbonate);11 mineral salts; and fatty acids It is used as a fragrance component and
(JIANGSU; LIST AND HO€ RHAMMER). fixative in perfumes (especially oriental and
heavy floral types).
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
Food. Used for its ‘‘rounding off’’ effect in
ACTIVITIES
nut, caramel, and fruit-type flavors in major
food products, including alcoholic and nonal-
Musk has anti-inflammatory and antihistami-
coholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, can-
nic activities on experimental animals.12–14
dy, baked goods, and gelatins and puddings.
Its anti-inflammatory activity was greater than
Use levels are very low, generally much below
that of phenylbutazone against arthritis in rats
0.0001% (1 ppm).
induced by injection of dead tubercle bacteria
in liquid paraffin.13 Its water-soluble fraction
Traditional Medicine. Musk has been used
has the strongest anti-inflammatory activity,
in Chinese medicine for thousands of years in
being 36 times that of hydrocortisone in mouse
treating stroke, coma, neurasthenia, convul-
ear edema induced by croton oil. The active
sions, heart pains, ulcerous sores, and other
principle is a polypeptide with a molecular
conditions. It has been used in the clinical
weight of about 10,000 whose structure has
treatment of angina pectoris with results (ca.
not been determined.15,16
74%) comparable or better than those of ni-
Musk has also been reported to have spas-
troglycerin (JIANGSU).
molytic, CNS-depressant, as well as stimu-
The musk used in Chinese medicine has
lant, antibacterial, and other activities
been treated differently than the musk that is
(JIANGSU).14,17,18
intended for export. For example, the former is
Muscone has recently been reported to
dried only in the shade, while the latter is sun
exhibit weak estrogenic activity in vitro.19
or heat dried (NANJING).
USES
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
The use of musk in cosmetics (e.g., fragrance Crude and extracts (e.g., tincture and abso-
and perfumes) dates back to at least 1300 years lute). Musk was formerly official in U.S.P.
when it was widely used during the Tang and
Sung dynasties (NANJING). Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.50).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; FEMA; JIANGSU; JIXIAN; MARTINDALE; NANJING; POUCHER.
1. The Larousse Encyclopedia of Animal 5. W. E. Brugger and P. C. Jurs, J. Agric.
Life, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967, Food. Chem., 25, 1158 (1977).
p. 596. 6. H. Y. Hsu et al., T’ai-wan Yao Hsueh Tsa
2. M. Burton, ed., The World Encyclopedia Chih, 25, 26 (1973).
of Animals, Funk and Wagnalls, New 7. J. C. Do, Yongnam Taehakkyo Chony-
York, 1972, p. 255. onmul Hwahak Yonguso Yongu Pogo, 3,
3. H. U. Kafferlein et al., Crit Rev. Toxicol., 19 (1976).
28, 431 (1998). 8. J. C. Do et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 23,
4. P. Steinberg et al., Arch. Toxicol., 75, 562 629 (1975).
(2001).
Mustard 457
9. H. Song et al., Biomed. Chromatogr., 14, 15. X. Y. Zhu et al., Yaoxue Xuebao, 23, 406
130 (2000). (1988).
10. K. S. Ahn et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 25, 16. X. Y. Zhu et al., Acta Acad. Med. Sin., 11,
418 (2002). 52 (1989).
11. D. Q. Yu and B. C. Das, Planta Med., 49, 17. M. Kimura et al., Yakugaku Zasshi, 88,
183 (1983). 130 (1968).
12. R. K. Mishra et al., J. Pharm. 18. A. Mukhopadhyay et al., Indian J.
Pharmacol., 14, 830 (1962). Pharm., 35, 169 (1973).
13. H. H. Siddiqui, Indian J. Pharm., 27, 80 19. N. Bitsch et al., Arch. Environ. Contam.
(1965). Toxicol., 43, 257 (2002).
14. S. D. S. Seth et al., Jpn. J. Pharmacol., 23,
673 (1973).
Mustard oil (allyl isothiocyanate) is widely Expressed mustard oil is used in soap mak-
used as a flavor ingredient in nonalcoholic ing and as lubricant and illuminant.
beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked
goods, gelatins and puddings, meat and meat
products, condiments and relishes (e.g., COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
pickles), fats and oils, and gravies. Highest
average maximum use level reported is about Crude (whole, ground) and volatile oil. Brown
0.02% (201 ppm) in gravies. and black mustards were formerly official in
N.F. and U.S.P. Mustard oil (volatile oil)
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Some- formerly official in U.S.P. and currently offi-
times used in ointments or liniments cial in F.C.C. where it is listed as equivalent to
intended to relieve symptoms of colds. Mus- synthetic allyl isothiocyanate, except that its
tard oil, absorbed through the skin, is elim- source (natural or synthetic) has to be indicat-
inated via the lungs, hence use in liniment ed on the label. It is only required that volatile
preparations for relief of lung congestion mustard oil or synthetic allyl isothiocyanate
(WEISS). contain 93% (or more) allyl isothiocyanate
(C3H5NCS); the remaining can be minor
Traditional Medicine. Both brown (black) amounts of mosly known isothiocyanates
and white mustards are used as an appetizer, (natural mustard oil) or impurities of unknown
stimulant, emetic, diuretic, and rubefacient. composition (synthetic allyl isothiocyanate)
They are more commonly used externally for that can vary with the synthetic processes.
treating rheumatism, arthritis, and lumbago.
Black mustard is also used in footbaths for Regulatory Status. Has been affirmed as
sore and aching feet. GRAS (§184.1527). White mustard seed is
Brown and white mustards are used in the subject of a German therapeutic mono-
Chinese medicine for essentially the same graph; allowed externally in poultice for upper
types of illnesses (JIANGSU; NANJING). respiratory tract congestion and supportive
treatment of joint and soft tissue diseases.31
Others. Mustard oil (allyl isothiocyanate) is
used in cat and dog repellents.
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BLUMENTHAL 1; CLAUS; FEMA; GOSSELIN; JIANGSU;
€ RHAMMER; LUST; NANJING; ROSE; ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL; UPHOF; WEISS.
LIST AND HO
1. J. Pokorny and I. Zeman, Nahrung, 15, 35 6. A. Kj€ar in L. Zechmeister, ed.,
(1971). Fortschritte der Chemie organischer
2. S. L. MacKenzie and J. A. Blakely, Can. Naturstoffe, Vol. 18, Sringer-Verlag,
J. Bot., 50, 1825 (1972). Vienna, 1960, p. 122.
3. M. S. Karawya et al., Egypt J. Pharm. 7. B. E. Wallbank and G. A. Wheatley,
Sci., 16, 113 (1975). Phytochemistry, 15, 763 (1976).
4. H. Nakabayashi et al., Utsunomiya 8. M. Kojima et al., Yakugaku Zasshi, 93,
Daigaku Nogakubu Gakutsu Hokoku, 453 (1973).
8, 1 (1972). 9. Anon., Fed. Regist., 42, 43092 (1977).
5. B. Reichert, Dtsch. Apoth. Ztg., 20, 234 10. J. R. Vose, Phytochemistry, 11, 1649
(1968). (1972).
460 Myrrh
11. P. O. Larsen, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, Tartusk. Gos. Univ. Est. SSR, Estonsk,
107, 134 (1965). Biokhim. Obshchestvo, Tartu., 258
12. W. Cui et al., Carbohydr. Res., 292, 173 (1960).
(1996). 23. P. A. Blau et al., Science, 200, 1296
13. S. A. Taille and F. E. Weber, U.S. (1978).
3,878,195 (1975). 24. R. McDannell et al., Food Chem.
14. V. K. Morozov, Maslob. Zhir. Prom., 25, Toxicol., 26, 59 (1988).
15 (1959). 25. S. P. Yadav et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 93,
15. J. S. Choi et al., Arch. Pharm. Res., 25, 113 (2004).
625 (2002). 26. H. Y. Kim et al., Phytother. Res., 17, 465
16. J. E. Kim et al., Arch. Pharm. Res., 25, (2003).
621 (2002). 27. B. A. Khan et al., Indian J. Biochem.
17. T. Yokozawa et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., Biophys., 32, 106 (1995).
50, 5490 (2002). 28. T. Yokozawa et al., J. Nutr. Sci.
18. M. A. Ponce et al., Phytochemistry, 65, Vitaminol. (Tokyo), 49, 87 (2003).
3131 (2004). 29. B. A. Khan et al., Indian J. Exp. Biol., 35,
19. E. Skramlik, Pharmazie, 14, 435 (1959). 148 (1997).
20. P. Ahmad and A. J. Muztar, Pak. J. 30. Y. Zou et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 50,
Biochem., 4, 72 (1971). 5884 (2002).
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84, (1962). Bundesanzeiger, no. 22 (February 1,
1990).
22. I. Slavenas, Tr. l-oi (Pervoi) Biokhim.
Kon. Pribaltiisk Resp. i Belorussii
Myrrh oil is used as a flavor component in leprosy, syphilitic ulcers, sores, sore throat,
major food products, including alcoholic and asthma, coughs, bad breath, weak gums, gin-
nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, givitis, and loose teeth.4,25
candy, baked goods, gelatins and puddings, Myrrh was introduced in Chinese medicine
and meat and meat products. Highest average around the 7th century and has since been used
maximum use level is about 0.002% reported mainly in treating conditions involving bleed-
in alcoholic beverages (25 ppm), baked goods ing, pain, and wounds (e.g., bleeding hemor-
(23.5 ppm), and gelatins and puddings rhoids, menstrual difficulties, sores, tumors,
(20 ppm). and arthritic pain).25
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BLUMENTHAL 1; CLAUS; DUKE 4; FEMA; GRIEVE;
€ RHAMMER; LUST; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NANJING; ROSE; TUCKER AND LAWRENCE;
HUANG; JIANGSU; LIST AND HO
TYLER 1; UPHOF.
1. A. O. Tucker, Econ. Bot., 40, 425 (1986). 10. E. M. Al-Mathal and M. A. Fouad, J.
2. F. Ahmed et al., Pharmazie, 61, 728 Egypt. Soc. Parasitol., 36, 305 (2006).
(2006). 11. A. M. Massoud et al., J. Egypt. Soc.
3. N. Zhu et al., J. Nat. Prod., 64, 1460 Parasitol., 34, 1051 (2004).
(2001). 12. A. A. bo-Madyan et al., J. Egypt. Soc.
4. R. Pernet, Lloydia, 35, 280 (1972). Parasitol., 34, 423 (2004).
5. E. Mincione and C. Iavarone, Chim. Ind. 13. A. Massoud et al., Am. J. Trop. Med.
(Milan), 54, 525 (1972). Hyg., 65, 96 (2001).
6. E. Mincione and C. Iavarone, Chim. Ind. 14. R. Barakat et al., Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.,
(Milan), 54, 424 (1972). 73, 365 (2005).
7. P. Dolara et al., Planta Med., 66, 356 15. S. Botros et al., Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.,
(2000). 71, 206 (2004).
8. M. M. al-Harbi et al., J. Ethno- 16. A. M. Massoud et al., J. Egypt. Soc.
pharmacol., 55, 141 (1997). Parasitol., 35, 667 (2005).
9. N. M. Shoukry, J. Egypt. Soc. Parasitol., 17. M. M. al-Harbi et al., Chemotherapy, 40,
36, 701 (2006). 337 (1994).
Myrrh 463
18. S. Qureshi et al., Cancer Chemother. 23. L. O. Hanus et al., Biomed. Pap. Med.
Pharmacol., 33, 130 (1993). Fac. Univ. Palacky. Olomouc. Czech.
19. Y. B. Tripathi et al., Planta Med., 50, 78 Repub., 149, 3 (2005).
(1984). 24. E. S. El Ashry et al., Pharmazie, 58, 163
20. Y. B. Tripathi et al., Planta Med., 54, 271 (2003).
(1988). 25. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 31, 71 (1968).
21. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Chem. Toxicol., 26. Monograph Myrrha, Bundesanzeiger,
14, 621 (1976). no. 193 (October 15, 1987).
22. M. A. Saeed and A. W. Sabir,
Fitoterapia, 75, 81 (2004).
464 Nettle
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BLUMENTHAL 1 & 2; BRADLY; BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND
BEUTLER; DUKE 4; FOSTER; FOSTER AND CARAS; FOSTER AND DUKE; GRIEVE; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
NIKITAKIS; STEINMETZ; TYLER 1; WEISS; WREN.
1. K. R. Kirtikar and B. D. Basu, Indian 19. P. Mittman et al., Planta Med., 56, 44
Medicinal Plants, International book dis- (1990).
tribution, Dehradun, India, 1999, p. 2341. 20. P. Belachie and O. Lievoux, Phytother.
2. N. Chaurasia and M. Wichtl, Planta Res., 5, 267 (1991).
Med., 53, 432 (1987). 21. M. R. Safarinejad, J. Herb. Pharma-
3. P. Akbay et al., Phytother. Res., 17, 34 cother., 5, 1 (2005).
(2003). 22. L. Konrad et al., Planta Med., 66, 44
4. K. Harata et al., Acta Crystallogr. D. Biol. (2000).
Crystallogr., 57, 1513 (2001). 23. J. J. Lichius et al., Pharmazie, 54, 768
5. A. Galelli and P. Truffa-Bachi, J. (1999).
Immunol., 151, 1821 (1993). 24. E. Koch, Planta Med., 67, 489 (2001).
6. H. Y. Fu et al., Ann. Bot. (Lond), 98, 57 25. J. Broer and B. Behnke, J. Rheumatol.,
(2006). 29, 659 (2002).
7. T. Hirano et al., Planta Med., 60, 30 (1994). 26. S. Klingelhoefer et al., J. Rheumatol., 26,
8. M. Schottner et al., Planta Med., 63, 529 2517 (1999).
(1997). 27. K. Riehemann et al., FEBS Lett., 442, 89
9. E. Madrid et al., Ann. R. Acad. Farm., 53, (1999).
284 (1987). 28. M. Kanter et al., World J. Gastroenterol.,
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(2006). 31. C. F. Daher et al., Fitoterapia, 77, 183
13. A. Legssyer et al., Phytother. Res., 16, (2006).
503 (2002). 32. M. Bnouham et al., Fitoterapia, 74, 677
14. L. Testai et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 81, (2003).
105 (2002). 33. B. Farzami et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
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95 (2000). 34. Monograph Urticae herba and Urticae
16. I. Gulcin et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 90, folium, Bundesanzeiger, no. 76 (April 23,
205 (2004). 1987).
17. L. Lezhneva et al., Rastit Resur., 22, 255 35. Monograph Urticae radix, Bundesan-
(1986). zeiger, no. 173 (September 18, 1986);
18. R. E. Uncini Manganelli et al., J. revised (March 6, 1990).
Ethnopharmacol., 98, 323 (2005).
Nutmeg (and mace) 467
NUTMEG (AND MACE) and stearic acids, with the West Indian nutmeg
having larger amounts than East Indian nut-
Source: Myristica fragrans Houtt. (syn. meg;1–4 starch (ca. 30%); protein (ca. 6%);
M. officinalis L.) (Family Myristicaceae). an oleanolic acid glycoside (saponin);2
sclareol;5 diarylpropanoids (dimeric phenyl-
Common/vernacular names: Myristica (nut- propanoids), such as macelignan, meso-di-
meg); macis (mace). hydroguaiaretic acid, and otobaphenol;6–12
catechins, proanthocyanidins;13 and others
(LIST AND HO€ RHAMMER; MARSH; STAHL).1,14,15
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Two resorcinols (malabricone B and C) have
been isolated from mace.16
The nutmeg tree is an evergreen tree with Nutmeg oil contains large amounts of
spreading branches and dense foliage; up to monoterpene hydrocarbons (ca. 88%) with
about 20 m high; leaves coriaceous, ellipti- camphene and pinene as the major com-
c–oblong, and at times oblanceolate, cordate ponents and dipentene, sabinene, cymene,
at tip, and acute at base; flowers bracteolate; a-thujene, and g-terpinene, among others in
fruits ovoid, subglobose, or pyriform; native to lesser amounts; monoterpene alcohols (gera-
the Moluccas and nearby islands; cultivated in niol, d-borneol, linalool, terpineol, etc.);1,3,14
Indonesia (Java, Moluccas, etc.), Sri Lanka, and 4–8% myristicin and smaller amounts of
and the West Indies (especially Grenada). Its safrole and elemicin, with the East Indian oil
fruit is fleshy like an apricot and up to 6 cm higher in myristicin content than the West
long; on ripening it splits in half, exposing a Indian oil.17 Other constituents reportedly
bright red net-like aril wrapped around a dark present include copaene, trans- and cis-sabi-
reddish brown and brittle shell within which nene hydrate, cis-piperitol, eugenol, isoeugen-
lies a single seed. The net-like aril is mace, ol, methyleugenol, dehydrodiisoeugenol, and
which on drying turns from red to yellowish or cis-p-menth-2-enol, among others (LIST AND
orange brown. The dried brown seed, after HO€ RHAMMER).3,4,9,15,17
shell is broken and discarded, is nutmeg. Mace and mace oil contain similar consti-
Major producers of mace and nutmeg in- tuents as nutmeg and nutmeg oil, except with
clude Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Grenada. The less fixed oil and more myristicin content (LIST
first two produce the East Indian nutmegs, AND HÖRHAMMER; MARSH; STAHL).
6,10,14,15,18
while Grenada produces the West Indian nut- Nutmeg, mace, and their extracts have
megs. East Indian nutmegs are considered strong antioxidant activities that do not seem
superior in flavor to their West Indian counter- to be due to their essential oils.19–21
parts. Nutmeg oil (myristica oil) is generally
produced by steam distillation of worm-eaten
nutmegs; these give a higher yield of essential PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
oil, as the worms have eaten much of the ACTIVITIES
starchy and fatty portions of the nutmegs,
leaving behind portions that are rich in volatile Nutmeg in sufficient dosage is reported to
oil (ARCTANDER; ROSENGARTEN). have psychotropic properties (hallucinations,
feelings of unreality, euphoria, delusions,
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION etc.); these have been proposed to be due to
myristicin or to its metabolic conversion
Nutmeg contains 2–16% (usually ca. 10%) to amphetamine-like compounds. However,
volatile oil;1 25–40% fixed oils consisting of the psychotropic effects of myristicin need
free myristic acid and triglycerides of lauric, further investigation, and the amphetamine-
tridecanoic, palmitic, stearic, and myristic like metabolite(s) theory has recently been
acids as well as branched isomers of myristic questioned.22 Other CNS activities reported
468 Nutmeg (and mace)
Nutmeg and mace are extensively used edly used in cancers.41 In the Peruvian Andes,
as flavor ingredients in many food products, nutmeg chopped in pork fat has been used
including nonalcoholic beverages, baked externally in massages for paralysis, rheuma-
goods, meat and meat products, condiments tism, and as an antiparasitic (for mange).42
and relishes, processed vegetables, soups, Mace has been used externally as a treatment
snack foods, and gravies. Nutmeg is also used for rheumatism.43
in alcoholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, In European tradition, nutmeg and mace are
gelatins and puddings, breakfast cereals, and reportedly used for gastric spasms, diarrhea,
others. Highest average maximum use level is flatulence, and others.40
about 0.3% reported for nutmeg in gelatins
and puddings (3125 ppm), sweet sauces Others. The fixed oil of nutmeg (nutmeg
(2600 ppm), and baked goods (2594 ppm). butter) obtained by expression is used in soap
Nutmeg oil, mace oil, and mace oleoresin making and in candles.
are used in most above major food products, Due to the presence of sclareol in nutmeg
including alcoholic and nonalcoholic bev- oil distillation waste, it can be recovered as a
erages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked by-product of the nutmeg oil industry (see
goods, gelatin and puddings, meat and meat clary sage).5
products, and condiments and relishes, among
others. Highest average maximum use levels
are about 0.078% (775 ppm) and 0.065% re- COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
ported for mace oleoresin in alcoholic bev-
erages and candy, respectively. Crude, extracts (e.g., oleoresin), and oils
(mace, East and West Indian nutmeg). Mace
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Nut- and nutmeg were formerly official in N.F.
meg is used in tea flavoring. Nutmeg oil is official in N.F. and F.C.C., with
specifications that sources (East Indian or
Traditional Medicine. Nutmeg and mace West Indian) be indicated on the label.
have been used for centuries in both Western
and Eastern cultures mainly as carminative Regulatory Status. GRAS (x182.20). Subject
and stimulants in treating flatulence, indiges- of a German therapeutic monograph; claimed
tion, nausea, and other stomach as well as efficacies not sufficiently documented; al-
kidney problems. They have also been report- lowed as flavor or fragrance corrigent.40
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BARRETT; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN
AND BEUTLER; FEMA; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; GUPTA; JIANGSU; JIXIAN; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN1 & 2;
ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. A. T. Shulgin et al., Public Health Serv. 5. N. F. Novotel’nova et al., U. S. S. R.,
Publ., 1645, 202 (1967). 161842 (1964).
2. I. P. Varshney and S. C. Sharma, Indian J. 6. J. E. Forrest et al., J. Chem. Soc. Perkin
Chem., 6, 474 (1968). Trans. I, (2), 205 (1974).
3. K. J. Sanford and D. E. Heinz, 7. A. Isogai et al., Agric. Biol. Chem., 37,
Phytochemistry, 10, 1245 (1971). 193 (1973).
4. Z. Mobarak et al., Chemosphere, 6 8. A. Isogai et al., Agric. Biol. Chem., 37,
(1977). 1479 (1973).
470 Nutmeg (and mace)
Due to its high content of boswellic acid, perfumes, the absolute, oil, and resinoid are
olibanum has been demonstrated to have an- used for a fresh balsamic, dry, resinous, some-
tioxidant properties on seed oils (cottonseed what green note in oriental bases, ambers,
and sunflower); 0.1% olibanum has activity florals, colognes, male fragrances, and so on.47
comparable to 0.02% butylated hydroxyani-
sole (BHA).4 The water-soluble extract Food. Only olibanum oil is used in food
inhibits NO production in rat macrophages products, including alcoholic and nonalcohol-
resulting in both hepato- and renal protec- ic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy,
tion.30 The hexane extract has also been re- baked goods, gelatins and puddings, and meat
ported to possess hepatoprotective activity.31 and meat products. Highest average maximum
Olibanum has been reported to possess use level is about 0.001% (11.2 ppm) in meat
anticancer and cancer chemopreventive ef- and meat products.
fects in different conditions. As such, it was
successful in reversing breast cancer brain Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. A pro-
metastases in a patient who was not responsive prietary extract of B. serrata from India, con-
to standard therapy.32 Acetyl boswellic acids taining a mixture of triterpene pentacyclic
induce malignant cell apoptosis through acid derivatives of boswellic acids, has ap-
caspase activation.16,33,34 Terpene acids of peared on the market in recent years, with
olibanum are also cytotoxic against human claims for anti-inflammatory and antiarthritic
neuroblastoma, meningioma, and leukemia activities.
cells at mM level IC50s.17,35,36
Other reported activities of olibanum resin Traditional Medicine. Olibanum (more
and/or boswellic acids include immunomod- popularly known as frankincense) has been
ulatory,18,37–39 P-glycoprotein inhibition,40 used since antiquity as an incense in India,
antidiarrheal,41 and hypolipidemic30,36 China, Egypt, and the Catholic Church. It was
activities. an ingredient of the embalming liquid ancient
Egyptians used on their dead. It has been used
as a stimulant, respiratory antiseptic, diuretic,
TOXICOLOGY and emmenagogue in both Western and East-
ern cultures. Conditions for which it has been
Olibanum and olibanum absolute have been and still is used include syphilis, rheumatism,
reported to be nonirritating and nonsensitizing painful menstruation, pimples, sores, tumors,
to human skin; olibanum absolute was also cancers, asthma, sore throat, abdominal
nonphototoxic. The phototoxicity of oliba- pain, stomach troubles, and nervous problems,
num gum is not known. Olibanum gum was among others (JIANGSU; LIST AND HöRHAMMER;
1,48
moderately irritating to rabbit skin when ap- ROSE). In Ayurvedic medicine, the oleogum
plied undiluted for 24 h under occlusion.42,43 resin of B. serrata, known as “Salai guggal,”
The biological effects, molecular targets, has been used as a treatment for rheumatism,
and potential of olibanum and boswellic acids nervous diseases, and as a topical anti-
in chronic inflammation and other conditions inflammatory.27
have recently been reviewed.44–46
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; FEMA; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; LIST AND HöRHAMMER; MERCK;
TUCKER AND LAWRENCE; UPHOF.
1. R. Pernet, Lloydia, 35, 280 (1972). 21. J. Reichling et al., Schweiz. Arch.
2. S. M. Abdel Wahab et al., Planta Med., Tierheilkd., 146, 71 (2004).
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3. G. Snatzke and L. Vertesy, Monatsh. (1993).
Chem., 98, 121 (1967). 23. B. Gayathri et al., Int. Immuno-
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(Seville), 27, 175 (1976). 24. C. Anthoni et al., Am. J. Physiol Gastro-
5. A. K. Sen, Sr. et al., Carbohydr. Res., 223, intest. Liver Physiol., 290, G1131 (2006).
321 (1992). 25. H. Safayhi et al., Planta Med., 66, 110
6. S. Hamm et al., Phytochemistry, 66, 1499 (2000).
(2005). 26. H. Safayhi et al., J. Pharmacol. Exp.
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203 (1973). 27. S. S. Handa et al., Fitoterapia, 63, 3
8. S. A. Higazy et al., Egypt. J. Food Sci., 2, (1992).
29 (1974). 28. I. Gupta et al., Planta Med., 67, 391
9. H. Obermann, Dragoco Rep. (Ger. Ed.), (2001).
24, 260 (1977). 29. I. Gupta et al., Eur. J. Med. Res., 2, 37
10. S. Corsano and R. Nicoletti, Tetrahedron, (1997).
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Profumi, Piante Offic., Aromi, Saponi, 33. L. Xia et al., Mol. Cancer Ther., 4, 381
Cosmet., Aerosol, 63, 133 (1981). (2005).
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(1985). 2853 (2002).
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249 (2006). (2002).
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1976 (2006). 1460 (2003).
18. F. A. Badria et al., Z. Naturforsch. C, 58, 38. I. Gupta et al., Eur. J. Med. Res., 3, 511
505 (2003). (1998).
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(2003). 668 (1998).
20. A. Kar and M. K. Menon, Life Sci., 8, 40. C. C. Weber et al., Planta Med., 72, 507
1023 (1969). (2006).
474 Onion
41. F. Borrelli et al., Br. J. Pharmacol., 148, 45. H. P. Ammon, Planta Med., 72, 1100
553 (2006). (2006).
42. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 46. E. Basch et al., J. Herb. Pharmacother.,
16(Suppl. 1), 837 (1978). 4, 63 (2004).
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16(Suppl. 1), 835 (1978). (1986).
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Chem., 13, 3359 (2006).
vitamins (A, C, B, and B2), pectin, and peptides areata, a condition characterized by patchy
(e.g., alliceptin),20 among others (JIANGSU; LIST hair loss, as demonstrated by a pilot clinical
21
AND HöRHAMMER). trial in 23 patients.42
A preliminary study suggests that increased
consumption of Allium vegetables (including
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL onion) correlated to a significant reduction in
ACTIVITIES gastric cancer risk.43
Reviews of the therapeutic value of onion
Onion is reported to have many similar phar- have been published.44
macological properties as garlic, including
antihypercholesterolemic (in experimental
animals), hypoglycemic (in humans and ex- USES
perimental animals),22–26 and antifungal (see
garlic).27 The S-methyl cysteine sulfoxide Food. Onion oil is extensively used as a
component of onion reduced blood lipids flavor ingredient in most food products, in-
and glucose when fed to rats at a dose of cluding alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages,
200 mg/kg for 45 days.28,29 Consumption of frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked goods,
brown onions (a variety of A. cepa) also gelatins and puddings, meat and meat pro-
reduced plasma triacylglycerol in pigs. The ducts, condiments and relishes, fats and oils
levels of other plasma lipids, however, were (e.g., salad dressings and salad oils), soups,
not affected.30 The hypoglycemic and antiox- snack foods, and gravies. Highest average
idant effects of dietary onion supplementation maximum use level reported is about
and S-methyl cysteine have been repeatedly 0.083% (826 ppm) in fats and oils.
demonstrated in diabetic rats.29,31–34
The antimicrobial and anthelmintic activi- Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Sup-
ties of onion have been reported. Aqueous plements of dehydrated onion (capsules and
extracts of onion were antifungal (different tablets); contradictory results have been re-
Candida and Malassezia strains) in a dose- ported for studies using fresh onions com-
dependent manner.35 The peptide allicepin pared with supplements.39
inhibited the growth of several fungal species
including Botrytis, Fusarium, and others.20 Traditional Medicine. Although not as val-
Onion extracts and onion oil have also dem- ued or widely used as garlic, onion is used as
onstrated antibacterial and antidermatophytic antispasmodic, carminative, diuretic, expec-
activities against numerous Gram-positive torant, stomachic, and antihelmintic for many
and Gram-negative bacteria, as well as Tri- of the same conditions as is garlic (see garlic).
chophyton mentagrophytes, respectively.36,37 Its use in Chinese medicine is of only recent
Oral administration of onion oil (5 mg/kg/day origin and is limited (NANJING).
for 2 weeks) to rats infected with Trichinella
spiralis worms resulted in a significant decline
in the number of adult worms and larvae.38 COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Other reported activities for onion in-
clude antiplatelet aggregation and an increase Oil; official in F.C.C.
in fibrinolytic activity (with conflicting re-
sults).39,40 The antiplatelet activity is believed Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.20). Onion
to be sulfur dependent.41 Saponins isolated is the subject of a positive German therapeutic
from A. cepa had an antispasmodic activity on monograph, indicated for antibacterial, lipid
the isolated guinea pig ileum.11 Onion juice lowering, blood pressure lowering, and anti-
was also effective in the treatment of alopecia platelet aggregation activity.45
476 Onion
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; BLUMENTHAL 1; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER;
DUKE 4; FEMA; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; GUPTA; JIANGSU; LIST AND HöRHAMMER; LUST; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TERRELL.
1. J. R. Whitaker, Adv. Food Res., 22, 73 21. A. L. Feldman et al., Konserv.
(1976). Ovoshchesuch. Prom., 4, 19 (1973).
2. A. I. Virtanen and C. G. Spare, Suomen 22. R. C. Jain and C. R. Vyas, Br. Med. J., 2,
Kemistilehti, 34, 72 (1961). 730 (1974).
3. W. G. Galetto and A. A. Bednarczyk, 23. R. K. Gupta et al., Indian J. Exp. Biol., 15,
J. Food Sci., 40, 1165 (1975). 313 (1977).
4. M. Boelens et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 24. K. K. Sharma et al., Indian J. Med. Res.,
19, 984 (1971). 65, 422 (1977).
5. C. G. Spare and A. I. Virtanen, Acta 25. K. T. Augusti, Indian J. Exp. Biol., 14,
Chem. Scand., 17, 641 (1963). 110 (1976).
6. W. F. Wilkens, Cornell Univ. Agric. Expt. 26. K. T. Augusti and M. E. Benaim, Clin.
Sta. Mem., 385 (1964). Chim. Acta, 60, 121 (1975).
7. M. H. Brodnitz and J. V. Pascale, J. Agric. 27. P. S. Shekhawat and R. Prasada, Sci.
Food Chem., 19, 269 (1971). Cult., 37, 40 (1971).
8. T. H. Maugh, Science, 204, 293 (1979). 28. K. Kumari and K. T. Augusti,
9. M. H. Brodnitz et al., J. Agric. Food J. Ethnopharmacol., 109, 367 (2007).
Chem., 17, 760 (1969). 29. K. Kumari et al., Indian J. Biochem.
10. P. Bonaccorsi et al., J. Agric. Food Biophys., 32, 49 (1995).
Chem., 53, 2733 (2005). 30. E. Ostrowska et al., Br. J. Nutr., 91, 211
11. G. Corea et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 53, (2004).
935 (2005). 31. K. E. Campos et al., Int. J. Food Sci.
12. J. P. Varshney and T. Ali, Indian J. Appl. Nutr., 54, 241 (2003).
Chem., 34, 142 (1971). 32. K. Kumari and K. T. Augusti, Indian J.
13. M. Leonte and A. Leonte, Lucr. Stiint. Exp. Biol., 40, 1005 (2002).
Inst. Politeh. Galati, 4, 195 (1970). 33. S. M. Kelkar et al., Indian J. Biochem.
14. T. Fossen et al., Phytochemistry, 64, 1367 Biophys., 38, 277 (2001).
(2003). 34. A. Helen et al., Toxicol. Lett., 116, 61
15. T. Fossen and O. M. Andersen, (2000).
Phytochemistry, 62, 1217 (2003). 35. M. Shams-Ghahfarokhi et al., Fitoterapia,
16. N. Terahara et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. 77, 321 (2006).
Biochem., 58, 1324 (1994). 36. J. H. Kim, J. Nihon Univ. Sch. Dent., 39,
17. L. A. R. Sallam et al., Qual. Plant Foods 136 (1997).
Hum. Nutr., 24, 159 (1974). 37. A. N. Zohri et al., Microbiol. Res., 150,
18. T. Itoh et al., Phytochemistry, 16, 140 167 (1995).
(1977). 38. N. M. bu El Ezz, J. Egypt. Soc. Parasitol.,
19. D. Nitschke and A. Smoczkiewiczowa, 35, 511 (2005).
Zesz. Nauk Akad. Ekon. Poznaniu, Ser. 39. J. Kleijnen et al., Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol.,
1., 69, 104 (1976). 28, 535 (1989).
20. H. X. Wang and T. B. Ng, J. Pept. Sci., 10, 40. B. S. Kendler, Prev. Med., 16, 670
173 (2004). (1987).
Orange (bitter and sweet) 477
41. I. L. Goldman et al., Thromb. Haemost., 44. K. T. Augusti, Indian J. Exp. Biol., 34,
76, 450 (1996). 634 (1996).
42. K. E. Sharquie and H. K. Al-Obaidi, 45. Monograph Allii cepae bulbus,
J. Dermatol., 29, 343 (2002). Bundesanzeiger, no. 50 (March 13,
43. W. C. You et al., J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 81, 1986).
162 (1989).
ORANGE (BITTER AND Tunisia. The distillation water from which the
SWEET) oil layer has been removed is called orange
flower water.
Source: Bitter orange Citrus aurantium L. Petitgrain oil is obtained from the leaves
(syn. C. aurantium L. ssp. amara (L.) (also twigs) of bitter orange by steam distilla-
Engl.; C. vulgaris Risso; C. bigaradia tion in about 0.2% yield. Major producers
Risso); Sweet orange Citrus sinensis (L.) include France, Haiti, Paraguay, and Guinea.
Osb. (syn. C. aurantium L. var. sinensis L.; Sweet orange exists in numerous varieties
C. aurantium L. var. dulcis Pers.; (e.g., Navel, Jaffa, and Valencia). It is a smal-
C. aurantium L. ssp. dulcis L.; C. auran- ler tree than the bitter orange tree, less hardy,
tium Risso ssp. sinensis Engl.) (Family and with few or no spines; fruits smaller, with
Rutaceae). sweet pulp and nonbitter membranes; gener-
ally believed to be native to China; extensively
cultivated worldwide, especially in the United
GENERAL DESCRIPTION States (e.g., California and Florida) and Med-
iterranean countries. Part used is the peel of the
Bitter orange is an evergreen glabrous (non- partially or fully ripe fruit. The peel used for
hairy) tree with long but not very sharp spines the preparation of Sweet Orange Peel Tincture
and very fragrant flowers; membranes and N.F. is specified to be derived from the non-
pulp of fruit very bitter and sour; up to about artificially colored ripe fruit and devoid of the
10 m high; native to southern China and north- albedo (inner white portion of the rind).
eastern India; cultivated in China, southern Sweet orange oil, commonly known simply
Europe, and the United States. Its trunk is as orange oil, is obtained by one of the three
more resistant to plant diseases than those of major methods: (1) cold expression (hand or
other citrus trees and consequently serves as machine) of the fresh peel, (2) steam distilla-
stock for the less resistant sweet orange. Parts tion of the fresh peel (either already expressed
used are the peel of the fruit, freshly picked or not yet processed), and (3) distillation of the
flowers, and leaves and twigs. essences recovered as a by-product in the
Bitter orange oil is obtained from the fresh manufacture of orange juice concentrates.
peel by cold expression in about 0.15% yield, Major producers of cold-expressed sweet or-
by machine or hand. Its major producers ange oil include the United States, Cyprus,
include Guinea, southern European countries Guinea, Israel, and Brazil, while the United
(especially Spain and Italy), Brazil, and the States is the major producer of the distilled
West Indies. The Guinean and Spanish oils are sweet orange oil.
considered of the best quality. Terpeneless orange oils (both bitter and
Neroli oil (orange flower oil) is obtained sweet) are obtained from the respective oils
from the freshly picked flowers of bitter or- by vacuum distillation and/or extraction with
ange by steam distillation in about 0.1% yield. dilute ethyl alcohol whereby all or most of the
Major producers include France, Italy, and terpenes (e.g., limonene) are removed.
478 Orange (bitter and sweet)
animals due to the contained pectin (see Expressed sweet orange oil, bitter orange
pectin), and choleretic; among others (FARNS- oil, and neroli oil are generally reported to
WORTH 1–4; JIANGSU; LIST AND HöRHAMMER). The be nonirritating and nonsensitizing to hu-
ethnopharmacology and traditional uses of mans.31,36,38 However, limonene present in
citrus products have recently been reviewed.27 citrus oils has been known to cause contact
Citrantin is reported to have antifertility dermatitis in humans (LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS).
properties in rabbits when fed orally at a dose Many reports of adverse effects due to the
of 0.75 mg/kg/day (FARNSWORTH 1–4; JIANGSU). use of bitter orange, as a replacement for
Bitter orange, sweet orange, and neroli oils ephedra, in weight-loss dietary supplements
have been reported to exhibit antifungal and have recently emerged. Some of the reported
antibacterial activities in vitro (see lemon oil effects include ischemic colitis, angina, ele-
and pine needle oil).26,28–31 An emulsion of vated blood pressure, and other cardiovascular
bitter orange oil exhibited antifungal activity effects.39–45 Synephrine and/or octopamine
against topical dermatophyte infection in hu- are speculated to play a role in the advent of
mans (Tinea pedis, T. cruris, and T. corporis) such effects.41–43
with an 80% cure rate after 1–2 weeks of
treatment.32 The oil of sweet orange, citral, and USES
linalool were effective against some Gram-pos-
itive and Gram-negative bacteria in vitro.33 3- Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
(4-Hydroxy-3-(3-methyl-2-butenyl)-phenyl)-2 Bitter orange peel is occasionally used as an
(E)-propenal, a phenolic cinnamaldehyde ingredient in certain stomachic, carminative,
found in wound gum from injured peels of and laxative preparations.
C. sinensis, is antifungal against Penicillium Neroli oil (orange flower oil), orange flower
digitatum and Cladosporium cucumerinum.34 water, and sweet orange peel tincture are used
The volatile oil of sweet orange peel ex- in flavoring pharmaceuticals.
hibited insecticidal activity against mosquito, Bitter and sweet orange, neroli, and petit-
housefly, and cockroach after 60 min of its grain oils are extensively used as fragrance
application as a room spray.35 components in soaps, detergents, creams, lo-
The vitamins, flavonoids, and phenolic tions, and cosmetics. Highest maximum use
constituents of sweet orange peel and juice level is 1.0% reported for bitter orange oil in
were found to possess antioxidant free radical perfumes.31,36,38
scavenging activity.15,19
Food. Bitter orange oil is extensively used
TOXICOLOGY as a flavor component in most major food
products, including alcoholic (e.g., liqueurs,
Sweet orange oil has been reported to promote especially triple sec) and nonalcoholic bev-
tumor formation on mouse skin treated with erages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked
a primary carcinogen (see lemon oil and goods, gelatins and puddings, meat and meat
lime oil).36,37 Its major component, d-limo- products, and condiments and relishes. High-
nene, is also reported to have anticarcinogenic est average maximum use level reported is
activity.36 about 0.043% (424 ppm).
Ingestion of large amounts of orange peel Neroli and petitgrain oils are also widely
(bitter or sweet) by children has been reported used in major food products, including alco-
to cause intestinal colic, convulsions, and even holic and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen
death (JIANGSU). dairy desserts, candy, baked goods, and gela-
Bitter orange oil is reported to have distinct tins and puddings, among others, with highest
phototoxic activity, while none is reported for average maximum use levels of about 0.001%
expressed sweet orange oil even though both reported for neroli oil in alcoholic beverages
oils contain coumarins (see lime oil).36,38 (11.5 ppm) and baked goods (11.3 ppm) and
480 Orange (bitter and sweet)
about 0.004% (37.7 ppm) for petitgrain oil in Others. Due to the high contents of d-limo-
condiments and relishes. nene, in both bitter and sweet orange oils, the
Sweet orange oil (produced by various oils are also used as major sources of d-limo-
methods) is by far the most widely used in nene, which in turn serves as a starting mate-
food products, including all above categories rial for the synthesis of carvone, an important
in addition to jams and jellies, gravies, sweet flavor chemical (see caraway and spearmint).
sauces, breakfast cereals, and processed ve- Neohesperidin and naringin from bitter
getables, among others. Highest average max- orange peel could serve as starting materials
imum use level is 0.75% reported for the for the production of neohesperidin dihydro-
distilled oil in sweet sauces. Highest average chalcone (NHDHC) and naringin dihydro-
maximum use level reported for its terpeneless chalcone (NDHC); both are sweeteners, with
type is 0.01% in breakfast cereals. NDHC being as sweet as saccharin and
NHDHC 20 times more so.
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Dried
bitter and sweet orange peels used in tea
formulations and in digestive formulas. Due COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
to the presence of synephrine, a sympathomi-
metic alkaloid, the use of bitter orange peel in Dried peels (bitter and sweet), their extracts
“ephedra-free” weight-loss dietary supple- (solid, fluid, and tincture), and oils. Bitter and
ments has significantly increased after the ban sweet orange peels were formerly official in
of ephedra in 2004. N.F. and U.S.P., respectively. Bitter orange oil
was formerly official in N.F., and sweet orange
Traditional Medicine. Dried bitter orange oil formerly in U.S.P. Both oils as well as
peel and, to a lesser extent, sweet orange peel petitgrain oil Paraguay are official in F.C.C.,
are used as tonic and carminative in treating while neroli oil, orange flower water, and
dyspepsia. In Chinese medicine, dried sweet sweet orange peel tincture are official in
orange peel is used to reduce phlegm and in N.F. Qualities of oils vary according to
treating coughs, colds, anorexia (lack of ap- sources. Fluid extracts (see glossary) prepared
petite), and malignant breast sores. Dried by the direct extraction method have flavor
bitter orange and less commonly the dried qualities superior to those produced by the
peel are used in treating prolapse of the uterus dilution method.
and of the anus (also rectum), diarrhea, blood
in feces, and others, in addition to above Regulatory Status. All GRAS (§182.20).
conditions (JIANGSU). They have also been Bitter orange flowers subject of a German
reported to be used in cancers.46 therapeutic monograph; traditional uses are
Bitter orange flowers and oil have report- not recommended as efficacy has not been
edly been used in European tradition as pro- demonstrated; use is allowed as a flavor cor-
phylactics for gastrointestinal complaints, rigent.47 Sweet orange peels subject of a posi-
nervous conditions, gout, sore throat, as a tive monograph for treatment of loss of
sedative, and for sleeplessness. appetite.48
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BAILEY 2; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1;
FARNSWORTH 1–4; FEMA; GOSSELIN; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; LIST AND HöRHAMMER; LUST; MARTINDALE; TERRELL;
TUCKER AND LAWRENCE; UPHOF.
1. T. Nakabayashi, Nippon Nogei Kagaku 2. S. Natarajan et al., Econ. Bot., 30, 38
Kaishi, 35, 945 (1961). (1976).
Orange (bitter and sweet) 481
43. C. A. Haller et al., Am. J. Med., 118, 998 46. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 34, 103 (1971).
(2005). 47. Monograph, Aurantii flos, Bundes-
44. F. Firenzuoli et al., Phytomedicine, 12, anzeiger (July 14, 1993).
247 (2005). 48. Monograph, Citri sinensis pericarpium,
45. D. L. Nykamp et al., Ann. Pharma- Bundesanzeiger, (February 1, 1990).
cother., 38, 812 (2004).
Source: Origanum vulgare L. (Family Origanum vulgare (also known as wild mar-
Labiatae or Lamiaceae), Lippia graveo- joram) contains 0.1–1.0% volatile oil com-
lens H. B. K. (syn. L. berlandieri Schauer), posed of thymol, carvacrol, b-bisabolene,
L. palmeri S. Wats. (Family Verbenaceae), caryophyllene, p-cymene, borneol, linalool,
and other Origanum and Lippia species. linalyl acetate, geranyl acetate, a-pinene,
b-pinene, a-terpinene, cis-sabinene, germa-
Common/vernacular names: Wild marjoram, crene, ocimene, and others, with highly
origanum, European oregano (O. vulgare); variable relative proportions, depending on
Mexican oregano, Mexican marjoram, and sources; the phenols (thymol and carvacrol)
Mexican wild sage (Lippia species). content has been reported to vary from 0% to
90% in the oil (JIANGSU; LIST AND HöRHAMMER;
3–9
MARSH). Other constituents include luteolin,
GENERAL DESCRIPTION apigenin, chrysoeriol, diosmetin, quercetin,
eriodictyol, cosmoside, vicenin-2, thymoqui-
Oregano is derived from several genera of nol glycosides, caffeic acid, ursolic acid, olea-
plants from mainly two families (e.g., Origa- nolic acid, rosmarinic acid, jasmonic acid,
num, Lippia, Coleus, Lantana, and Hyptis). It lithospermic acid, aristolochic acids I and II,
D-( þ )-raffinose,
10
is not one or two well-defined species but protein, and vitamins for
rather any one of more than two dozen known example, tochopherols (LIST AND HöRHAMMER;
11–14
species that yield leaves or flowering tops MARSH).
having the flavor recognized as being oregano. The essential oil of Greek oregano
The most commonly used plants are Origa- (O. vulgare subsp. viride (Boiss) Hayek;
num vulgare, O. onites (as Turkish oregano), syn. O. heracleoticum L.) has been reported
Lippia graveolens, and L. palmeri (see to contain carvacrol, thymol, linalool, bor-
marjoram).1,2 neol, and other similar constituents found
European oregano (O. vulgare) is a hardy in O. vulgare as well as carvone, camphor,
perennial herb with erect, more or less hairy, amyl alcohol, and 4,5-epoxy-p-menth-
branching stems, and hairy leaves; up to about lene.15,16
0.9 m high; native to Europe. Parts used are the The essential oil of O. onites has been
dried herbs and leaves. found to be highly variable in wild popula-
Mexican oregano is usually derived from tions in Greece, ranging from 1.85% to
Lippia graveolens and occasionally from 4.37%, with carvacrol as the major compo-
L. palmeri. Both are aromatic shrubs native nent (51–84.5%), plus borneol (1.3–8.2%),
to Mexico; L. graveolens is larger and is p-cymene (5.1–12.2%), g-terpinene (2.3–
sometimes a tree, up to 9 m high. Parts used 13.6%), in addition to minor components
are the dried leaves.1 including b-phellandrene, trans-thujanol,
Oregano 483
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; BLUMENTHAL 1; FEMA; GOSSELIN; JIANGSU; LIST AND HöRHAMMER;
LUST; MARTINDALE; ROSE; ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL; TUCKER 1–3.
1. L. Calpouzos, Econ. Bot., 8, 222 20. J. A. Retamar et al., Essenze Deriv.
(1954). Agrum., 45, 31 (1975).
2. D. Vokou et al., Econ. Bot., 42, 407 21. A. Alpande de Morais et al., An.
(1988). Acad. Bras. Cienc., 44 (Suppl.), 315
3. M. Hazzit et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 54, (1972).
6314 (2006). 22. W. H. Stahl et al., J. Assoc. Anal. Chem.,
4. M. R. Rodrigues et al., J. Agric. Food 52, 1184 (1969).
Chem., 52, 3042 (2004). 23. C. M. Compadre et al., Planta Med., 53,
5. D. Mockute et al., Phytochemistry, 57, 65 495 (1987).
(2001). 24. X. A. Dominguez et al., Planta Med., 55,
6. S. Afsharypour et al., Planta Med., 63, 208 (1989).
179 (1997). 25. V. K. Juneja et al., J. Food Prot., 69, 1546
7. U. Asllani, Bull. Shkencave Nat., Univ. (2006).
Shteteror Tiranes, 28, 61 (1974). 26. S. Inouye et al., J. Infect. Chemother., 12,
8. H. Maarse and F. H. L. Van Os, Flav. Ind., 349 (2006).
4, 481 (1973). 27. V. Manohar et al., Mol. Cell. Biochem.,
9. C. H. Brieskorn and H. Brunner, Planta 228, 111 (2001).
Med., (Suppl.), 96 (1967). 28. H. Cetin and A. Yanikoglu, J. Vector.
10. E. Goun et al., Fitoterapia, 73, 692 Ecol., 31, 118 (2006).
(2002). 29. G. F. Santoro et al., Parasitol. Res., 100,
11. C. Koukoulitsa et al., J. Agric. Food 783 (2007).
Chem., 54, 5388 (2006). 30. M. Ponce-Macotela et al., Parasitol.
12. V. Lagouri and D. Boskou, Int. J. Food Res., 98, 557 (2006).
Sci. Nutr., 47, 493 (1996). 31. A. Lemhadri et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
13. W. Olechnowicz-Stepien and E. Lamer- 92, 251 (2004).
Zarawska, Herba Pol., 21, 347 (1975). 32. C. Koukoulitsa et al., Phytother. Res., 20,
14. U. Gerhardt and A. Schroetu, 605 (2006).
Fleischwirtschaft, 63, 1628 (1983). 33. B. M. Walter and G. Bilkei, Tijdschr.
15. B. M. Lawrence et al., Phytochemistry, Diergeneeskd., 129, 178 (2004).
13, 1012 (1974). 34. P. C. Standley, Trees and Shrubs of
16. V. Staikov et al., Soap, Perfum. Cosmet., Mexico, Vol. 23, Part 3 of Contri-
41, 327 (1968). butions from the United States
National Herbarium, Smithsonian
17. P. Rovesti, Riv. Ital. Essenze, Profumi,
Press, Washington, DC, 1923, p. 1242.
Piante Offic., Aromi, Saponi, Cosmet.,
54, 254 (1972). 35. Monograph, Origani vulgaris herba,
Bundesanzeiger, no. 122 (July 6, 1988).
18. C. A. N. Catalan et al., Riv. Ital. Essenze,
Profumi, Piante Offic., Aromi, Saponi,
Cosmet., 59, 513 (1977).
19. M. Leao da Silva et al., Acta Amazonica,
3, 41 (1973).
Origanum oil, spanish 485
ORIGANUM OIL, SPANISH activity against Culex pipiens adults and lar-
vae.7–10 Carvacrol has antifungal and anthel-
Source: Thymus capitatus (L.) Hoffmanns. mintic activities, though they are weaker than
et Link (syn. Coridothymus capitatus those of thymol (see thyme).
Reichb. f.; Satureja capitata L.) and
carvacrol-rich Origanum species (Family TOXICOLOGY
Labiatae or Lamiaceae).
Origanum oil has been reported to be nonirri-
Common/vernacular names: Origanum oil. tating, nonsensitizing, and nonphototoxic to
human skin but is moderately to severely
GENERAL DESCRIPTION irritating to rabbit and mouse skin when ap-
plied undiluted.11
Thymus capitatus is a subshrub with stout,
erect branches, and very short, stiff linear
leaves; up to about 30 cm high; native to the USES
Mediterranean region. Part used is the flower-
ing top from which Spanish origanum oil is Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
obtained by steam distillation. Spanish origa- Origanum oil is used as a fragrance compo-
num oil is characterized by its content of nent in soaps, detergents, creams, lotions, and
carvacrol, which is its major phenolic compo- perfumes, with maximum use level of 0.2%
nent. Origanum species that are used for the reported in perfumes.11
production of Spanish origanum oil are the
ones that yield essential oils with carvacrol as Food. Used as a flavor component in most
their major phenolic component (see marjo- food products, including alcoholic and nonal-
ram). Major producing countries include coholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, can-
Spain, Israel, Lebanon, and Turkey. dy, baked goods, gelatins and puddings, meat
and meat products, condiments and relishes,
soups, and gravies. Average maximum use
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION levels reported are usually below 0.004%,
except in condiments and relishes, soups, and
Contains 60–75% phenols consisting mostly of gravies, which are about 0.007% (74.3 ppm),
carvacrol(13–74%)andthymol(139%),1–3 plus 0.062%, and 0.01% (99 ppm), respectively.
a- and b-pinene, thujone, camphene, carene,
myrcene, terpinene, limonene, a-phellandrene,
cis-O-ocimene, g-terpinene, and others.1–6 COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; FEMA; GUENTHER; MARTINDALE; MERCK; POLUNIN AND
SMYTHIES; TERRELL; TUCKER 1–3.
1. D. V. Zaitschek and S. Levontin, 2. B. G. Skrubis, Flav. Ind., 3, 566
Harokeach Haivri, 14, 284 (1971). (1972).
486 Origanum oil, spanish
3. J. M. Hagemann et al., Lipidis, 2, 371 8. G. Arras and M. Usai, J. Food Prot., 64,
(1967). 1025 (2001).
4. M. De Vincenzi and M. R. Dessi, 9. S. A. Mansour et al., J. Nat. Toxins, 9, 49
Fitoterapia, 62, 39 (1991). (2000).
5. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 9, 41 10. O. Kandil et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 44,
(1984). 19 (1994).
6. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 13, 69 11. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
(1988). 12(Suppl.), 945 (1974).
7. V. Manohar et al., Mol. Cell Biochem.,
228, 111 (2001).
Parsley 487
are used as a vulnerary in Italy.30 The herb is Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.10 and
also used as a breath freshener when chewed §182.20) with botanical source listed as Pet-
(LUST; ROSENGARTEN). Parsley seed traditional- roselinum crispum (Mill.) Mansf. Parsley
ly used as an abortifacient. herb is the subject of a positive German
therapeutic monograph. Use is contraindi-
cated in pregnancy and inflammatory kidney
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS diseases.29 Parsley fruits are covered by a
German monograph; however, use is not
Flakes, seed, oils (herb and seed), and extracts recommended because efficacy is not well
(e.g., oleoresin). Seed and oleoresin were documented and potential risks outweigh
formerly official in U.S.P. Both oils are official benefits.28
in F.C.C.
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRADLY; DER MARDEROSIAN
AND BEUTLER; FEMA; FOSTER; GUENTHER; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL.
1. C. Franz and H. Glasl, Ind. Obst. 13. S. K. Chaudhary et al., Planta Med., 52,
Gemueseverwert, 59, 176 (1974). 462 (1986).
2. S. I. Balbaa et al., Egypt J. Pharm. Sci., 14. R. Kasting et al., Phytochemistry, 11,
16, 383 (1976). 2277 (1972).
3. E. Constantinescu et al., Riv. Ital. 15. G. G. Freeman et al., J. Sci. Food Agric.,
Essenze, Profumi, Piante Offic., Aromi, 26, 465 (1975).
Saponi, Cosmet., Aerosol, 54, 419 (1972). 16. J. Garnero and Y. Chretien-Bessiere, Fr.
4. A. R. S. Kartha and R. A. Khan, Chem. Ses Parfums, 11, 332 (1968).
Ind. (London), (52) 1869 (1969). 17. J. E. Simon and J. Quinn, J. Agric. Food
5. O. S. Privett et al., J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., Chem., 36, 467 (1988).
40, 28 (1963). 18. A. A. Gdolade and G. B. Lockwood,
6. J. B. Harborne and C. A. Williams, Fitoterapia, 62, 237 (1991).
Phytochemistry, 11, 1741 (1972). 19. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
7. H. Wagner and J. Hölzl, Dtsch. Apoth. 13 (Suppl.) 897 (1975).
Ztg., 108, 1620 (1968). 20. F. Kaczmarek, et al., Biul. Inst. Roslin
8. J. B. Harborne et al., Phytochemistry, 8, Leczniczych, 8, 111 (1962).
1729 (1969). 21. I. Tsonev et al., Farmatsiya (Sofia), 17, 39
9. C. Franz and H. Glasl, Qual. Plant. Plant (1967).
Foods Hum. Nutr., 25, 253 (1976). 22. J. Kresanek and J. Vittek, Farm. Obzor.,
10. G. Innocenti et al., Planta Med., 29, 165 31, 202 (1962).
(1976). 23. A. Sharaf et al., Qual. Plant. Mater. Veg.,
11. J. Palicska and B. Lengyel, Borgyogy 17, 337 (1969).
Venerol. Szemle, 45, 118 (1969). 24. S. E. Putnam et al., Phytother. Res.,
12. R. A. Komarova, Sb. Tr. Aspir. Molodykh (2006).
Nauch. Sotrudnikov, Vses. Nauch. Issled 25. S. Ren and E. J. Lien, Prog. Drug Res., 48,
Inst. Rastenievod., 8, 276 (1967). 147 (1997).
490 Passion flower
26. J. D. Potter and K.Steinmetz, IARC Sci. 29. Monograph, Petroselini herba/radix,
Pub., 61 (1996). Bundesanzeiger, no. 43 (March 2, 1989).
27. L. P. Christensen and K. Brandt, 30. V. De Feo et al., Fitoterapia, 63, 337
J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal., 41, 683 (2006). (1992).
28. Monograph, Petroselini fructus, Bunde-
sanzeiger, no. 43 (March 2, 1989).
shown to raise the nociceptive threshold of rats hawthorn combinations are employed as anti-
in the tail-flick and hot-plate tests and to spasmodics for digestive spasms, such as in
prolong sleeping time as well as protect the gastritis and colitis.44
animals from the convulsive effect of penty- A European monograph indicated use for
lenetetrazole. There are claims that the active nervous tension, especially in cases of sleep
compounds have not yet been characterized disturbance or exaggerated awareness of heart
but are neither alkaloids nor flavonoids.31 palpitations at doses ranging from 0.5 to 2 g of
However, one research group emphasized the the herb and 2.5 g of the herb in infusion, and
role of a new “trisubstituted benzoflavone” in so on (ESCOP 2).
the CNS effects of passion flower.32 Another
group earlier suggested that the flavonoids, Food. Extract (type not specified) of passion
alkaloids, and maltol were involved in the flower is reported to be used as a flavor
observed behavioral effects.33 Also, the har- component in alcoholic beverages; nonalco-
man alkaloids and flavonoids were earlier holic beverages, and frozen dairy desserts with
reported to have tranquilizing effects.34 average maximum use levels of 0.05%,
The efficacy of passion flower in the reduc- 0.32%, and 0.05%, respectively.
tion of withdrawal symptoms associated with
benzodiazepines, opiates, marijuana, alcohol, Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Herb in
and nicotine dependence has been demon- capsules, tablets, teas, and other product forms;
strated.35–39 primarily in sleep aid formulations (FOSTER).
Passion flower was shown to be effective as
an aphrodisiac, to enhance libido and virility Traditional Medicine. Used as a sedative in
and to prevent azospermia in mice and rats. treating neuralgia, insomnia, restlessness,
These effects were most pronounced with headache, hysteria, epilepsy, and other ner-
reduced sexual function associated with del- vous conditions. Also used in bath mixtures
ta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (D9-THC), alco- for its allegedly calming and soothing effects.
hol, nicotine, and aging.36,40–42 Fruits were cultivated or managed for fruit
production before arrival of Europeans in
Algonkian settlements in Verginia.45
TOXICOLOGY
N.F. (1936): formerly an approved OTC seda- monograph for the treatment of nervous anxi-
tive and sleep aid; removed in 1978. Herb ety, in daily dosages equivalent to 4–8 g.46
subject of a positive German therapeutic
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BAILEY 1; BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRADLY; CLAUS; ESCOP 2;
FEMA; FERNALD; FOSTER; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS; LIST AND
HöRHAMMER; LUST; ROSE; TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. W. Poethke et al., Planta Med., 18, 303 18. N. M. Gavasheli et al., Khim. Prir.
(1970). Soedin., 11, 84 (1975).
2. E. Bennati and E. Fedeli, Boll. Chim. 19. N. Aoyagi et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 22,
Farm., 107, 716 (1968). 1008 (1974).
3. E. Bernnati, Boll. Chim. Farm., 110, 664 20. N. M. Gavasheli et al., Khim. Prir.
(1971). Soedin., 9, 552 (1973).
4. J. Lutomski et al., Herbal Pol., 14, 139 21. E. Mourvaki et al., J. Med. Food, 8, 104
(1968). (2005).
5. N. Svanidze et al., Rev. Cubana Farm., 8, 22. K. Dhawan and A. Sharma, Fitoterapia,
309 (1974). 73, 397 (2002).
6. J. Lutomski and B. Malek, Planta Med., 23. K. Dhawan et al., Phytother. Res., 17, 821
27, 381 (1975). (2003).
7. J. Loehdefink and H. Kating, Planta 24. B. R. Olin, ed., Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod.,
Med., 25, 101 (1974). May 1989.
8. E. A. Abourashed et al., Pharm. Biol., 41, 25. R. Kimura et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 28,
100 (2003). 2570 (1980).
9. E. A. Abourashed et al., Pharm. Biol., 40, 26. R. Della Loggia et al., Rivista di
81 (2002). Neurologia, 51, 297 (1981).
10. N. M. Gavasheli et al., Khim. Prir. 27. K. Dhawan et al., J. Altern. Complement.
Soedin., 10, 95 (1974). Med., 8, 283 (2002).
11. H. Schilcher, Z. Naturforsch. B, 23, 1393 28. K. Dhawan et al., Fitoterapia, 72, 922
(1968). (2001).
12. N. M. Gavasheli, Soobhch. Akad. Nauk 29. K. Dhawan et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 78,
Gruz. SSR, 60, 353 (1970). 165 (2001).
13. L. Qimin et al., J. Chromatogr., 562, 435 30. S. Akhondzadeh et al., J. Clin. Pharm.
(1991). Ther., 26, 363 (2001).
14. H. Geiger and K. R. Markham, Z. 31. E. Speroni and A. Minghetti, Planta
Naturforsch., 41c 949 (1986). Med., 54, 488 (1988).
15. C. Congora, et al., Helv. Chim. Acta, 69, 32. K. Dhawan et al., J. Ethnopharmacol. 94,
251 (1986). 1 (2004).
16. K. C. Spencer and D. S. Seigler, Planta 33. R. Soulimani et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
Med., 50, 356 (1984). 57, 11 (1997).
17. K. C. Spencer and D. S. Seigler, 34. J. Lutomski et al., Planta Med., 27, 112
Phytochemistry, 24, 2615 (1985). (1975).
Patchouly oil 493
35. K. Dhawan et al., J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci., 41. K. Dhawan et al., J. Med. Food, 5, 43
6, 215 (2003). (2002).
36. K. Dhawan and A. Sharma, Br. J. 42. K. Dhawan and A. Sharma, Life Sci., 71,
Pharmacol., 138, 117 (2003). 3059 (2002).
37. K. Dhawan et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 81, 43. A. A. Fisher et al., J. Toxicol. Clin.
239 (2002). Toxicol., 38, 63 (2000).
38. K. Dhawan et al., J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 44. Brasseur and L. Angenot, J. Pharm. Belg.
54, 875 (2002). 38, 15 (1984).
39. K. Dhawan et al., Addict. Biol., 7, 435 45. K. J. Gremillion, J. Ethnobiol., 9, 135
(2002). (1989).
40. K. Dhawan et al., Phytother. Res., 17, 401 46. Monograph, Passiflorae herba, Bunde-
(2003). sanzeiger, no. 223 (November 30, 1985).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; FEMA; GUENTHER; HONGKUI; JIXIAN; JIANGSU;
MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NANJING; TERRELL; UPHOF.
Pectin 495
concentrated and spray dried or roller sodium citrate or other buffer salts (sodium
dried to yield a low-grade pectin. However, and potassium carbonates, lactates, etc.).
most often the filtrate is treated either with The molecular weight of pectin has been
alcohols (especially isopropyl) or with soluble reported to range from 150,000 to 400,000. It
salts of aluminum or, less often, copper is a complex polysaccharide, with D-galac-
to precipitate the pectin, which is then turonic acid as its major sugar component.
washed, dried, and milled (WHISTLER AND Other sugars present include D-galactose, L-
6
BEMILLER). arabinose, and L-rhamnose. Its molecule con-
Two types of pectins are produced: low- sists mainly of a linear partially methylated
ester (low-methoxy) and high-ester (high- galacturonoglycan of a(1 ! 4)-linked D-
methoxy) pectins. To obtain low-ester pectin, galactopyranosyluronic acid. Pectins from
extended hydrolysis or de-esterification is al- different sources may vary widely in their
lowed to take place some time (step) during methoxy content (0.2–12%) and in their rela-
the manufacturing process. Pectins are usually tive proportions of sugars (GLICKSMAN; MERCK;
1
standardized to uniform grades: “100 gel WHISTLER AND BEMILLER).
power” for low-ester pectin and “150 jelly
grade” for high-ester pectin. Diluents used
are dextrose or other sugars. The “150 jelly PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
grade” or “150 grade” means 1 part of the ACTIVITIES
pectin will set 100 parts of sugar in solution to
a jelly of standard strength and firmness con- Pectin does not appear to be digested by ani-
taining 65% of sugar (GLICKSMAN; MARTINDALE; mals or humans. However, on passage through
USD 26th). their gastrointestinal tracts, much of the pectin
The major pectin producer is the United is degraded by bacteria present in their large
States (especially California). Other produc- intestine.4,7 There is evidence indicating that a
ing countries include the UK, France, and small amount of the products of degradation is
Germany. absorbed, resulting in a hemostatic effect man-
Pectin dissolves in water to form a viscous ifested in a shorter coagulation time of drawn
sol with an acidic pH. Its solutions (sols) are blood samples (WHISTLER AND BEMILLER).
most stable at a pH range of 3–4. Outside this As with other gums (see algin, guar, etc.),
range, the viscosity and gel strength of these the cholesterol-lowering property of pectin has
solutions decrease due to decomposition of been extensively studied. Many studies have
pectin. They are especially unstable under demonstrated pectin to have antihypercholes-
alkaline conditions. Pectin is also incompati- terolemic activities in laboratory animals (rats,
ble with heavy metals, tannin, and salicylic fowl, dogs, etc.) and in humans, with the high
acid. It is insoluble in alcohol and other or- molecular weight and high-methoxy pectin
ganic solvents. being the most active.4,7–16 Protopectin and
The gelling time of pectin varies with type low-methoxy pectin however do not appear to
and ranges from 20–70 s (rapid set) to be active.4 One study on humans did not pro-
180–250 s (slow set). The gel strength and duce antihypercholesterolemic effects in pa-
gelling time are the two most important fac- tients with hyperlipoproteinemia.17
tors determining the quality of pectin (GLICKS- Pectin (from apple) has been reported to
MAN; WHISTLER AND BEMILLER). exhibit bactericidal effects on Gram-negative
and nonspore-forming Gram-positive bacte-
ria, including Salmonella typhi and Escher-
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION ichia coli from the former group and Staphy-
lococcus aureus from the latter. It had little or
In addition to pectin itself, commercial pectin no activity on spore-forming bacilli, yeast, and
normally contains sugar (e.g., dextrose) and fungi.18,19
Pectin 497
Other biological and pharmacological Other food products in which pectin (both
properties of pectin include increasing the or either type) is used include candy, frozen
excretion of heavy metals (e.g., lead and dairy desserts, bakers’ jellies, and nonalcohol-
mercury) in experimental animals (see also ic beverages (GLICKSMAN; WHISTLER AND
algin),20,21 lowering fat absorption in rats,15 BEMILLER).
and others (MARTINDALE).4 Pectin is also used in edible films with
antimicrobial activities that are intended to
enhance safety, reduce spoilage, and extend
USES
the shelf life of ready-to-eat foods.23
The chemistry and uses of pectin have been
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
the subject of a comprehensive review by
Pectin (150 grade) is used as an ingredient in
Thakur et al.24
numerous antidiarrheal preparations, often in
combination with kaolin. It is used as an
emulsifier and/or thickener in creams and
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
lotions. It is currently being considered as a
promising excipient in oral formulations in-
Several types, including 100 and 150 grades.
tended for site-specific drug delivery to the
Pectin (150 grade) is official in U.S.P. and both
colon.22
100 and 150 grades are official in F.C.C.
Food. By far the largest use of pectin is in
Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.1775).
jams, jellies, and preserves, with low-methoxy
pectin being primarily used in low-sugar or
sugar-free products.
REFERENCES
See the General References for APhA; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DER MARDEROSIAN AND LIBERTI;
GLICKSMAN; LAWRENCE; MARTINDALE; USD 26th; WHISTLER AND BEMILLER.
1. R. L. Whistler in H. W. Schulzet al., eds., 9. S. Kiriyama et al., J. Nutr., 97, 382
Symposium on Foods: Carbohydrates (1969).
and Their Roles, AVI, Westport, CT, 10. D. J. A. Jenkins et al., Ann. Int. Med., 86,
1969, p. 73. 20 (1977).
2. R. M. McCready and H. S. Owens, Econ. 11. T. A. Anderson and R. D. Bowman,
Bot., 8, 29 (1954). Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 130, 665
3. J. W. Kesterson and R. Hendrickson, (1969).
Econ. Bot., 12, 164 (1958). 12. H. Fisher et al., J. Atheroscler. Res., 6,
4. W. L. Chenoweth and G. A. Leveille, ACS 292 (1966).
Symp. Ser., 15, 312 (1975). 13. H. Fisher et al., Science, 146, 1063
5. D. B. Nelson et al., Food Colloids, AVI, (1964).
Westport, CT, 1977, p. 418. 14. K. Tsuji et al., Eiyogaku Zasshi, 26, 113
6. A. H. Rouse and P. G. Crandall, J. Food (1968).
Sci., 43, 72 (1978). 15. M. L. W. Chang and M. A. Johnson,
7. T. A. Miettinen and S. Tarpila, Clin. J. Nutr., 106, (1976).
Chim. Acta, 79, 471 (1977). 16. D. Mathe et al., J. Nutr., 107, 466 (1977).
8. P. A. Judd et al., Nutr. Metab., 21(Suppl. 1) 17. F. Delbarre et al., Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 30,
84 (1977). 463 (1977).
498 Pepper (black and white)
18. M. A. El-Nakeeb and R. T. Yousef, Planta 22. S. A. Sande, Expert Opin. Drug Deliv., 2,
Med., 18, 201 (1970). 441 (2005).
19. M. A. El-Nakeeb and R. T. Yousef, Planta 23. A. Cagri et al., J. Food Prot., 67, 833
Med., 18, 295 (1970). (2004).
20. O. D. Livshits, Vopr. Pitan, 28, 76 (1969). 24. B. R. Thakur et al., Crit Rev. Food Sci.
21. O. G. Arkhipova and L. A. Zorina, Nutr., 37, 47 (1997).
Prof. Zabolevaniya u Khim. Prom, 210
(1965).
sabinene, b-pinene, myrcene, 3-carene, limo- man skin but moderately irritating to rabbit
nene, and b-phellandrene. Sesquiterpenes in- skin when applied undiluted under occlusion
clude b-caryophyllene (major component), b- for 24 h. Its phototoxicity on humans is not
bisabolene, b-farnesene, ar-curcumene, hu- known.41
mulene, b-selinene, a-selinene, b-elemene;
a-cubebene, a-copaene, and sesquisabinene.
Oxygenated components include linalool, l-
USES
terpinen-4-ol, myristicin, nerolidol, safrole, b-
pinone, and N-formypiperidine, among others
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
(JIANGSU).4,18–26
Used in certain tonic and rubefacient
The oleoresin contains pungent principles
preparations.
and volatile oil.
Data from one source indicate black pepper oil Regulatory Status. Both are GRAS (§182.10
to be nonirritating and nonsensitizing to hu- and §182.20).
500 Pepper (black and white)
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BARRETT; BRUNETON; FEMA; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; GUENTHER;
GUPTA; HUANG; JIXIAN; JIANGSU; MARTINDALE; MASADA; MERCK; ROSENGARTEN; YOUNGKEN.
1. K. R. Kirtikar and B. D. Basu, Indian 20. C. J. Muller and W. G. Jennings, J. Agric.
Medicinal Plants, International Book Food Chem., 15, 762 (1967).
Distribution, Dehradun, India, 1999, p. 21. H. M. Richard and W. G. Jennings, J.
2135. Food Sci., 36, 584 (1971).
2. J. T. Traxler, J. Agric. Food Chem., 19, 22. G. F. Russell and W. G. Jennings, J. Agric.
1135 (1971). Food Chem., 17, 1107 (1969).
3. M. L. Raina et al., Planta Med., 30, 198 23. S. J. Terhune et al., Can. J. Chem., 53,
(1976). 3285 (1975).
4. C. K. Atal et al., Lloydia, 38, 256 (1975). 24. V. S. Govindarajan in T. E. Furia, ed.,
5. E. R. Jansz et al., J. Sci. Food Agric., 35, CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science
41 (1984). and Nutrition, Vol. 9, CRC Press,
6. R. Grewe et al., Chem. Ber., 103, 3752 Cleveland, OH, 1977, p. 115.
(1970). 25. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 10, 51
7. B. S. Siddiqui et al., Nat. Prod. Res., 19, (1985).
143 (2005). 26. B. M. Lawrence, Major Tropical Spices—
8. K. Wei et al., J. Org. Chem., 70, 1164 Pepper (Piper nigrum L.) Essential Oils
(2005). 1979–1980, Allured Publishing Corp.,
Weaton, IL, 1981.
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(Tokyo), 52, 1349 (2004). 27. T. Ebihara et al., J. Am. Geriatr. Soc., 54,
1401 (2006).
10. B. S. Siddiqui et al., Nat. Prod. Res., 18,
473 (2004). 28. I. M. Ononiwu et al., Afr. J. Med. Med.
Sci., 31, 293 (2002).
11. K. Wei et al., J. Nat. Prod., 67, 1005
(2004). 29. E. Halbert and D. G. Weeden, Nature
(London), 212, 1603 (1966).
12. S. Tsukamoto et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem.,
10, 2981 (2002). 30. N. M. Chaudhry and P. Tariq, Pak. J.
Pharm. Sci., 19, 214 (2006).
13. I. K. Park et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 50,
1866 (2002). 31. M. Rasheed et al., Nat. Prod. Res., 19, 703
(2005).
14. S. V. Reddy et al., Phytomedicine, 11, 697
(2004). 32. I. M. Scott et al., J. Econ. Entomol., 97,
1390 (2004).
15. K. Wei et al., Magn. Reson. Chem., 42,
355 (2004). 33. I. Gulcin, Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr., 56, 491
(2005).
16. H. Chun et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 25,
1203 (2002). 34. M. Kaleem et al., Indian J. Physiol
Pharmacol., 49, 65 (2005).
17. B. Voesgen and K. Herrmann, Z.
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(1980). 105 (2004).
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19. J. Debrauwere and M. Verzele, Bull. Soc. 37. K. Selvendiran et al., Pulm. Pharmacol.
Chim. Belg., 84, 167 (1975). Ther., 19, 107 (2006).
Pine bark, white 501
38. K. Selvendiran et al., Mol. Cell. Biochem., 41. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
268, 141 (2005). 16(Suppl. 1) 651 (1978).
39. C. R. Pradeep and G. Kuttan, Clin. Exp. 42. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 288 (1970).
Metastasis, 19, 703 (2002). 43. B. Al-Jalay et al., J. Food Prod., 50, 25
40. H. R.El et al., Food Chem. Toxicol., 41, (1987).
41 (2003).
An evergreen tree much used for its timber, Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
with leaves in five-leaved fascicles (clusters); Used as a constituent in some cough syrups
branches horizontal and in regular whorls; that are based on White Pine Compound or
bark on old trunks deeply fissured; up to about related formulations. More commonly used in
45 m high, occasionally reaching 67 m; native Europe than the United States.
to northeastern North America and distributed
throughout eastern United States and Canada, Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Bark
from Newfoundland west to Iowa and south to rarely used in tea formulations.
Georgia; also cultivated in Europe. Part used is
the dried inner bark after having removed the Traditional Medicine. Has been used by
outer layer (cork). American Indians for centuries to treat
coughs, colds, and congestion; also as a poul-
tice to treat wounds, sores, abscesses, boils,
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION rheumatism; bruises, felons, and inflamma-
tion (FOSTER AND DUKE). It is still used as a
Reported to contain mucilage, coniferin, con- home remedy.
iferyl alcohol, diterpenoids (strobol, strobal,
cis- and trans-abienol, manoyl oxide, etc.),
a triterpenoid (3b-methoxyserrat-l4-en- COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
2l-one), a volatile oil, and others (LIST AND
1,2
HöRHAMMER). White pine bark, White Pine Compound, and
The bark of Scotch pine (P. sylvestris), a their extracts; both were formerly official in
related species, has been reported to contain N.F: Strengths (see glossary) of extracts are
similar but more terpenic compounds, includ- expressed in weight-to-weight ratios.
ing monoterpenes, diterpenes, and triterpenes
as well as sterols, many of which are present Regulatory Status. White pine bark has been
in rosin or turpentine (see turpentine approved for use in alcoholic beverages only
and rosin).3 (§172.510). Oil of pine (P. sylvestris and other
502 Pine needle oil (dwarf and scotch)
species) subject of a German therapeutic for congestions of the respiratory tract; exter-
monograph; allowed internally and externally nally for rheumatic and neuralgic complaints.4
REFERENCES
See the General References for APhA; BAILEY 1; FOSTER AND DUKE; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; LIST AND HöRHAMMER;
LUST; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; SARGENT; TERRELL; WREN.
1. D. F. Zinkel et al., Phytochemistry, 11, 425 3. T. Norin and B. Winell, Acta Chem.
(1972). Scand., 26, 2297 (1972).
2. D. F. Zinkel et al., Phytochemistry, 11, 4. Monograph, Pini aetheroleum, Bundes-
3387 (1972). anzeiger, no. 154 (August 21, 1985);
revised (March 13, 1990).
PINE NEEDLE OIL (DWARF Scotch pine needle oil (Scotch pine oil or
AND SCOTCH) Pinus sylvestris oil) is mostly produced in
Austria (Tirol), Russia, and Scandinavia.
Source: Dwarf pine Pinus mugo Turra (syn.
P. montana Mill.) and P. mugo var. pumilio
(Haenke) Zenari (syn. P. pumilio Haenke); CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Scotch pine Pinus sylvestris L. (Family
Pinaceae). Dwarf pine needle oil has been reported to
contain mostly monoterpene hydrocarbons
Common/vernacular names: Swiss mountain (ca. 70%), including d-limonene, 3-carene,
pine oil (P. mugo). a- and b-pinenes, b-phellandrene, dipentene,
camphene, and myrcene; 4–10% bornyl ace-
tate and other esters; aldehydes (e.g., hexanal,
GENERAL DESCRIPTION cuminaldehyde, and anisaldehyde); d-cryp-
tone; small amounts of sesquiterpenes (e.g.,
Dwarf pine is a prostrate shrub or pyramidal cadinene); and alcohols; among others
tree (up to ca: 12 m high) with leaves in two- (LIST AND HöRHAMMER; MARTINDALE; MERCK;
1–3
leaved fascicles (clusters), stiff and twisted; REMINGTON).
native to mountains of central and southern The presence of the simple aldehydes is
Europe. believed to be responsible for the characteris-
Scotch pine is a tree also with stiff and tic sweet balsamic odor of dwarf pine oil.1
twisted leaves in two-leaved fascicles; bark Scotch pine needle oil contains 50–97%
deeply fissured; up to about 40 m high; native monoterpene hydrocarbons composed mostly
to Eurasia and cultivated in eastern United of a-pinene, with lesser amounts of 3-carene,
States. dipentene, b-pinene, d-limonene, a-terpi-
Parts used are the leaves (needles) and nene, g-terpinene, cis-b-ocimene, myrcene,
twigs from which the essential oils are ob- camphene, sabinene, terpinalene, and
tained by steam distillation. others.2,4–9 Other compounds reported present
Dwarf pine needle oil (dwarf pine oil, pine include bornyl acetate (3–3.5%), borneol, 1,8-
needle oil N.F., Pinus pumilio oil, or pumilio cineole, citral, terpineol, T-cadinol, T-muur-
pine oil) is produced mainly in Austria (Tirol) olol, a-cadinol, caryophyllene, chamazulene,
and Italy. butyric acid, valeric acid, caproic acid,
Pine needle oil (dwarf and scotch) 503
and iscaproic acid (MERCK; LIST AND and flavor component in pharmaceutical pre-
2,6,8,10,11
HöRHAMMER). parations, including cough and cold medi-
cines, vaporizer fluids, nasal decongestants,
and analgesic ointments.
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL Both dwarf pine oil and Scotch pine oil are
ACTIVITIES used as fragrance ingredients in soaps, deter-
gents, creams, lotions, and perfumes, with
Both dwarf pine oil and Scotch pine oil have maximum use level of 1.2% reported for both
varying degrees of antimicrobial activities. oils in perfumes.3,4
Limonene, dipentene, and bornyl acetate have
been reported as the active principles respon- Food. Dwarf pine needle oil and Scotch pine
sible for the antiviral and antibacterial activi- oil are used as flavor components in major
ties of some essential oils (also see food products, including alcoholic and nonal-
turpentine).3,4,12 coholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, can-
dy, baked goods, and gelatins and puddings.
Use levels are generally low, with average
TOXICOLOGY
maximum level usually below 0.001%.
Dwarf pine oil (but not Scotch pine oil) has
been reported to be irritating to human skin.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATION
Both have also been demonstrated to be sen-
sitizing to certain individuals; both were
Both oils. Dwarf pine needle oil is official in
nonphototoxic.3,4
N.F. Both oils are official in F.C.C. Only leaves
are specified in N.F. for the production of
USES dwarf pine oil.
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. Regulatory Status. Both oils have been ap-
Dwarf pine needle oil is used as a fragrance proved for food use (§172.510).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; FEMA; FERNALD; GOSSELIN; GUENTHER; LIST AND
HöRHAMMER; TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. W. D. Fordham in L. D. Coddet al., eds., 7. J.-C. Chalchat et al., Phytochemistry, 24,
Chemical Technology: An Encyclopedic 2443 (1985).
Treatment, Vol. 5, Barnes & Noble, New 8. J.-C. Chalchat et al., Planta Med., 51, 285
York, 1972, p. 1. (1985).
2. R. M. Ikeda et al., J. Food Sci., 27, 455 9. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 16(2), 59
(1962). (1991).
3. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 14,
10. S. Z. Ivanova et al., Khim. Drev., 1, 103
843 (1976).
(1978).
4. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
14, 845 (1976). 11. R. D. Kolesnikova et al., Rastit. Resur.,
13, 351 (1977).
5. R. Hiltunen, Ann. Acad. Sci. Fenn., Ser.
A4, 208, 1. 12. L. Joubert and M. Gattefosse, Mezhdunar.
Kongr. Efirnym Maslam (Mater.), 4th, 1,
6. Y. A. Poltavchenko and G. A. Rudakov,
99 (1968).
Biol. Nauki, 15, 95 (1972).
504 Pipsissewa
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; FEMA; FOSTER AND DUKE; GRIEVE; LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS; LUST;
UPHOF; YOUNGKEN.
1. A. A. Trubachev, Tr. Leningrad, Khim. 6. K. H. Bolkhart and M. H. Zenk, Z.
Farm. Inst., 21, 176 (1967). pflanzenphysiol., 61, 356 (1969).
2. E. Walewska and H. Thieme, Pharmazie, 7. K. H. Bolkhart et al., Naturwissens-
24, 423 (1969). chaften, 55, 445 (1968).
3. E. Walewska, Herba Pol., 17, 242 (1971). 8. N. R. Farnsworth and S. B. Segelman, Tile
4. A. A. Trubachev and V. S. Batyuk, Till, 57, 52 (1971).
Farmatsiya (Moscow), 18, 48 (1969). 9. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 34, 103 (1971).
5. A. A. Trubachev and V. S. Batyuk, Khim. 10. D. M. Secoy and A. E. Smith, Econ. Bot.,
Prir. Soedin., 4, 320 (1968). 37(1), 28 (1983).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; KROCHMAL
AND KROCHMAL; LIST AND HöRHAMMER; LUST; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MORTON 3; STAHL; TYLER 3.
1. S.FOSTER, HerbalGram, 23, 19 (1990). 14. Anon., Am. Pharm., NS24 (3) 31 (1984).
2. J. L. Hartwell and A. W. Schrecker, 15. R. K. Sagar et al., Planta Med., 72, 114
Fortschritte der Chemie Organischer (2006).
Naturstoffe, Springer-Verlag, Vienna, 16. R. Chawla et al., Z. Naturforsch. C, 60,
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3. A. Stoll et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 76, 6413 17. R. Chawla et al., Mol. Cell Biochem., 273,
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4. A. Wartburg, Helv. Chim. Acta, 40, 1331 18. H. Prakash et al., J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci.,
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5. H. Auterhoff and O. May, Planta Med., 6, 19. J. B. Thiersch, Proceedings of Third
240 (1958). International Congress on Chemo-
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11. Q. Y. Zheng et al., Int. J. Immuno-
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and Podophylli peltati resina, Bunde-
12. B. F. Issell et al., eds., Etoposide (VP- 16): sanzeiger, no. 50 (March 13, 1986);
Current Status and New Develo-pment, revised (March 13, 1990).
Academic Press, Orlando, FL, 1984.
13. B. R. Olin, ed., Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod.
(1992).
508 Poria
be verified by microscopy (XU AND XU); ex- Regulatory Status. Fuling is an ethnic food;
tracts in liquid and powdered forms with no its U.S. regulatory status not determined.
established standards.
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHP; CMH; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; HONGKUI; HU; HUANG;
IMM-CAMS; JIANGSU; LU AND LI; NATIONAL; WANG; XU AND XU; ZHU.
1. B. Liu, Medicinal Fungi of China, 20. S. C. Lu et al., Diyi Junyi Daxue Xuebao,
People’s Press, Taiyuan, Shanxi, 1984, 10, 267 (1990).
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15. L. Gapter et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Zhongyi, 14 (1989).
Commun., 332, 1153 (2005). 34. X. F. Zhang, Dazhong Zhongyiyao, 37
16. G. Li et al., Arch. Pharm. Res., 27, 829 (1991).
(2004). 35. S. Y. Chen, Edible Fungi China, 9, 24, 25
17. Y. Mizushina et al., Cancer Sci., 95, 354 (1990).
(2004). 36. S. Y. Chen, Edible Fungi China, 9, 42
18. T. Kaminaga et al., Oncology, 53, 382 (1990).
(1996). 37. S. Y. Chen, Edible Fungi China, 9, 37
19. C. X. Chen, Zhongcaoyao, 16, 40 (1985). (1990).
Psyllium 511
In China both the seeds and whole herbs of whole herbs have been reported to be used in
related Plantago species (e.g., P. asiatica L. treating cancer.33
and P. depressa Willd.) are used for similar
purposes. In addition, the seeds are used to
treat hematuria (bloody urine), coughing, high COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
blood pressure (with ca. 50% success in clini-
cal trials), and other ailments. The seeds used Husks (blond) and whole seeds (black and
in Chinese medicine are often specially trea- blond); whole seeds contain both husk and
ted by frying with saltwater before drying; kernels; husks are official in U.S.P. Blond
these cannot be directly compared with the psyllium husk subject of a positive German
psyllium seeds used in the United States therapeutic monograph used for habitual con-
(FARNSWORTH 1–4; JIANGSU; NANJING). stipation and supportive treatment of irritable
Seeds of psyllium and other Plantago spe- bowel syndrome.34
cies as well as their roots, juice, leaves, and
REFERENCES
See the General References for BLUMENTHAL 1; ESCOP 2; GRIEVE; MARTINDALE; MERCK; MORTON 3; TERRELL;
TUCKER 1–3; UPHOF; YOUNGKEN.
1. R. Wasicky, Planta Med., 9, 232 (1961). 14. B. H. Ershoff, J. Food Sci., 41, 949
2. J. N. BeMiller in R. L. Whistler, ed., (1976).
Academic Press, New York, 1973, p. 339. 15. J. W. Anderson et al., Arch. Intern. Med.,
3. M. S. Karawya et al., U. A. R. J. Pharm. 148, 292 (1988).
Sci., 12, 53 (1971). 16. A. Danielsson et al., Acta Hepatogas-
4. S. I. Balbaa et al., U. A. R. J. Pharm. Sci., troenterol., 26, 148 (1979).
12, 35 (1971). 17. Y. C. Liu et al., Ann. Nutr. Metab., 48, 374
5. G. A. Cordell in R. H. F. Manske, ed., The (2004).
Alkaloids, Vol. 16, Academic Press, New 18. K. G. Allen et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
York, 1977, p. 431. 52, 4998 (2004).
6. M. S. Karawya, Planta Med., 20, 14 19. M. Sierra et al., Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 56, 830
(1971). (2002).
7. D. French et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 75, 20. A. L. Romero et al., J. Nutr., 132, 1194
709 (1953). (2002).
8. Y. Nakamura et al., Nutr. Cancer, 51, 218 21. J. W. Anderson et al., Am. J. Clin. Nutr.,
(2005). 71, 1433 (2000).
9. L. Li et al., J. Chromatogr. A, 1063, 161 22. J. W. Anderson et al., Am. J. Clin. Nutr.,
(2005). 71, 472 (2000).
10. J. A. Marlett et al., Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 72, 23. J. M. Hannan et al., Br. J. Nutr., 96, 131
784 (2000). (2006).
11. J. W. McRorie et al., Aliment. Pharmacol. 24. S. A. Ziai et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 102,
Ther., 12, 491 (1998). 202 (2005).
12. D. M. Kecmanovic et al., Phytother. Res., 25. M. Rodriguez-Moran et al., J. Diabetes
20, 655 (2006). Complications, 12, 273 (1998).
13. M. L. Khorana et al., Indian J. Pharm., 26. A. C. Frati Munari et al., Arch. Med. Res.,
20, 3 (1958). 29, 137 (1998).
514 Psyllium
27. L. A. Moreno et al., J. Physiol Biochem., 31. D. R. Schaller, N. Engl. J. Med., 323, 1073
59, 235 (2003). (1990).
28. W. Westerhof et al., Drugs Exp. Clin. 32. S. Duckeet, N. Engl. J. Med., 303, 583
Res., 27, 165 (2001). (1980).
29. E. Leng-Peschlow, Br. J. Nutr., 66, 331 33. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 288 (1970).
(1991). 34. Monograph Plantaginis ovatae testa and
30. P. Vohra and F. H. Kratzer, Poult. Sci., 43, semen, Bundesanzeiger, no. 22 (February
1164 (1964). 1, 1990).
Quassia 515
Food. Extracts and purified mixtures of bit- Others. Bark reportedly used as an
ter principles (commercially known simply as insecticide.
‘‘quassin’’) are used to impart a bitter flavor to
various food products, especially alcoholic
(e.g., liqueurs and bitters) and nonalcoholic COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
beverages. Food products in which the extracts
are used include alcoholic and nonalcoholic Crude, extracts, and quassin; crude and fluid
beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked extract were formerly official in N.F. Strengths
goods, and gelatins and puddings. Highest (see glossary) of extracts are usually ex-
average maximum use level reported is about pressed in weight-to-weight ratios.
0.007% (71.8 ppm) in nonalcoholic beverages.
Used as a flavoring substitute for quinine. Regulatory Status. Has been approved for
food use (§172.510).
Traditional Medicine. Used as a bitter and
anthelmintic (via enema). Also used to treat
fevers.
REFERENCES
See the General References for BARNES; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER;
GLASBY 2; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. J. Polonsky, in W. Herz et al., eds., 9. S. Bertani et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 108,
Fortschritte der Chemie Organischer 155 (2006).
Naturstoffe, Vol. 30, Springer-Verlag, 10. E. O. Ajaiyeoba and H. C. Krebs, Afr. J.
Vienna, 1973, p. 101. Med. Med. Sci., 32, 353 (2003).
2. H. Wagner et al., Planta Med., 38, 204 11. S. Apers et al., Planta Med., 68, 20
(1980). (2002).
3. S. M. Kupchan and D. R. Streelman, 12. W. Toma et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 85,
J. Org. Chem., 41, 3481 (1976). 19 (2003).
4. D. Lavie and I. A. Kaye, J. Chem. Soc., 13. W. Toma et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 25,
5001 (1963). 1151 (2002).
5. H. Wagner et al., Planta Med., 36, 113 14. S. Parveen et al., Reprod. Toxicol., 17, 45
(1979). (2003).
6. D. H. Bray et al., Phytother. Res., 1, 22 15. Y. Raji and A. F. Bolarinwa, Life Sci., 61,
(1987). 1067 (1997).
7. E. O. Ajaiyeoba et al., J. Ethnophar- 16. V. C. Njar et al., Planta Med., 61, 180
macol., 67, 321 (1999). (1995).
8. S. Bertani et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.
(2006).
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
USES
White quebracho contains 0.3–1.5% indole
alkaloids, including aspidospermine, aspidos- Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
permatine, aspidosamine, yohimbine (queb- Now rarely used in pharmaceutical pre-
rachine), l-quebrachamine, eburnamenine, parations.
aspidospermidine, l-pyrifolidine, deacetyl-
Food. Quebracho is primarily used in foods.
pyrifolidine, rhazidine, and akuammidine,
among others (GLASBY 1; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; Its extract (type not specified) is used as a
RAFFAUF; WILLAMAN AND SCHUBERT).
1–4 flavor ingredient in major categories of foods,
Numerous alkaloids, including rhazinilam including alcoholic and nonalcoholic bev-
(a lactam), have also been isolated from the erages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked
leaves of A. quebracho-blanco.2,5–9 goods, and gelatins and puddings. Highest
Other constituents reportedly present in average maximum use level is about
white quebracho include 3–4% tannin, sugars, 0.003% reported in candy (29.8 ppm) and
b-sitosterol (quebrachol), and the triterpenic baked goods (34.5 ppm).
alcohols lupeol and a-amyrin (LIST AND
10 Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Some-
HÖRHAMMER).
times used as a tea ingredient; seldom used in
the United States; liquid extracts used in re-
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL spiratory preparations in the United Kingdom
ACTIVITIES (WREN).
REFERENCES
See the General References for CLAUS; FEMA; GLASBY 1; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS; LIST
AND HÖRHAMMER; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TERRELL; UPHOF; WREN; YOUNGKEN.
1. H. F. Deutsch et al., J. Pharm. Biomed. 7. D. J. Abraham et al., Tetrahedron Lett.,
Anal., 12, 1283 (1994). 909 (1972).
2. R. L. Lyon et al., J. Pharm. Sci., 62, 218 8. H. K. Schnoes et al., Tetrahedron Lett.,
(1973). 993 (1962).
3. P. Tunmann and D. Wolf, Z. Naturforsch. 9. R. L. Lyon, Diss. Abstr. Int. B, 35, 2673
B, 24, 1665 (1969). (1974).
4. S. Markey et al., Tetrahedron Lett., 157 10. P. Tunmann and G. Hermann, Pharmazie,
(1967). 25, 361 (1970).
5. P. S. Benoit et al., J. Pharm. Sci., 62, 1889 11. H. Sperling et al., J. Urol., 168, 160(2002).
(1973). 12. R. E. Schultes and R. F. Raffauf, The
6. R. L. Lyon et al., J. Pharm. Sci., 62, 833 Healing Forest, Dioscorides Press,
(1973). Portland, OR, 1990.
noncytotoxic to host cells and was sustained logical creams and in hair tonic preparations
for at least 16 h after the extract had been and shampoos for treating dandruff.
removed from the cell culture medium.14
Powdered quillaja bark or saponin concen- Food. Quillaia extracts (especially saponins
trate (saponin) has highly local irritant and concentrate) are used quite extensively as a
sternutatory (causing sneezing) properties. foaming agent in root beer and cocktail mixes
It also has expectorant properties as well as (see yucca). Other food products in which
depressant activities on the heart and respira- quillaia (product form not specified) is also
tion. Saponin is reported to be too strongly reportedly used include frozen dairy desserts,
hemolytic and irritating in the gastrointestinal candy, baked goods, and gelatins and pud-
tract to be used internally. Severe toxic effects dings. Highest average maximum use level is
due to large doses include liver damage, gas- about 0.01% for alcoholic and nonalcoholic
tric pain, diarrhea, hemolysis of red blood beverages.
corpuscles, respiratory failure, convulsions,
and coma (LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MARTINDALE). Traditional Medicine. Used for the relief of
An immunostimulating complex formed coughs, chronic bronchitis, and other pulmo-
from a semipurified quillaia saponin fraction nary ailments; a component in herbal vaginal
by a protein antigen has proven useful as a douches. Also used to relieve itchy scalp or
protective vaccine for equine influenza virus; dandruff, skin sores, and athlete’s foot.
also the subject of HIV research in humans.15
Others. Saponin used as a foaming agent in
fire extinguishers (MABBERLY).
TOXICOLOGY
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 2; CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE;
LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; LUST; MABBERLY; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; ROSE; STAHL; TERRELL; UPHOF; WREN; YOUNGKEN.
1. R. A. Labriola and V. Deulofeu, 4. C. D. Thron, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.,
Experientia, 25, 124 (1969). 145, 194 (1964).
2. I. F. Gaunt et al., Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 5. R. Richou et al., Rev. Immunol. Ther.
12, 641 (1974). Antimicrob., 33, 155 (1969).
3. R. Higuchi et al., Phytochemistry, 26, 229 6. R. Richou et al., Compt. Rend., 260, 3791
(1987). (1965).
520 Quillaia
7. P. Lallouette et al., C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 13. E. Heftmann, Phytochemistry, 14, 891
Ser. D, 582 (1967). (1975).
8. B. Wolters, Planta Med., 14, 392 (1966). 14. M. R. Roner et al., J. Gen. Virol., 88, 275
9. C. D. Thron et al., Toxicol. Appl. (2007).
Pharmacol., 6, 182 (1964). 15. P. Newmark, Biotechnology, 6, 23
10. G. Wulff, Dtsch. Apoth. Ztg., 108, 797 (1988).
(1968). 16. J. C. Phillips et al., Food Cosmet.
11. G. Vogel, Planta Med., 11, 362 (1963). Toxicol., 17, 23 (1979).
12. A. J. George, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 3, 17. World Health Organ Tech. Rep. Ser., 934,
85 (1965). 1 (2006).
Rehmannia 521
nia) are used in skin care (e.g., toilet water, on the vital essence (jing) in such conditions as
cleanser, and bath preparations) and hair care lumbago, weak knees, night sweat, spermator-
products (e.g., shampoos) for its anti-inflam- rhea (nocturnal emission), hectic fever,
matory and antimicrobial effects, as well as its diabetes, palpitation, irregular menses, me-
traditional detoxicant and nourishing proper- trorrhagia (uterine bleeding), vertigo, tinnitus,
ties (ZHOU). and premature graying of hair. The two types
of rehmannia are frequently used together in
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Used formulations and are among the most com-
in soup mixes where both raw and cured monly used Chinese herbs. diHUANG is also
rehmannia are frequently used together; pow- highly valued as a tonic food for disease
der and extracts used in general and blood prevention and for prolonging life.41,42
tonic formulas (FOSTER AND YUE).
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHP; CMH; FOSTER AND YUE; HU; HUANG; IMM-2; IMM-CAMS; JIANGSU; JIXIAN;
LU AND LI; MA; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NATIONAL; WANG; XIAO; ZHOU.
1. S. M. Wong et al., Planta Med., 54, 566 7. M. Y. Ni and B. L. Bian, Zhongguo
(1988). Zhongyao Zazhi, 14, 40 (1989).
2. H. Sasaki et al., Planta Med., 55, 458 8. Y. Shoyama et al., Phytochemistry, 25,
(1989). 1633 (1986).
3. M. Tomoda et al., Chem Pharm. Bull., 19, 9. L. Z. Chen et al., Chin. J. Pharmacol.
1455 (1971). Toxicol., 7, 153 (1993).
4. M. Tomoda et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 10. C. H. Pan et al., Biosci. Biotechnol.
19, 2411 (1971). Biochem., 63, 1138 (1999).
5. M. Yoshikawa et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 11. Y. X. Gong, Zhongcaoyao, 18, 37
34, 1403 (1986). (1987).
6. M. Yoshikawa et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 12. M. Y. Ni et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao
34, 2294 (1986). Zazhi, 14, 21 (1989).
524 Rhubarb
13. B. L. Bian et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao 28. R. Zhang et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 90,
Zazhi, 16, 339 (1991). 39 (2004).
14. M. Y. Ni et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao 29. H. H. Yu et al., Am. J. Chin Med., 34, 1083
Zazhi, 17, 297 (1992). (2006).
15. Z. Y. Liu, Zhongyao Tongbao, 9, 17 30. H. H. Yu et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 107,
(1984). 383 (2006).
16. M. Y. Ni and B. L. Bian, Zhongyao 31. S. S. Kim et al., Redox. Rep., 10, 311
Tongbao, 13, 18 (1988). (2005).
17. S. J. Wu et al., Zhongcaoyao, 15, 6 (1984). 32. J. Liu et al., Brain Res., 1123, 68 (2006).
18. M. Tomoda et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 17, 33. Y. Y. Tian et al., Life Sci., 80, 193 (2006).
1456 (1994). 34. H. Yu et al., Pharmacol. Res., 54, 39
19. M. Tomoda et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull. (2006).
(Tokyo), 42, 1666 (1994). 35. D. Q. Li et al., Toxicon, 46, 845 (2005).
20. M. Tomoda et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull. 36. H. Kim et al., Int. J. Immunopharmacol.,
(Tokyo), 42, 625 (1994). 20, 231 (1998).
21. Y. S. Li et al., Nat. Prod. Res., 19, 165 37. K. O. Oh et al., Clin. Chim. Acta, 334, 185
(2005). (2003).
22. N.T. Anh etal.,Pharmazie,58,593 (2003). 38. M. Kubo et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 17,
23. Z. L. Cao et al., Henan Zhongyi, 36 (1989). 1282 (1994).
24. Z. L. Cao et al., Zhongyao Tongbao, 13, 39. L. Z. Chen et al., Zhongguo Yao Li Xue
22 (1988). Bao, 16, 337 (1995).
25. Y. Yuan et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi, 40. D. G. Kang et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 28,
17, 366 (1992). 1662 (2005).
26. S. L. Hou and J. W. Sheng, Zhongguo 41. M. Y. Chang, Zhongguo Shipin, 25 (1987).
Zhongyao Zazhi, 17, 301 (1992). 42. X. P. Li, Zhongchengyao, 15, 47 (1993).
27. R. X. Zhang et al., Pharmazie, 59, 552
(2004).
Source: Chinese rhubarb Rheum officinale Large and sturdy, perennial herbs with large
Baill., R. palmatum L., R. tanguticum leaves borne on thick petioles; stem up to
Maxim. ex Reg., and other Rheum species 2–3 m high; native to Asia (e.g., China, India,
or hybrids grown in China; Indian rhubarb and southern Siberia); widely cultivated. Parts
Rheum australe D. Don. (syn. R. emodi used are the dried rhizome and roots deprived
Wall.); Garden rhubarb Rheum cultor- of periderm (corky layer). Only plants 3 y or
um Hort. (syn. R. rhabarbarum L. errone- older are used. Chinese rhubarb, especially
ously attributed to R. rhaponticum L.) those from R. officinale and R. palmatum, are
(Family Polygonaceae). considered to be of the best quality. Those
species with palmate rather than undulate
Common/vernacular names: Medicinal leaves are generally considered the official
rhubarb (R. officinale); Himalayan rhubarb drug source species or substitutes in China.
(R. australe); common rhubarb, pie plant The species cultivated as ornamental plants
(R. cultorum). in the United States are generally R. palmatum
Rhubarb 525
and R. cultorum; the latter is also grown for Nonanthraquinone glycosides have also been
its edible stalks (petioles). R. cultorum, a isolated from Chinese rhubarb; they are
hybrid that evolved in the 18th century, prob- stilbene glycosides (e.g., 3,5,40 -trihydroxys-
ably involved the rare eastern European spe- tilbene-40 -O-b-D-glucopyranoside) related to
cies R. rhaponticum, a binomial commonly rhaponticin (rhapontin) found in R. rhapon-
associated with the garden rhubarb (FOSTER ticum (JIANGSU).11 6-Acyl stilbene and anthra-
1,2
AND YUE; MABBERLY). quinone glycosides were reported for the first
time in Japanese R. palmatum. Also, a new
6-sulfated anthraquinone (emodin 8-O-b-
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION D-glucopyranosyl-6-O-sulfate) was recently
isolated from Nepalese R. emodi together
Chinese rhubarbs contain two major classes with two rare auronols (carpusin and
of active constituents, anthraglycosides and maesopsin).13
tannins. The tannins in Chinese rhubarb are of
The amounts of anthraglycosides and re- both the catechin and gallic acid types, includ-
lated free anthraquinones range from about ing d-catechin, d-epicatechin gallate, gluco-
1% (in R. tanguticum) to more than 5% (in gallin (galloylglucose), and others (LIST AND
R. palmatum and R. officinale).3,4 Anthra- HÖRHAMMER).
14,15
glycosides constitute 75% or more of the Chinese rhubarb also contains a trace
mixture, with the rest being free anthraqui- amount of volatile oil consisting of 100
nones that are mainly chrysophanic acid constituents, including chrysophanic acid
(chrysophanol), emodin (rheum emodin), and other anthraquinones, diisobutyl phthal-
aloe-emodin, rhein, and physcion (parietin). ate, cinnamic acid, phenylpropionic acid,
The major anthraglycosides are O-glucosides and ferulic acid, but no p-hydroxycinnamic,
(chrysophanol-1-monoglucoside, emodin-6- caffeic, or quinic acid.16,17 In a recent
monoglucoside, aloe-emodin-8-monogluco- report, the stalks of uncooked R. rhabar-
side, rhein-8-monoglucoside, physcione barum yielded 59 volatile monoterepene
monoglucoside, etc.), with lesser amounts alcohols, aldehydes, and acids to which the
of the dianthrone glycosides sennosides A, characteristic odor of rhubarb is largely
B, C, D, E, and F (see cascara, frangula, attributed.18
and senna).3–7 The new anthrone C-gluco- Other constituents present in Chinese
sides 10-hydroxycascaroside C and D and rhubarbs include calcium oxalate (ca.
10-R-chrysaloin 1-O-b-D-glucopyranoside 6%), fatty acids (oleic acid, palmitic acid,
were isolated from the roots of R. emodi etc.), sugars (glucose, fructose, etc.), rutin
together with cascaroside C and D and and other flavonoids, starch (ca. 16%), re-
cassialoin.8 Although the total anthracene sins, and others (BRADLY; JIANGSU; NANJING;
derivatives remain relatively constant year- STAHL).
round, the relative concentrations of anthrone Indian rhubarb and garden rhubarb have
and anthraquinone forms of the glycosides been much less extensively investigated than
vary with time of harvest.9 A recent study Chinese rhubarb. Indian rhubarb is reported to
found physcion-8-O-b-D-gentiobioside to be contain tannins and anthraglycosides, many
a major constituent of the hydroxyanthracene of which are probably the same as those of
complex.10 New oxanthrone esters (revand- Chinese rhubarb. Garden rhubarb has been
chinone-1 and -2), anthraquinone ether (re- reported to contain chrysophanic acid (proba-
vandchinone-3), and oxanthrone ether (re- bly also its glucosides) but not the other
vandchinone-4) were reported in R. emodi anthraquinones or sennosides found in
rhizome.11 Other isolated constituents with Chinese rhubarb; it contains rhaponticin
laxative activity from Chinese rhubarb in- not present in Chinese or Indian rhubarb
clude rheinosides A, B, C, and D.12 (MARTINDALE; NANJING; STAHL).4
526 Rhubarb
constipation but also for other conditions such tincture, and fluid extract were formerly offi-
as chronic diarrhea, thermal burns, jaundice, cial in N.F. Strengths (see glossary) of extracts
sores, and cancers (WANG).44 It has also been are expressed in weight-to-weight ratios.
used in treating upper GI bleeding with con-
siderable success.45–47 Regulatory Status. Chinese rhubarb and gar-
den rhubarb have been approved for food use;
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS the latter in alcoholic beverages only
(§172.510); Indian rhubarb is not listed. Chi-
Crudes (Chinese, numerous grades; Indian) nese rhubarb (R. palmatum) is the subject of a
and extracts (e.g., solid and fluid). Crude, positive German therapeutic monograph.20
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; BAILEY 2; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRADLY; CLAUS; FEMA; FOSTER AND YUE;
JIANGSU; LIST AND H€
oRHAMMER; MARTINDALE; NANJING; STAHL; TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. D. E. Marshall, A Bibliography of 14. G. Nonaka et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 25,
Rhubarb and Rheum Spices, National 2300 (1977).
Agricultural Library, Bibliography and 15. H. Friedrich and J. Hohle, Arch. Pharm.,
Literature of Agriculture, no. 62, 299, 857 (1966).
Beltsville, MD, 1988.
16. C. Frattini et al., Riv. Ital. Essenze,
2. C. M. Foust, Rhubarb: The Wondrous Profumi, Piante Offic., Aromi,
Drug, Princeton University Press, Saponi, Cosmet., Aerosol, 58, 132
Princeton, NJ, 1992. (1976).
3. J. H. Zwaving, Planta Med., 21, 254 17. C. Frattini et al., Riv. Ital. Essenze,
(1972). Profumi, Piante Offic., Aromi, Saponi,
4. B. Klimek, Ann. Acad. Med. Lodz., 14, Cosmet., Aerosol, 56, 597 (1974).
133 (1973). 18. M. Dregus and K. H. Engel, J. Agric.
5. J. H. Zwaving, Pharm. Weekbl., 109, Food Chem., 51, 6530 (2003).
1169 (1974). 19. J. W. Fairbairn, Pharmacology, 14
6. H. Oshio et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 22, (Suppl. 1), 48 (1976).
823 (1974). 20. Monograph Rhei radix, Bundesan zeiger,
7. F. H. L. van Os, Pharmacology, 14 no. 228 (December 5, 1984); revised
(Suppl. 1), 7 (1976). (April 27, 1989).
8. L. Krenn et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull. 21. M. Yu et al., World J. Gastroenterol., 11,
(Tokyo), 52, 391 (2004). 2670 (2005).
9. E. H. C. Verhaeren et al., Planta Med., 45, 22. Q. Huang et al., Med. Res. Rev.
15 (1982). (2006).
10. L. Holzschuh et al., Planta Med., 46, 159 23. X. Zhou et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett.,
(1982). 16, 563 (2006).
11. K. S. Babu et al., Phytochemistry, 62, 203 24. Y. Q. Shi et al., Anticancer Res., 21, 2847
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12. T. Yamagishi et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 25. O. K. Kabiev and S. M. Vermenichev,
35, 3132 (1987). Vopr. Onkol., 12, 61 (1966).
13. L. Krenn et al., J. Nat. Prod., 66, 1107 26. S. K. Agarwal et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
(2003). 72, 43 (2000).
528 Rose hips
27. M. Ibrahim et al., World J. Gast- Chengdu, 29–31 May 1990, Institute of
roenterol., 12, 7136 (2006). Chinese Materia Medica, China
28. M. K. Moon et al., Life Sci., 78, 1550 Academy of Traditional Chinese Medi-
(2006). cine, Beijing, 1990.
29. M. Y. Yoo et al., Phytother. Res., (2006). 39. F. Misiti et al., Brain Res. Bull., 71, 29
(2006).
30. Y. Q. Zhao et al., World J. Gastroenterol.,
10, 1005 (2004). 40. B. K. Suresh et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem.
Lett., 14, 3841 (2004).
31. C. C. Wang et al., Planta Med., 68, 869
(2002). 41. Z. Kang et al., J. Tradit. Chin Med., 13,
249 (1993).
32. T. Kageura et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem., 9,
1887 (2001). 42. T. Yokozawa et al., Nippon Jinzo Gakkai
Shi, 35, 13 (1993).
33. Y. Cai et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 52,
7884 (2004). 43. M. M. Alam et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
96, 121 (2005).
34. A. Iizuka et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 91,
89 (2004). 44. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 288 (1970).
35. H. Matsuda et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem., 9, 45. D. H. Jiao et al., Pharmacology, 20
41 (2001). (Suppl. 1), 128 (1980).
36. I. Abe et al., Planta Med., 66, 753 46. D. A. Sun et al., Chin. J. Integr. Trad.
(2000). West. Med., 6, 4589 (1986).
37. V. Goel et al., Br. J. Nutr., 81, 65 47. D. H. Jiao et al., Zhejiang Zhongyi Zazhi,
(1999). 23, 179 (1988).
38. X. S. Gao et al., eds., Abstracts of the First
International Symposium on Rhubarb,
Source: Rosa canina L., R. gallica L., Rose hips contain high concentrations of
R. rugosa Thunb., R. villosa L. (syn. vitamin C (ascorbic acid), ranging from
R. pomifera Herrm.), and other Rosa spe- 0.24% to 1.25% depending on sources, cli-
cies (Family Rosaceae). mate, degrees of ripeness, and other factors
(compare with acerola).1–5
Common/vernacular names: Hipberries. Other constituents present in rose hips in-
clude carotenoids (0.01–0.05%),4–6 flavo-
noids (0.01–0.35%),5,7 pectic substances
GENERAL DESCRIPTION (3.4–4.6%), polyphenols (2.02–2.64%), leu-
coanthocyanins (1.35–1.75%), catechins
Prickly bushes or shrubs; native to Europe and (0.8–0.91%),5 riboflavin,4 sugars (glucose,
Asia; extensively cultivated. Part used is the fructose, sucrose, etc.), and plant acids (e.g.,
ripe fruit. R. canina is the major commercial citric and malic), among others (JIANGSU).
source of rose hips; with ellipsoid, globose, or Depending on the species, rose hips may also
ovoid fruits. The R. canina group is separated contain purgative glycosides (e.g., multiflorin
into 17 or more species; found in most of A and multiflorin B in Rosa multiflora
Europe (TUTIN 2). Thunb.),8 saponins (ca. 17% in R. laevigata
Rose hips 529
Michx.), and other compounds that have R. rugosa ellagitannin, rugosin E, induces
widely different pharmacological properties rabbit and human platelet aggregation at EC50
(JIANGSU) (see Cherokee rosehip). of 1.5 and 3.2 mM, respectively. Rugosin E
More recently identified constituents in- was suggested to be a platelet receptor agonist
clude condensed tannins and ellagitannins of ADP.10
(e.g., rudosin E),1,9,10 glycoproteins and
glycolipids,11–13 and ursane-type triterpenes
(e.g., rosamultin).14,15 A sesquiterpene, ( þ )- USES
4-epi-a-bisabolol, has been isolated from the
leaves of two R. rugosa hybrids.16 Food. Rose hips are mainly used as a source
of natural vitamin C. However, as with acero-
la, much of the vitamin C in rose hips is
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL destroyed during ordinary drying or extraction
ACTIVITIES (MERCK).23 For this reason, most rose hips
products are supplemented with synthetic vi-
Vitamin C has antiscorbutic properties. tamin C. They are usually in the form of tablets
Mild laxative and diuretic effects reported, or capsules.
probably attributable to malic and citric acid
content (TYLER 1). Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Rose
Antioxidant activity has been displayed hips are widely used as an herb tea ingredient;
by rose hips extracts and its different con- also in capsules, tablets, and so on as a ques-
stituents, such as glycoproteins, tannins, tionable source of vitamin C.24
rosamultin, polyphenolics, and vitamin
C.9,12,17–20
The triterpenes of R. rugosa have antino- COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
ciceptive and anti-inflammatory properties in
mice and rats.15 Anti-inflammatory activity Crude and extracts. Usually adjusted with
was also displayed by a galactolipid isolated vitamin C to a specified amount.
from R. canina.13 Preparations made from the
powdered rose hips were effective in reducing Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.20); with
the painful symptoms of knee and hip osteo- only Rosa alba L., R. centifolia L., R.damas-
arthritis in human patients.21,22 cena Mill., R. gallica L., and their varieties
The glycopeptides of R. rugosa strongly listed. Subject of a German therapeutic
inhibit HIV-1 reverse transcriptase in vitro.11 monograph; claimed efficacy to prevent colds
Anti-HIV protease activity was also exhibited and flu (due to vitamin C) content are not
by R. rugosa extract and its rosamultin sufficiently documented; corrigent for tea
constituent.14 mixtures.24
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON;
DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DUKE 4; JIANGSU; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NANJING; TUTIN 2; TYLER 1; UPHOF.
1. J. P. Salminen et al., J. Chromatogr. A, 3. A. N. Nizharadze et al., Konservn.
1077, 170 (2005). Ovoshchesuch. Prom-st., 4, 36 (1977).
2. Z. Butkiene, Liet. TSR Mokslu Akad 4. G. P. Shnyakina and E. P. Malygina,
Darb., Ser. C, 1, 51 (1969). Rastit Resur., 11, 390 (1975).
530 Rose oil (and absolute)
5. S. G. Mel’yantseva, Konservn. Ovosh- 15. H. J. Jung et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 28,
chesush. Prom-st., 2, 13 (1978). 101 (2005).
6. T. Hodisan et al., J. Pharm. Biomed. 16. Y. Hashidoko et al., Biosci. Biotechnol.
Anal., 16, 521 (1997). Biochem., 66, 2474 (2002).
7. M. Retezeanu et al., Farmacia (Bucha- 17. T. B. Ng et al., Biochem. Cell Biol., 83, 78
rest), 20, 167 (1972). (2005).
8. S. Tagaki et al., Yakugaku Zasshi, 96, 18. P. J. Cheol et al., J. Med. Food, 7, 436
1217 (1976). (2004).
9. T. B. Ng et al., J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 58, 19. E. J. Cho et al., Am. J. Chin. Med., 32, 487
529 (2006). (2004).
10. C. M. Teng et al., Thromb. Haemost., 77, 20. D. A. els-Rakotoarison et al., Phytother.
555 (1997). Res., 16, 157 (2002).
11. M. Fu et al., J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 58, 21. K. Winther et al., Scand. J. Rheumatol.,
1275 (2006). 34, 302 (2005).
12. T. B. Ng et al., J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 56, 22. E. Rein et al., Phytomedicine, 11, 383
537 (2004). (2004).
13. E. Larsen et al., J. Nat. Prod., 66, 994 23. S. Mrozewski, Przem. Spozyw., 22, 294
(2003). (1968).
14. J. C. Park et al., J. Med. Food, 8, 107 24. Bundesanzeiger, 164, (1990).
(2005).
ROSE OIL (AND ABSOLUTE) yield by steam distillation and rose absolute by
petroleum ether extraction followed by alco-
Source: Rosa alba L., R. centifolia L., R. hol solubilization (see concrete and absolute
damascena Mill., R. gallica L., and their in glossary).1–3 Rose water (more specifically
varieties (Family Rosaceae). called stronger rose water) is the aqueous
portion of the steam distillation after rose oil
Common/vernacular names: Bulgarian otto is removed.
of rose, Bulgarian rose oil, Bulgarian attar Flowers are usually harvested early in the
of rose (R. damascena var. alba); Moroccan morning when their essential oil content is
otto of rose, Moroccan rose oil (R. centi- the highest.1,4 Major rose oil and absolute
folia); Turkish otto of rose, Turkish rose producing countries include France, Bulgaria,
oil, Turkish attar of rose (R. damascena); Morocco, Turkey, Italy, and China.
French rose absolute, rose de mai absolute It has been proposed that R. damascena
(R. centifolia). evolved as an eastern Mediterranean hybrid
between R. gallica and R. Phoenicia.5
Major commercial cultivars of R. damas-
GENERAL DESCRIPTION cena include ‘‘Trigintipetala’’ (‘‘Kananlik
rose’’), which is confused in the horticultural
Small prickly shrubs up to about 1.2–2.4 m trade with ‘‘Prof. Emile Perrot,’’ ‘‘Alika,’’ and
high; generally considered to be natives of ‘‘Bella Donna’’ (TUCKER 1–3).
Europe and western Asia; widely cultivated. Major commercial cultivars of R. gallica
Parts used are the fresh flowers, from which include ‘‘Conditorum’’ (Hungarian rose) and
rose oil is obtained normally in 0.02–0.03% ‘‘Officinalis’’ (apothecary rose) (TUCKER 1–3).
Rose oil (and absolute) 531
Others. Rose oil and to a lesser extent rose Rose oil is official in N.F. and F.C.C.
absolute are used in flavoring tobacco. Stronger rose water is official in N.F.
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BLUMENTHAL 1; FEMA; GUENTHER; JIANGSU;
MARTINDALE; ROSE; TUCKER 1–3; YOUNGKEN.
1. S. Kapetanovic, Kem. Ind., 21, 355 (1972). 13. Y. Ohno et al., Kanzei Chuo Bunse-
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(1972).
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(1969). 15. A. Maleev et al., Eksp. Med. Morfol., 10,
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5. M. P. Widrlechner, Econ. Bot., 35, 42
(1981). 16. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
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6. Y. Ohno and S. Tanaka, Agric. Biol.
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12(Suppl.), 979 (1974).
7. Y. Mikhailova et al., Dokl. Bolg. Akad.
Nauk, 30, 89 (1977). 18. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
13(Suppl.), 913 (1975).
8. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 16, 43
(1991). 19. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
13(Suppl.), 911 (1975).
9. V. Staikov, Dokl. Acad. Sel’skokhoz.
Nauk Bolg., 4, 199 (1971). 20. T. Umezu et al., Life Sci., 72, 91 (2002).
10. G. Igolen et al., Riv. Ital. Essenze, 21. R. N. de Almeida et al., Pharmacol.
Profumi, Piante offic., Aromi, Saponi, Biochem. Behav., 77, 361 (2004).
Cosmet., 50, 352 (1968). 22. M. H. Boskabady et al., J. Ethno-
11. C. Ehret and P. Teisseire, Recherches, 19, pharmacol., 106, 377 (2006).
287 (1974). 23. Monograph Rosae flos, Bundesanzeiger,
12. M. S. Karawya et al., Bull. Fac. Pharm., no. 164 (September 1, 1990).
Cairo Univ., 13, 183 (1974).
used are the dried red, fleshy sepals (calyx) Roselle methanolic and aqueous extracts
together with the bracts. Major producing have been reported to have antispasmodic
countries include Sudan, China, and Thailand. activity on intestinal and uteral muscles as
well as anthelmintic (tapeworm) proper-
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION ties.40,41 Extracts have been shown to both
stimulate and inhibit isolated rabbit intestine.
Roselle contains about 1.5% anthocyanins An aqueous extract of the calyces has been
(see grape skin extract) consisting mainly found to decrease intestinal motility in intact
of delphinidin-3-sambubioside (hibiscin or rats, as well as the oral-caecal transit time in
daphniphylline) and cyanidin-3-sambubio- dogs.42
side, with cyanidin-3-glucoside, delphinidin- The extracts and protocatechuic acid re-
3-glucoside, delphinidin, and other pigments portedly have bactericidal properties in vitro
in lesser amounts;1–7 large amounts (23%) of against Gram-positive bacteria (LIST AND
hibiscic acid;7–9 fruit acids consisting mostly H€oRHAMMER).9,10,13,41
of citric acid (12–17%), protocatechuic ac- Other activities reported for roselle in-
id,10,11 with small amounts of malic, tartaric, clude hypolipidemic,31,43,44 analgesic/anti-
and other acids also present;9 resins; sugars inflammatory,45 and a-amylase inhibitory
and polysaccharides;12 trace of an unidentified activities.8
alkaloid; and others (LIST AND H€oRHAMMER).13
The pigments have been tested as food
TOXICOLOGY
colors (red) and found to be stable in fruit
jellies and jams but unstable (hence unsuit-
Adverse effects of roselle are rare. One study
able) in carbonated beverages.5,6
reported that sub-chronic administration of an
aqueous extract of hibiscus induced testicular
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
toxicity in rats.46
ACTIVITIES
The phytochemistry, pharmacology, and
toxicology of roselle have been recently
The chemopreventive activity of hibiscus ex-
reviewed.47
tracts has been extensively studied recently.
The protective effect was demonstrated
against human carcinomas,14–18 chemically USES
induced toxicity,19,20 and hepatotoxici-
ty.11,21–27. Antimutagenic activity has also Food. Roselle is reportedly used as a flavor
been demonstrated both in vitro and in vivo.28 ingredient in alcoholic and nonalcoholic bev-
The chemopreventive activity is attributed erages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked
mainly to the antioxidant effect of the antho- goods, and gelatins and puddings. Average
cyanins present in hibiscus extracts.29–33 maximum use level reported is 0.02% for all
Roselle decoction or infusion reportedly above categories.
has hypotensive properties with no side ef- Roselle in coarse ground form is used in
fects.9,13 This effect has been investigated in herb teas, primarily to impart a deep reddish-
more depth in experimental animals and in brown color and a pleasant slightly acid taste.
humans over the past decade and the results Fresh roselle is used in jams, juices, and
seem to support earlier studies especially in jellies with a cranberry-like flavor. Also used
mild to moderate hypertension.34–37 Sug- in wines.
gested mechanisms of action for the hypoten-
sive activity include inhibition of Ca2 þ influx Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Dried
into vascular smooth muscle, NO–cGMP- flowers one of the most widely used herbal
relaxant pathway, and possible acetylcholine- tea ingredients, imparting red color and tart
and histamine-like vasorelaxation.38,39 flavor.
534 Roselle
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BAILEY 1; BAILEY 2; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN
€ RHAMMER; MCGUFFIN
AND BEUTLER; FEMA; LIST AND HO 1 & 2; MORTON 2; TERRELL; TYLER 1; UPHOF.
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203 (2005). 440, 101 (2005).
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810 (1974). 60, 307 (2000).
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Rosemary 535
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BARNES; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA;
BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DER MARDEROSIAN AND LIBERTI; FEMA;
FOSTER; GRIEVE; JIANGSU; LUST; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. N. Okamura et al., Phytochemistry, 37, 11. A. A. Mahmoud et al., Phytochemistry,
1463 (1994). 66, 1685 (2005).
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Rundsch., 69, 245 (1973). (2005).
3. V. I. Litvinnenko et al., Planta Med., 18, 13. H. H. Zeng et al., Acta Pharmacol. Sin.,
243 (1970). 22, 1094 (2001).
4. V. Plouvier, C. R. Acad. Sci., Paris, Ser. D, 14. H. Haraguchi et al., Planta Med., 61, 333
269, 646 (1969). (1995).
5. C. H. Brieskorn and H. Michel, 15. T. Hayashi et al., Planta Med., 53, 394
Tetrahedron Lett., 30, 3447 (1968). (1987).
6. L. D. Yakhontova et al., Khim. Prir. 16. S. Santoyo et al., J. Food Prot., 68, 790
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7. A. Boido et al., Studi Sassar., Sez. 2, 53, 17. A. Angioni et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
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Pharmazie, 25, 488 (1970). 20. B. G. Skrubis, Flav. Ind., 3, 566 (1972).
538 Royal jelly
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Med. Res., 58, 627 (1970).
Source: Pharyngeal glands of the worker bee Royal jelly is a milky white, viscous substance
(honeybee). secreted by the pharyngeal glands of the
worker bee (honeybee), Apis mellifera L., an
Common/vernacular names: Queen bee insect of the family Apidae. It is the food for
jelly, apilak, Weiselfuttersaft, Gelee royale, all bee larvae for the first three days of life but
and feng WANG jiang. is reserved as food for queen bees for the rest
Royal jelly 539
of their lives, hence the name ‘‘royal jelly.’’ Adenosine monophosphate and adenosine
It is collected from bee hives by manual monophosphate N1-oxide were recently iso-
scraping using nonmetallic utensils or by suc- lated from royal jelly.28
tion through a glass tube, at the same time The following is its general composition:
removing impurities such as wax and insect 24–70% water (usually ca. 65%);14 to 31%
fragments. The crude royal jelly is placed in crude protein (usually ca. 12%); 4.9–23% total
sterilized glass jars and refrigerated until en- lipids, including phospholipids, glycerides,
ough is collected for processing or shipment to waxes, and fatty acids; 8.5–16% carbohydrates;
central processing facilities. Processing in- vitamins, including thiamine 1.2–7.4 mg%,
volves filtration to further remove impurities riboflavine 5.2–10 mg%, niacin 60–150 mg%,
of smaller particle size; the resulting liquid ascorbic acid 12 mg%, pyridoxine 2.2–
is either frozen in special plastic containers 10.2 mg%, B12 0.15 mg%, pantothenic acid
or freeze-dried (lyophilized). Normally the 65–200 mg%, biotin 0.9–3.7 mg inositol 80–
fresher materials are used for direct freezing 150 mg%, folic acid 0.2 mg%, and vitamin E
while the less fresh materials are freeze-dried. <0.2 mg%; and trace elements (MERCK).13,27,29
Most of the royal jelly used in the United Generally recognized as the major active
States is imported from China; the best grades principle of royal jelly, 10-HDA has been
are produced in northeastern provinces. reported to be very stable to heat, remaining
chemically intact despite deterioration of oth-
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION er components; royal jelly itself is also quite
stable when refrigerated or in the frozen or
The chemistry of royal jelly has been exten- dried state.30–33 However, one study found
sively studied. Chemical constituents reported that honey accelerated the decomposition of
to be present: hydroxy fatty acids, including 10-HDAwhen the two were dissolved in water
10-hydroxy-trans-2-decenoic acid (royal jelly along with royal jelly.4
acid; 10-HDA), which ranges between 1.64%
and 4.24% (usually 2.0–2.5%) in fresh royal PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
jelly and up to 7.0% in the freeze-dried ACTIVITIES
product (usual range: 4.5–5.5%),1–5 10-hydro-
xydecanoic acid (0.60–1.25%);2,4,6 10-acet- Many pharmacological effects have been at-
oxydecanoic acid, 11-S-hydroxydodecanoic tributed to royal jelly, such as antihyperten-
acid, hydroxy-2E-decenoic acid 10-phos- sive, antimicrobial, estrogenic, immunomod-
phate, and others;7–9 gluconic acid,2 sebacic ulatory, and others.
acid and 2-decenedioic acid,3p-hydroxyben- Royal jelly exhibited a transient vasodilat-
zoic acid,6 3-hydroxydecanoic, 8-hydroxyde- ing effect on dog femoral artery, which was
canoic, and 3,10-dihydroxydecanoic acids;10 due to its acetylcholine constituent.15 Peptides
sterols including methylenecholesterol (ca. present in royal jelly were found to possess
0.3%), cholesterol, stigmastanol, stigmaster- antihypertensive effect when orally adminis-
ol, and testosterone;6,11–14 acetylcholine tered in hypertensive rats for 28 days.22
(467–1113 mg/g);15–17 free amino acids (total A similar effect was observed in rats adminis-
1.59% according to one report),18 including tered a royal jelly protein hydrolysate, and the
proline, lysine, glutamic acid, serine, alanine, antihypertensive effect was attributed to the
arginine, aspartic acid, glycine, isoleucine, inhibition of ACE.34
leucine, methionine, tyrosine, valine, gluta- Royal jelly has exhibited weak to strong
mine, and taurine, with proline accounting for antibacterial activities against several bacteri-
54–60% of all free amino acids present, al species (Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus
followed by lysine and glutamic acid;18–20 aureus, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus he-
peptides21–23 and glycoproteins;24–26 and molyticus, Enteroeoccus, etc.) in vitro and
biopterin, among others (JIANGSU; MERCK).27 in vivo (experimentally infected rats), with
540 Royal jelly
10-HDA being the major active agent.35–38 is used in various types of skin care products
The peptides, jelleine I-III, were recently (creams, lotions, soap, etc.) for its alleged
shown to be active against Gram-positive and antiwrinkle, skin-nourishing and whitening
Gram-negative bacteria and yeast.21 properties; also used in hair care and oral
Estrogenic activity, prevention of osteopo- (e.g., toothpaste) products.
rosis, and stimulation of bone marrow forma-
tion have recently been demonstrated in a Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Exten-
number of animal (ovarectomized rats) and sively used as a food supplement in tablet,
in vitro (estrogen receptor binding and colla- capsule, or liquid (honey syrup) form, often in
gen formation) models.39–41 combination with Asian ginseng and other
Royal jelly inhibits the production of inflam- herbs for their ‘‘energizing’’ effects.
matory mediators (proinflammatory cytokines)
in mouse peritoneal macrophages.42 It also Traditional Medicine. Used as a general
inhibits the formation of dermatitis-like skin nutrient and tonic by different cultures. Al-
lesions in mice when administered orally.43 though adopted only recently (20th century)
Other activities of 10-HDA and royal jelly into traditional Chinese medical practice, it is
include: strongly inhibiting growth of trans- considered sweet and sour tasting, neutral and
plantable tumor and leukemia in mice, with to have invigorating, nourishing, and strength-
enhanced phagocytosis of peritoneal macro- ening properties; used in treating malnutrition
phages;44,45 protecting DNA of peripheral leu- in children, general debility in the elderly,
kocytes from damage by 4-nitrosoquinoline-N- chronic hepatitis, diabetes, rheumatism and
oxide (4-NQO);46 immunopotentiating/ immu- arthritis, and hypertension (JIANGSU).
nomodulatory,47–49 antioxidant,50,51 liver-pro-
tectant, radiation-protectant, and so on.27,52
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
TOXICOLOGY
Royal jelly normally is available in frozen or
Although rare, royal jelly can cause allergic freeze-dried form (strength ¼ 3.5). Quality
reactions, ranging from asthma to anaphy- is determined by the amount of 10-HDA pres-
laxis, in some individuals (JIANGSU).27,53–56 ent: high-quality frozen royal jelly contains
Possible interaction with warfarin has also about 2% while the freeze-dried powder con-
been reported.57 tains about 5% 10-HDA.
REFERENCES
See the General References for DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; JIANGSU; MERCK; NATIONAL; TYLER.
1. V. E. Tyler, The New Honest Herbal, 3. W. H. Brown and R. J. Freure, Can. J.
George F. Stickley Co., Philadelphia, Chem., 37, 2042 (1959).
PA, 1987, p. 197. 4. M. Matsui, Shokuhin Eiseigaku Zasshi,
2. T. Echigo et al., Tamagawa Daigaku 29, 297 (1988).
Nogakubu Kenkyu Hokoku, (22), 67 5. L. P. Zhang, Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi,
(1982). 15, 30 (1990).
Royal jelly 541
6. W. H. Brown et al., Can. J. Chem., 39, 28. N. Hattori et al., Biosci. Biotechnol.
1086 (1961). Biochem., 70, 897 (2006).
7. E. Melliou and I. Chinou, J. Agric. Food 29. S. R. Howe et al., J. Apic. Res., 24, 52
Chem., 53, 8987 (2005). (1985).
8. M. Genc and A. Aslan, J. Chromatogr. A, 30. L. SaitamaYoho Co., Ltd., Honeybee Sci.,
839, 265 (1999). 2, 123 (1981).
9. N. Noda et al., Lipids, 40, 833 (2005). 31. T. Takenaka et al., Nippon Shokuhin
10. N. Weaver et al., Lipids, 3, 535 (1968). Kogyo Gakkaishi, 33, 1 (1986).
11. M. Barbier and D. Bogdanovsky, Compt. 32. E. L. Lee et al., Shih Pin K’o Hsueh
Rend., 252, 3407 (1961). (Taipei), 15, 81 (1988).
12. J. Matsuyama et al., Tamagawa Daig- 33. A. Dietz and M. H. Haydak, J. Georgia
aku Nogakubu Kenkyu Hokoku, 46 Entomol. Soc., 5, 203 (1970).
(1973). 34. T. Matsui et al., J. Nutr. Biochem., 13, 80
13. Y. F. Yang, Zhongcaoyao, 19, 33 (1988). (2002).
14. J. Vittek and B. L. Slomiany, Experientia, 35. M. S. Blum et al., Science, 130, 452
40, 104 (1984). (1959).
15. M. Shinoda et al., Yagaku Zasshi, 98, 139 36. K. Yatsunami and T. Echigo, Bull. Faculty
(1978). Agric., Tamagawa Univ., 25, 13 (1985).
16. S. M. Abdel Wahab et al., Egypt J. 37. Kh. N. Muratova et al., Eksp. Khir.
Pharm. Sci., 20, 353 (1982). Anesteziol., 12, 52 (1967).
17. W. B. Rice and F. C. Lu, Can. Pharm. J., 38. Y. D. Xu, Zhongguo Yangfeng, 28 (1989).
97, 34 (1964). 39. Y. Narita et al., Biosci. Biotechnol.
18. K. Baek and B. Y. Cho, Kangwon Tachak Biochem., 70, 2508 (2006).
Yon’gu Nonmunjip, 6, 7 (1972). 40. S. Hidaka et al., Evid. Based. Com-
19. J. J. Pratt Jr. and H. L. House, Science, plement. Alternat. Med., 3, 339 (2006).
110, 9 (1949). 41. S. Mishima et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
20. T. Takenaka and T. Echigo, Honeybee 101, 215 (2005).
Sci., 5, 7 (1984). 42. K. Kohno et al., Biosci. Biotechnol.
21. R. Fontana et al., Peptides, 25, 919 Biochem., 68, 138 (2004).
(2004). 43. Y. Taniguchi et al., Int. Immuno-
22. K. H. Tokunaga et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., pharmacol., 3, 1313 (2003).
27, 189 (2004). 44. G. F. Townsend et al., Nature, 183, 1270
23. K. Bilikova et al., FEBS Lett., 528, 125 (1959).
(2002). 45. J. Z. Dai et al., Yiyao Gongye, 16, 219
24. M. Kimura et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. (1985).
Biochem., 67, 2055 (2003). 46. X. L. Yang et al., Beijing Yike Daxue
25. Y. Kimura et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Xuebao, 22, 75 (1990).
Biochem., 67, 1852 (2003). 47. I. Okamoto et al., Life Sci., 73, 2029
26. M. Kimura et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. (2003).
Biochem., 66, 1985 (2002). 48. H. Oka et al., Int. Immunopharmacol., 1,
27. B. X. Wang, Therapeutic Efficacy of 521 (2001).
Honeybee Products, Jilin People’s 49. L. Sver et al., Comp. Immunol. Microbiol.
Publishers, Changchun, China, 1981. Infect. Dis., 19, 31 (1996).
542 Rue
50. T. Nagai et al., J. Med. Food, 9, 363 54. M. Harwood et al., N. Z. Med. J., 109, 325
(2006). (1996).
51. S. Inoue et al., Exp. Gerontol., 38, 965 55. F. C. Thien et al., Clin. Exp. Allergy, 26,
(2003). 216 (1996).
52. Z. Q. Xie et al., Zhongguo Yike Daxue 56. M. Takahashi et al., Contact Dermatitis,
Xuebao, 21, 167 (1990). 9, 452 (1983).
53. R. Leung et al., Clin. Exp. Allergy, 27, 57. N. J. Lee and J. D. Fermo, Pharmaco-
333 (1997). therapy, 26, 583 (2006).
Common rue (R. graveolens) contains a Rue alkaloids (especially arborinine and
volatile oil (ca. 0.1%), rutin (ca. 2%),1 g-fagarine) as well as furocoumarins (e.g.,
numerous acridone and quinolone alkaloids bergapten and xanthotoxin) and rue oil are
(g-fagarine, arborinine, kokusaginine, skim- reported to have spasmolytic effects on
mianine, graveoline, graveolinine, 6-methox- smooth muscles (e.g., isolated rabbit ileum).
ydictamnine, rutacridone, etc.)2–7 coumarin The extract inhibited the inflammatory re-
derivatives (bergapten, xanthotoxin, rutamar- sponse (iNOS expression and COX-2 tran-
in, psoralens, isoimperatorin, pangelin, rutar- scription) to LPS in murine macrophage
in, chalepensin, etc.),2,6,8–13 and others cells.23 Arborinine and furocoumarins also
(KARRER; JIANGSU). An unusual coumarin, have anti-inflammatory and antihistaminic
naphthoherniarin, was also isolated from root properties (JIANGSU).2,3,9 Furocoumarins have
of common rue.14 phototoxic properties and are useful in
Rue 543
treating psoriasis (see bergamot).18 Rutin, symptoms included tremor, dyspnea, frequent
first isolated from common rue, has numerous urination, incoordinated movements, ataxia,
pharmacological activities (see rutin). and recumbency.36
Antifertility and abortifacient activities
have been reported for the extract in pregnant
USES
mice and rats;24–26 and chalepensin has been
shown to have (anti-implantation) antifertility
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
effects in rats.12 Rue oil has been reported to
Rue oil is used as a fragrance ingredient in
cause abortion in pregnant guinea pigs and in
soaps, detergents, creams, lotions, and per-
pregnant women.21 The antiandrogenic activ-
fumes, with maximum use level of 0.15%
ity of the extract was also exhibited in male
reported in perfumes.18
rats.27
Rue oil has been reported to have anthel-
Food. Rue oil is used as a flavor component
mintic (worm, leech, and nematode) activities
(e.g., coconut type) in most major food pro-
in vitro that were attributed to its major com-
ducts, including alcoholic (vermouths, bitters,
ponent, 2-undecanone.18
etc.) and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy
Different extracts and alkaloids of R. grave-
desserts, candy, baked goods, gelatins and
olens were reported to posses antifungal ac-
puddings, among others. Average maximum
tivities against different species of Colletotri-
use levels reported are below 0.001%.
chum, Botrytis cineara and, Fusarium oxy-
Rue is also used in certain foods, including
sporum;28–30 as well as antitumor activity
nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts,
against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma, HeLa,
candy, and baked goods. Average maximum
MCF7, and A431 cell lines in vitro and in
use levels are below 0.0002% (2 ppm).
animal models.29,31–33
Other reported activities of rue include
Traditional Medicine. Rue is used as an
antioxidant (inhibition of pig liver aldehyde
emmenagogue, intestinal antispasmodic, uter-
oxidase) and hypotensive (positive inotropic
ine stimulant, hemostatic, and vermifuge.
and chronotropic effects) activities.34,35
In Chinese medicine, rue is also used for
essentially the same purposes. In addition, it is
used to treat colds, fevers, toothache, and
TOXICOLOGY
especially snake and insect bites.
When applied to human skin, rue oil
Others. Rue oil can serve as a source of
may produce a burning sensation, erythema
natural 2-undecanone, which is a starting
(redness), and vesication (blisters). Taken
material for the synthesis of methylnonyl
internally, it causes severe stomach pain,
acetaldehyde, a valuable perfume chemical
vomiting, exhaustion, confusion, and con-
(ARCTANDER).
vulsion. Large doses may be fatal (JIANGSU;
MARTINDALE).
A single oral dose of 400 mg/kg given to COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
guinea pigs has been reported to be fatal due to
internal hemorrhages, particularly of the ad- Crude and oil. Crude was formerly official in
renal gland, liver, and kidney. However, an U.S.P., and oil in N.F. is official in F.C.C.
oral daily dose of 30 mg given to human
subjects for three months did not cause abnor- Regulatory Status. Has been affirmed as
mal liver functions (JIANGSU). Oral administra- GRAS (rue, §184.1698; oil of rue,
tion of 5 g/kg/d of R. graveolens leaves was §184.1699).37,38 Subject of a German thera-
toxic to Nubian goats and resulted in death peutic monograph; effectiveness of claimed
after 1–7 days of administration. Toxicity application is not verified.39
544 Rue
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1; DER
MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; GRIEVE; JIANGSU; KARRER; LUST; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; TERRELL;
UPHOF.
1. F. R. Humphreys, Econ. Bot., 18, 195 20. K. H. Kubeczka, Phytochemistry, 13,
(1964). 2017 (1974).
2. I. Novak et al., Acta Pharm. Hung., 37, 21. Anon., Fed. Regist., 39, 34215 (1974).
131 (1967). 22. C. C. Chen et al., J. Nat. Prod., 64, 990
3. I. Novak et al., Planta Med., 15, 132 (2001).
(1967). 23. S. K. Raghav et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
4. J. Reisch et al., Phytochemistry, 15, 240 104, 234 (2006).
(1976). 24. T. G. de Freitas et al., Contraception, 71,
5. O. Nieschulz, Sci. Pharm. Proc., 25th, 2, 74 (2005).
559 (1965). 25. J. L. Gutierrez-Pajares et al., Reprod.
6. A. Gonzalez et al., An. Quim., 70, 60 Toxicol., 17, 667 (2003).
(1974). 26. M. Gandhi et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 34,
7. K. Szendrei et al., Herba Hung., 10, 131 49 (1991).
(1971). 27. N. A. Khouri and Z. El-Akawi,
8. A. L. Hale et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., Neuro. Endocrinol. Lett., 26, 823
52, 3345 (2004). (2005).
9. I. Novak et al., Pharmazie, 20, 738 28. K. M. Meepagala et al., Phytochemistry,
(1965). 66, 2689 (2005).
10. E. Varga et al., Fitoterapia, 47, 107 29. A. Ivanova et al., Fitoterapia, 76, 344
(1976). (2005).
11. J. Reisch et al., Magy. Kem. Foly., 78, 6 30. A. Oliva et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 51,
(1972). 890 (2003).
12. Y. C. Kong et al., Planta Med., 55, 176 31. B. Rethy et al., Planta Med. (2006).
(1989). 32. K. C. Preethi et al., Asian Pac. J. Cancer
13. A. Nahrstedt et al., Planta Med., 51, 517 Prev., 7, 439 (2006).
(1985). 33. S. Pathak et al., Int. J. Oncol., 23, 975
14. Z. Rozsa et al., Planta Med., 55, 68 (2003).
(1989). 34. P. Saieed et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.
15. V. De Feo et al., Phytochemistry, 61, 573 (Tokyo), 54, 9 (2006).
(2002). 35. K. W. Chiu and A. Y. Fung, Gen.
16. T. M. Andon and N. V. Belova, Rastit Pharmacol., 29, 859 (1997).
Resur., 11, 539 (1975). 36. S. E. el Agraa et al., Trop. Anim. Health
17. D. H. E. Tattje, Pharm. Weekbl., 105, Prod., 34, 271 (2002).
1241 (1970). 37. Anon., Fed. Regist., 41, 236 (1976).
18. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 38. Anon., Fed. Regist., 43, 3704
13, 455 (1975). (1978).
19. D. H. E. Tattje et al., Pharm. Weekbl., 39. Monograph, Ruta graveolens, Bundes-
109, 881 (1974). anzeiger, no. 43 (March 2, 1989).
Rutin 545
Flower buds of Sophora japonica contain- vention of strokes (FARNSWORTH 1–4; FOGARTY;
ing high concentrations (usually ca. 20%) of JIANGSU).
rutin have been used for centuries in
Chinese medicine for the treatment of inter- COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
nal bleeding (e.g., bloody urine, spitting
blood, and intestinal bleeding) and bleeding Pure rutin; often adulterated; it was formerly
hemorrhoids. It is also used for the pre- official in N.F.
REFERENCES
A perennial herb with a large fleshy corm from Extracts of saffron have been demonstrated
which leaves and flowers are produced in the to have various pharmacological properties,
fall. Flowers violet, throat of perianth bearded, including stimulation of the uteri of experi-
anthers yellow, style armed exerted orange-red mental animals, lowering the blood pressure
subulate tips; entire or lobed.1 Native to the of anesthetized dogs and cats as well as stim-
eastern Mediterranean region; cultivated as an ulating respiration, and strongly inhibiting
annual or perennial worldwide (Spain, France, the contraction of isolated toad and rat hearts
Italy, India, etc.). Part used is the dried stigma; and guinea pig tracheal chains, among others
100,000–140,000 flowers are reportedly re- (JIANGSU).11,12
quired to yield 1 kg saffron. Hence, it is the Many recent clinical trials from the same
most expensive spice. Major producing coun- source suggest that saffron may be effective in
tries include Spain, France, Turkey, and India. the management of mild to moderate depres-
sion. In some of these trials, saffron was
favorably comparable to fluoxetine.13–17
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION A number of studies suggest that saffron
extracts have in vitro anticancer activity,
Contains about 2% crocin-1 (ester of crocetin limiting the growth of experimentally induced
with 2 molecules gentiobiose); about 2% pi- cancers by inhibiting cellular nucleic acid
crocrocin (bitter principle); small amounts of synthesis and by other DNA-mediated me-
crocin-2 (ester of crocetin with 1 molecule chanisms.18–23 The anticancer and cancer che-
each of gentiobiose and glucose), crocin-3 mopreventive activities of saffron have been
(monogentiobiose ester of crocetin), and reviewed.24–26
crocin-4 (ester of monomethylcrocetin Saffron extracts and their crocin compounds
with 1 molecule glucose); small amounts of inhibit amyloid-beta protein deposition and
free crocetin (a-crocetin), methylcrocetin (b- improve learning and memory functions in
crocetin), trans-dimethylcrocetin (g-croce- mice which suggests a possible benefit in the
tin), cis-dimethylcrocetin and other crocetin management of Alzheimer’s disease and other
esters; kaempferol;2 starch (ca. 13%); vita- memory impairment conditions.27–29 This
mins B and 132; fixed oils (8 to 13%); other effect may be attributed to the antioxidant/
carotenoids; and 0.4–1.3% of a volatile oil free radical scavenging activity frequently
consisting of safranal, oxysafranal, pinene, reported for saffron and its major constitu-
cineole, isophorone, naphthalene, 2-butenoic ents.30–36 The antioxidant activity has also
acid lactone, 2-phenylethanol, 3,5,5- been implicated in the antigenotoxic/antimu-
trimethyl-4-hydroxy-l-cyclohexanone-2-ene, tagenic effects of saffron.35,37–40
4-hydroxy-2,6,6-trimethyl-1-cyclohexene-1- Other recently reported activities of saffron
carboxaldehyde, and others (JIANGSU; LIST AND include antitussive,41 anticonvulsant,34 anti-
3–7
HÖRHAMMER). Crocin is mainly responsible nociceptive/anti-inflammatory,42 and anti-
for the color of saffron, while picrocrocin is platelet effects.43
responsible for its bitter taste and aroma (after Crocetin has been found to increase oxygen
hydrolysis to yield safranal). diffusion in plasma by 80%. Crocetin binds to
548 Saffron
serum albumin and has been found to lower vermouths) and nonalcoholic beverages,
serum cholesterol levels in rabbits.44,45 Cro- candy, baked izoods, and other food products.
cetin has recently been shown to reduce Highest average maximum use level is about
the deleterious effects caused by insulin- 0.1% (969 ppm) reported for the crude in
resistance in rats.46 The biological activities baked goods.
of crocetin have been reviewed.47
Traditional Medicine. Reportedly used as a
TOXICOLOGY sedative, diaphoretic, antispasmodic, emmen-
agogue, anodyne, and aphrodisiac. Conditions
No risk associated with food or therapeutic for which it is used include coughs, whooping
use at 1.5 g or less. Toxic reactions have been cough, stomach gas, and insomnia. A tincture
reported at a dose of 5 g including necrosis of formerly used as a sedative in Germany (WEISS).
the nose, thrombocytopenia and uremia col- In Chinese medicine, it is traditionally used
lapse. Associated symptoms include vomit- to treat conditions resulting from depression,
ing, bleeding of the uterus, bloody diarrhea, fright, or shock; spitting blood; pain and diffi-
nose bleed, vertigo, dizziness, and others.48 culties in menstruation and after childbirth;
and others (JIANGSU).
Saffron has been widely used in cancers,
USES which has been experimentally confirmed
in vitro.18,19,24–26,49
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
Extracts (e.g., tincture) are used as fragrance
components in perfumes (especially oriental COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
types). An Australian patent has been issued
for use of an aqueous extract of the corm (in Mainly crude (Spanish). it was formerly offi-
combination with other ingredients for treat- cial in N.F.
ment of baldness).45
Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.10 and
Food. Saffron is used both as a coloring §182.20); also has been approved as a food
(yellow) and as a flavoring agent. It is often color additive exempt from certification
used as a domestic spice, especially in Spanish (§73.500). Subject of a German therapeutic
and French cooking (e.g., arroz con pollo and monograph, indicated as a sedative for spasms
bouillabaisse). and asthma, with the caveat that claimed
Saffron and saffron extract (type not speci- efficacy is not documented.48
fied) are used in alcoholic (e.g., bitters and
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; ARCTANDER; BARRETT; BISSET; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON;
CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DUKE 4; FEMA; GRIEVE; HUANG; JIXIAN; JIANGSU; LIST AND
HÖRHAMMER; LUST; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL; UPHOF; WEISS.
1. K. R. Kirtikar and B. D. Basu, Indian 4. V. K. Dhingra et al., Indian J. Chem., 13,
Medicinal Plants, International Book 339 (1975).
Distributor, Dehradun, India, 1995, p. 246. 5. P. Duquenois, Bull. Soc. Pharm.
2. I. Kubo and I. Kinst-Hori, J. Agric. Food Strasbourg, 15, 149 (1972).
Chem., 47, 4121 (1999). 6. N. S. Zarghami, Diss. Abstr. Int. B, 31,
3. M. Carmona et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 5235 (1971).
54, 973 (2006).
Saffron 549
tumor progression and skin papillomas in medicine for dyspeptic symptoms and diapho-
mice.37 Antimutagenic activities have also retic effects; external use (gargles and rinses)
been reported for sage oil and extract both for inflamed mucous membranes of the oral
in vitro and in vivo.24,38 mucosa and throat.33
Sage leaf extracts and Spanish sage oil were Both sage oil and Spanish sage oil are used
found to enhance memory and to be beneficial (the former much more extensively) as fra-
in the management of Alzheimer’s disease grance components in soaps, detergents,
through interaction with the cholinergic creams, lotions, and perfumes (e.g., colognes
system and protection against beta-amyloid and after-shave lotions), with maximum use
protein neurotoxicity, respectively.39–44 level of 0.8% reported for both oils in per-
Sage polysaccharides displayed immuno- fumes.29,53 Spanish sage oil is generally more
modulatory activity in the in vitro comito- commonly used in soaps, detergents, and in-
genic thymocyte test.23,45 dustrial fragrances.
Other recently reported activities for
sage include anti-inflammatory,12,46 antidia- Food. Sage is widely used as a flavor ingre-
betic,47,48 antitumor;3 in addition to benzodi- dient in baked goods, meat and meat products,
azepine receptor binding,6 reduced lipid condiments and relishes, processed vegeta-
absorption (carnosic acid),4 and activation of bles, soups, gravies, fats and oils, and others.
peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor Highest average maximum use level reported
gamma.49 Infusions and suspensions of Span- is 0.477% in baked goods.
ish sage have hypoglycemic activity in Sage oleoresin is also widely used in baked
rabbits.50 goods, meat and meat products, and condi-
Sage is also reported to have fish odor- ments and relishes. Highest average maxi-
suppressant properties.51 mum use level reported is about 0.014%
(139 ppm) in meat and meat products.
Sage oil and Spanish sage oil are extensi-
TOXICOLOGY
vely used in most categories of food products,
including alcoholic (e.g., vermouths and bit-
Spanish sage oil was nonirritating and non-
ters) and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy
sensitizing to human skin and skin of labora-
desserts, candy, baked goods, gelatins and
tory animals; it was also nonphototoxic on
puddings, meat and meat products, and con-
mice and swine.29
diments and relishes. Highest average maxi-
Although sage oil contains more thujone
mum use levels reported are about 0.013%
than absinthium oil, it has not been reported to
(126 ppm) and 0.004% (40.5 ppm) for sage oil
be toxic (see absinthium). Two recent studies,
and Spanish sage oil, respectively, in meat and
however, reported that the oil may be hepato-
meat products.
toxic at high concentrations.35,52 Dalmation
sage oil has been reported to be nonirritating
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Dried
and nonsensitizing to human skin when tested
leaves used as a tea ingredient; occasionally
in a diluted form. When applied undiluted,
tablets, capsules, tincture, and so on, for tra-
it produced one irritation reaction in 20
ditional indications (FOSTER).
subjects and was moderately irritating to
rabbits.53
Traditional Medicine. Sage is used as tonic,
digestive, antiseptic, astringent, and antispas-
USES modic. It is used to reduce perspiration (e.g.,
night sweats), to stop the flow of milk, to treat
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. nervous conditions (e.g., trembling, depres-
The dried leaves, the essential oil, tincture, sion, and vertigo dysmenorrhea, diarrhea,
and fluid extract are used in European phyto- gastritis, sore throat, insect bites, and others,
552 Sage
usually the form of a tea or infusion. Sage has N.F. Dalmation sage oil and Spanish sage oil
been reported used cancers.54 are official in F.C.C.
Others. Like rosemary, sage can serve Regulatory Status. GRAS (sage, §182.10
source of natural antioxidants (see rosemary). and §182.20; Spanish sage, §182.20); no
thujone limit for sage oil is specified (see
absinthium). Subject of a positive German
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS therapeutic monograph; allowed for internal
use in dyspeptic complaints, and as diapho-
Sage, sage oleoresin, and Dalmation sage oil; retic; internally for inflamed oral mucous
Spanish sage oil. Sage was formerly official in membranes.33
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BARNES; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA;
BLUMENTHAL 1; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; FOSTER; GUENTHER; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; LUST;
POLUNIN AND SMYTHIES; ROSENGARTEN; TUCKER 1–3.
1. A. O. Tucker et al., Econ. Bot., 34, 16 14. C. H. Brieskorn and W. Biechele, Dtsch.
(1980). Apoth. Ztg., 111, 141 (1971).
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Pharmacol. Toxicol., 94, 282 (2004). 17. Y. Lu and L. Y. Foo, Phytochemistry, 55,
4. K. Ninomiya et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem. 263 (2000).
Lett., 14, 1943 (2004). 18. M. Wang et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 48,
5. T. C. Matsingou et al., J. Agric. Food 235 (2000).
Chem., 51, 6696 (2003). 19. M. Wang et al., J. Nat. Prod., 62, 454
6. D. Kavvadias et al., Planta Med., 69, 113 (1999).
(2003). 20. K. Herrmann, Z. Lebensm. Unters.
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8. K. Miura et al., Phytochemistry, 58, 1171 Khazanovich, Mater. Yubileinoi Resp.
(2001). Nauchn. Konf. Farm., Posvyashch.
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510 (1969). 22. D. Murko et al., Planta Med., 25, 295
10. V. N. Dobrynin et al., Khim. Prir. Soedin., (1974).
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75, 125 (2001). 25. C. H. Brieskorn and S. Dalferth, Liebigs
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Arch. Pharm. (Weinheim), 304, 557 26. M. B. Embong et al., Can. Inst. Food Sci.
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Sandalwood oil 553
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(1989). 20 (2006).
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317, 1143 (2006). 54. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 32, 247 (1969).
et Summ. (syn. Santalum spicatum DC.); it has prevented viral replication and was more ef-
a different topnote than the East Indian oil but fective against HSV-1.15 The oil also has
is similar to the East Indian oil in overall odor.2 antifungal activities.8 Six sesquiterpenes
isolated from the oil displayed antibacterial
activity against Helicobacter pylori, and two
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION of them were strongly active against a clari-
thromycin-resistant strain of H. pylori.16
Sandalwood oil contains up to 90% or more The effects of transdermal absorption of
of a- and b-santalols. Minor constituents sandalwood oil and a-santalol on various
present include 6% sesquiterpene hydrocar- physiological parameters and mental/behav-
bons (mostly a- and, b-santalenes and epi-b- ioral conditions in humans were investigated.
santalene with small amounts of a-and a-Santalol had a general relaxing and sedative
b-curcumenes, possibly b-farnesene, and effect; while the oil had a relaxing effect on the
dendrolasin), dihydro-b-agarofuran, santene, physiological parameters, for example, blood
teresantol, borneol, teresantalic acid, tricy- pressure, pulse rate, and skin temperature, and
cloekasantalal, santalone, and santanol, a stimulant effect on behavior.17
among others (JIANGSU).2–7
a-Santalol (ca. 46%) and b-santalol (ca.
20%) account for most of the odor of sandal- USES
wood oil.3,8
The heartwood of S. album contains ter- Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
penes, sesquiterpenes, neolignans, and aro- Extensively used as a fragrance ingredient in
matic esters.9,10 soaps, detergents, creams, lotions, and per-
Australian sandalwood oil has recently fumes (especially oriental types), with maxi-
been reported to contain a- and b-santalols, mum use level of 1% reported in perfumes.12
a-bisabolol, a-bergamotol, farnesol, nuci- It is also commonly used in incenses.
ferol, and lanceol as the major components.11
Food. Used as a flavor component in major
categories of food products, including alco-
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL holic and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen
ACTIVITIES dairy desserts, candy, baked goods, and gela-
tins and puddings, with reported average
Sandalwood oil is reported to have diuretic maximum use levels generally below 0.001%.
and urinary antiseptic properties. Santalol
can reportedly cause contact dermatitis in Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. San-
sensitive individuals (CLAUS; LEWIS AND dalwood oil is used in aromatherapy formula-
ELVIN-LEWIS). tions (ROSE).
Sandalwood oil has been reported to be
nonirritating, nonsensitizing, and nonphoto- Traditional Medicine. In Chinese medicine,
toxic to human skin, though it was slightly sandalwood oil is reportedly used to treat
irritating to mouse skin and irritating to stomachache, vomiting, and gonorrhea (JIANG-
rabbit skin when applied undiluted.12 Two SU). Oil formerly used in Europe for pains,
reports described that sandalwood oil had a fevers, and ‘‘strengthening the heart.’’
chemopreventive effect that prevented the
incidence and multiplicity of skin papillomas
in mice and may thus be useful against skin COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
cancer.13,14
Antiviral activity has been reported against Oil. It was formerly official in N.F. and is
HSV-1 and 2 whereby the oil dose-dependently official in F.C.C.
Sarsaparilla 555
Regulatory Status. Has been approved for as an antibacterial and spasmolytic for sup-
food use (§172.510). Wood is the subject of portive therapy for lower urinary tract
a German therapeutic monograph; allowed infections.18
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; GRIEVE;
GUENTHER; JIXIAN; JIANGSU; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. K. R. Kirtikar and D. B. Basu, Indian 9. T. H. Kim et al., J. Nat. Prod., 68, 1805
Medicinal Plants, International Book (2005).
Distribution, Dehradun, India, 1999, 10. T. H. Kim et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.
p. 2186. (Tokyo), 53, 641 (2005).
2. W. D. Forham in L. W. Codd et al., eds., 11. R. Shellie et al., J. Chromatogr. Sci., 42,
Chemical Technology: An Encyclopedic 417 (2004).
Treatment, Vol. 5, Barnes & Noble,
12. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
New York, 1972, p. 1.
12(Suppl.), 989 (1974).
3. E. Demole et al., Helv. Chim. Acta, 59, 73
13. C. Dwivedi and Y. Zhang, Eur. J. Cancer
(1976).
Prev., 8, 449 (1999).
4. D. R. Adams et al., Phytochemistry, 14,
14. C. Dwivedi and A. bu-Ghazaleh, Eur. J.
1459 (1975).
Cancer Prev., 6, 399 (1997).
5. S. K. Panitkar and C. G. Naik,
15. F. Benencia and M. C. Courreges,
Tetrahedron Lett., 1293 (1975).
Phytomedicine, 6, 119 (1999).
6. H. C. Kretschmar et al., Tetrahedron
16. T. Ochi et al., J. Nat. Prod., 68, 819
Lett., 37 (1970).
(2005).
7. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 6, 27
17. T. Hongratanaworakit et al., Planta Med.,
(1981).
70, 3 (2004).
8. A. Dikshit and A. Husain, Fitoterapia,
18. Monograph, Santali albi lignum,
55, 171 (1984).
Bundesanzeiger, no. 43 (March 2, 1989).
with other plant drugs (JIANGSU). Numerous Hemidesmus indicus R. Br. (Family Ascle-
Smilax species have been used in cancers both pidaceae) is reported to be a widespread adul-
in the Old World and the New World.10 terant to commercial supplies of sarsaparilla,
which is easily distinguished organoleptically
by its strong vanilla fragrance.11
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Regulatory Status. Has been approved for
Crude and extracts; crude and fluid extract food use (§172.510). Subject of a German
were formerly official in N.F. Strengths (see therapeutic monograph; not recommended
glossary) of extracts are expressed in weight- since claims for skin diseases and psoriasis
to-weight ratios. have not been substantiated.7
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRADLY; CLAUS; FEMA; GOSSELIN; JIANGSU;
LUST; STAHL; TERRELL; TUCKER AND LAWRENCE; TUCKER 1–3; TYLER 1; UPHOF; YOUNGKEN.
1. M. Sautour et al., Planta Med., 72, 667 6. R. L. Barron and G. J. Vanscoy, Ann.
(2006). Pharmacother., 27, 607 (1993).
2. M. Sautour et al., J. Nat. Prod., 68, 1489 7. Monograph, Sarsaparillae radix.
(2005). Bundesanzeiger, 164 (9-1-1990).
3. R. R. Bernardo et al., Phytochemistry, 43, 8. S. Rafatullah et al., Int. J. Pharmacogn.,
465 (1996). 29, 296 (1991).
4. M. Devys et al., C. R. Acad. Sci., Ser. D, 9. A. M. Ageel et al., Drugs Exp. Clin. Res.,
269, 2033 (1969). 15, 369 (1989).
5. R. Tschesche et al., Chem. Ber., 102, 10. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 33, 97 (1970).
1253 (1969). 11. C. Hobbs, HerbalGram, 17, 10 (1988).
present include a-pinene, a-and b-phellan- removed along with safrole, these uses of the
drenes, methyleugenol, 5-methoxyeugenol, safrole-free extract are rather limited.
asarone, piperonylacrolein, apiole, coniferal-
dehyde, camphor, myristicin, thujone; Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Bulk
l-menthone, caryophyllene, elemicin, copaene, sassafras is readily available; usually labeled
anethole, and eugenol, among others.3–5 ‘‘not for internal use’’. Popularity as a ‘‘spring
tonic,’’ continues in the Ozarks and Appala-
chians, where fresh root is available in the
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
produce section of supermarkets in spring
ACTIVITIES
(FOSTER).
Sassafras and its oil have been reported to
Traditional Medicine. Sassafras is tradi-
have carminative and diaphoretic properties.
tionally used in treating bronchitis, high blood
The oil also reportedly has anti-infective and
pressure of elderly people, rheumatism, gout,
pediculicide (lice destroying) activities
arthritis, skin problems, and kidney problems,
(MERCK).
among others, usually as a tea or infusion,
Safrole is a hepatotoxin that has produced
used both internally and externally.
hepatomas (liver tumors) in laboratory ani-
Sassafras has also been used in cancers.10
mals (GOSSELIN; LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS).4–7
Safrole is a strong inhibitor of human
Others. Safrole present in sassafras oil is
cytochrome P450 enzymes.8
used as a starting material for the synthesis
of heliotropin (piperonal), an important fra-
TOXICOLOGY grance and flavor chemical.
Food. Sassafras, its extracts, and oil were Regulatory Status. Only safrole-free sassa-
formerly extensively used in flavoring root fras extract (§172.580) and safrole-free sassa-
beer; this use has been discontinued. Only fras leaves and extracts (§172.510) have been
safrole-free bark extract is reported used in approved for food use. Safrole, sassafras and
nonalcoholic beverages and in candy, with sassafras oil are prohibited from use in foods
average maximum use levels of 0.022% and (§189.180).11
0.015%, respectively. As most of the flavor is
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; BARNES; CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; FOSTER;
FOSTER and DUKE; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; LUST; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MORTON 1; SARGENT; TERRELL; TYLER
1–3; UPHOF.
1. Anon., Fed. Regist., 27, 9449 3. D. P. Kamdem and D. A. Gage, Planta
(1962). Med., 61, 574 (1995).
2. B. K. Chowdhury et al., Phytochemistry, 4. M. L. Sethi et al., Phytochemistry, 15,
15, 1803 (1976). 1773 (1976).
Savory (summer and winter) 559
5. A. B. Segelman et al., J. Am. Med. Assoc., 8. Y. F. Ueng et al., Food Chem. Toxicol.,
236, 477 (1976). 43, 707 (2005).
6. F. Homburger et al., Arch. Pathol., 73, 9. J. D. Haines, Postgrad. Med., 90, 75
118 (1962). (1991).
7. P. Borchert et al., Cancer Res., 33, 575 10. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 32, 247 (1969).
(1973). 11. Anon., Fed. Regist., 41, 19207 (1976).
Source: Summer Savory Satureja hortensis Other constituents present include labiatic
L. (syn. Calamintha hortensis Hort.); acid, proteins (ca. 7%), vitamins (especially
Winter savory Satureja montana L. (syn. vitamin A), and minerals (especially Ca and
S. obovata Lag.; Calamintha montana K), among others (MARSH).5
Lam.) (Family Labiatae or Lamiaceae). Winter savory (S. montana) contains a
volatile oil (1.6%) composed mainly of carva-
crol, p-cymene, and thymol (total phenols
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
ca. 50%), with lesser amounts of a-and
b-pinenes, limonene, cineole, borneol, and
Summer savory (S. hortensis) is an annual
a-terpineol.6–8 It also contains triterpenic acids
herb with oblong-linear leaves and hairy, erect
(ursolic and oleanolic acids).9 Flavonoids
branching stems; up to about 45 cm high;
include apigenin, apigenin-4-methyl ether,
native to Europe and widely escaped from
scutellarein-6,7dimethyl ether, and others.10
cultivation elsewhere (e.g., United States).
Parts used are the dried leaves and tender
stems; summer savory oil is obtained by steam
distillation of the whole dried herb. Major PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
producing countries include Spain, France, ACTIVITIES
and the United States.
Winter savory (S. montana) is a bristly Summer savory oil has antimicrobial (fungi
perennial subshrub with a woody base and and bacteria) activities. The essential oil,
oblong-linear leaves; up to about 38 cm high; ground material, and extract of Turkish
native to the Mediterranean region and widely S. hortensis were fungicidal against Alter-
cultivated. Parts used are the leaves and tender naria mali and Botrytis cinerea at different
stems. concentrations.11 Another Turkish group re-
The savory used in American households is ported that the essential oil, methanol, and
normally summer savory. hexane extracts were potent against more than
100 laboratory strains of bacteria and fun-
gi.12,13 The essential oil of Greek savory (S.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION spinosa) exhibited antibacterial activity against
a number of Gram-positive and Gram-negative
Summer savory (S. hortensis) contains a bacteria.14 It has recently been reported that the
volatile oil (ca. 1%) consisting mostly of oil of winter savory has a destructive effect of
carvacrol and monoterpene hydrocarbons the cell membranes of Escherichia coli and
(b-pinene, p-cymene, b-phellandrene, limo- Listeria mono- cytogenes.15
560 Savory (summer and winter)
Summer savory oil is also reported to have among others, with highest average maximum
spasmolytic on rat-isolated ileum as well as use level of 0.519% reported in condiments
in vivo antidiarrheal effects in mice.16 and relishes.
Antioxidant activities have been reported Summer savory oil and oleoresin are used
for S. hortensis (ethnolic extract and essential in candy, baked goods, meat and meat products
oil) and S. montana (essential oil) in different (e.g., canned meats), condiments and relishes,
in vitro models of oxidative stress.6,12,17,18 and others, with highest average maximum
The aqueous extract of summer savory use level of about 0.036% reported for the oil
was found to be anti-inflammatory against in meat and meat products (358 ppm) and in
rhinosinusitis in rabbit at 250 mg/kg. A condiments and relishes (373 ppm).
hydroalcoholic extract, polyphenolic fraction, Winter savory oil and oleoresin are not
and the essential oil also displayed antinoci- widely used. Food products in which they are
ceptive and anti-inflammatory effects when used include candy, baked goods, meat and
administered orally (50–2000 mg/kg) to mice meat products, and condiments and relishes.
and rats in different models of pain and Highest average maximum use level reported
inflammation.13,19 is about 0.013% (127 ppm for the oleoresin in
Winter savory has been reported to exhibit condiments and relishes).
diuretic activity in rats.20
Traditional Medicine. Both summer savory
and winter savory are used as tonic, carmina-
TOXICOLOGY tive, astringent, and expectorant in treating
stomach and intestinal disorders (e.g., cramps,
When applied undiluted to the backs of hair- nausea, and indigestion), diarrhea, and sore
less mice, summer savory was lethal to half of throat, generally in the form of a tea. Fresh
the animals in 48 h; it was also strongly irri- summer savory is also used for insect bites
tating to rabbit and guinea pig skin, though it (e.g., bee sting); for this purpose it is rubbed on
was nonphototoxic to hairless mice and swine. the affected area.
In diluted form, it was nonirritating and non- Savory has been used as an aphrodisiac.
sensitizing to human skin.2
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
USES
Crude, oleoresin, and oil (mostly summer
Food. Summer savory is quite extensively savory). Summer savory oil is official in
used as a flavor component in baked goods, F.C.C.
meat and meat products (e.g., canned meats),
Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.10 and
condiments and relishes (e.g., spice blends),
§182.20).
processed vegetables, soups, and gravies,
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; FEMA; FERNALD; GUENTHER; LUST; ROSE;
ROSENGARTEN; UPHOF.
1. M. S. Karawya et al., Am. Perfum. 3. A. Herisset et al., Plant. Med. Phytother.,
Cosmet., 85, 23 (1970). 8, 287 (1974).
2. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 4. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 13, 46
14(Suppl.) 859 (1976). (1988).
Saw palmetto 561
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL pancreatic cancer cell lines that gave an indi-
ACTIVITIES cation of potential use in prostate cancer.2,48
REFERENCES
See the General References for BRUNETON; FOSTER and DUKE; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; STEINMETZ;
TYLER 1–3; WEISS; WREN.
1. J. B. Hilmon, Autecology of Saw Pal 14. H. Wagner et al., Arzneim.-Forsch., 35,
Metto, Ph.D. Dissertation, Duke 1069 (1985).
University, 1968. 15. F. Di Silverio et al., Eur. Urol., 21, 309
2. K. Iguchi et al., Prostate, 47, 59 (2001). (1992).
3. W. Breu, Arzneim.-Forsch., 42, 547 16. E. Emili et al., Urologia, 50, 1040
(1992). (1983).
4. R. Hansel et al., Planta Med., 12, 169 17. C. Boccafoschi et al., Urologia, 50, 1257
(1964). (1983).
5. R. Hansel et al., Planta Med., 14, 261 18. G. Champault et al., Br. J. Clin.
(1966). Pharmacol., 18, 461 (1984).
6. W. R. Sorenson and D. Sullivan, J. AOAC 19. A. Tasca et al., Minerva Urol. Nefrol., 37,
Int., 89, 22 (2006). 87 (1985).
7. M. I. Elghamry and R. Hansel, 20. P. Cukier et al., C. R. Ther. Pharmacol.
Experientia, 25, 8 (1969). Clin., 4, 15 (1985).
8. G. Jommi et al., Gazzetta Chim. Ital., 21. C. Casarosa et al., Clin. Ther., 10, 585
118, 823 (1988). (1988).
9. H. Shimada et al., J. Nat. Prod., 60, 417 22. S. M. Adriazola et al., Arch. Esp. Urol.,
(1997). 45, 211 (1992).
10. G. Harnischfeger, Z. Phytother., 10, 71 23. C. Sultan et al., J. Steroid Biochem., 20,
(1989). 515 (1984).
11. P. Hatinguais et al., Trav. Soc. Pharm. 24. A. Stenger et al., Gaz. Med. Fr., 89, 2041
Montp., 41, 253 (1981). (1982).
12. H. Wagner et al., Planta Med., 41, 244 25. N. Cao et al., Prostate, 66, 115
(1981). (2006).
13. H. Wagner et al., Arzneim.-Forsch., 34, 26. T. Oki et al., J. Urol., 173, 1395
659 (1984). (2005).
564 Schisandra
27. N. Talpur et al., Mol. Cell. Biochem., 250, 44. C. W. Bayne et al., Prostate, 40, 232
21 (2003). (1999).
28. M. F. Palin et al., Endocrine, 9, 65 (1998). 45. M. Goepel et al., Prostate, 38, 208
29. F. Hizli and M. C. Uygur, Int. Urol. (1999).
Nephrol., (2007). 46. S. F. Di et al., Prostate, 37, 77 (1998).
30. F. K. Habib et al., Int. J. Cancer, 114, 190 47. M. Paubert-Braquet et al., Pharmacol.
(2005). Res., 34, 171 (1996).
31. A. C. Buck, J. Urol., 172, 1792 (2004). 48. K. Ishii et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 24, 188
32. E. M. Gong and G. S. Gerber, Am. J. Chin. (2001).
Med., 32, 331 (2004). 49. I. Jibrin et al., South. Med. J., 99, 611
33. G. S. Gerber and J. M. Fitzpatrick, BJU (2006).
Int., 94, 338 (2004). 50. Y. N. Singh et al., Phytomedicine, (2006).
34. P. Boyle et al., BJU Int., 93, 751 (2004). 51. C. Ulbricht et al., J. Soc. Integr. Oncol., 4,
35. S. A. Kaplan et al., J. Urol., 171, 284 170 (2006).
(2004). 52. A. L. Avins and S. Bent, Curr. Urol. Rep.,
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(2002). 53. T. J. Wilt et al., JAMA, 280, 1604 (1998).
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285 (2002). Aging, 9, 379 (1996).
38. G. S. Gerber et al., Urology, 58, 960 55. A. E. Gordon and A. F. Shaughnessy,
(2001). Am. Fam. Physician, 67, 1281 (2003).
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(2001). Rev., CD001423 (2002).
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(2000).
43. C. W. Bayne et al., J. Urol., 164, 876
(2000).
China and adjacent regions of Russia and chemical studies have been performed on
Korea. Part used is the fully ripe, sun-dried these schisandra lignans, primarily by Rus-
fruit that yields northern schisandra; it is oval sian, Japanese, and Chinese researchers.3,7
and wrinkled, with a diameter of 5–8 mm, Russian researchers named them schizandrins
ranging from bright red, dull red, to purplish and schizandrols while Japanese researchers
red; flesh is soft, with a weak characteristic called them gomisins and the Chinese called
odor and tastes primarily sour and sweet, with them wuweizisus and wuweizi esters, among
a salty note; its 1–2 yellowish brown, kidney- others.7–12 Over 40 such lignans have been
shaped seeds are fragrant when crushed and isolated from the nonsaponifiable fraction of
taste simultaneously pungent, bitter, and salty; the seed oil. The more important ones include:
these five flavor elements give schisandra its schizandrin (¼schizandrol A), schizandrin A
name, ‘‘five-flavor seed.’’ Northern schisandra (¼deoxyschizandrin), schizandrin B (¼g-
is mainly produced in northern and northeast- schizandrin), schizandrin C, schizandrol B,
ern provinces, including Inner Mongolia, schisantherin D, schisandrene, schizandrer
Ningxia, Shanxi, Hebei, Liaoning, Jilin, and A, schizandrer B (¼schisantherin), pseudo-
Heilongjiang. y-schizandrin, wuweizisu A (¼schizandrin
Schisandra sphenanthera is a climbing A), wuweizisu B, wuweizisu C, gomisins A–R
shrub similar to S. chinensis, up to about and derivatives, wuweizi ester A (¼gomisin
5 m long; native to western, central, and south- C, schisantherin A, schizandrer A), wuweizi
ern China. Its fully ripe, sun-dried fruit yields ester B (¼gomisin B, schisantherin B, schi-
southern or western schisandra, which is sim- zandrer B), wuweichun A (¼schizandrin),
ilar in properties to northern schisandra fruit, wuweichun B, and others.1,3,7–14
but is smaller, with thinner flesh and is reddish Other lignans isolated from seeds of other
brown to dull brown. Southern schisandra Schisandra species (e.g., S. sphenanthera,
is mainly produced in western, central, and S. henryi, S. Propinqua and S. rubriflora)
southern provinces, including Gansu, Shaan- include: schisanhenol, schisandrone, epischi-
xi, Henan, Hunan, Hubei, and Sichuan. sandrone, enshicine, epienshicine, wulignan
Although several other Schisandra species Al, wulignan A2, epiwulignan Al, rubrisan-
also serve as commercial or potential drin A and B, ()-rubschisandrin, rubschi-
commercial sources of schisandra fruit, its santherin, schisanhenol acetate, schisanhenol
current major sources are S. chinensis and B, propinquanins A–D, and others.7,13,15–19
S. sphenanthera.1,2 Over the past 5 y, numerous triterpenes
have been isolated from S. Sphenanthera and
other species (S. lancifolia, S. rubrifolia,
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION S. propinqua, S. micrantha, and S. henryi).
Among these triterpenes are sphenadilactones
Schisandra chinensis fruit contains roughly A and B, lancifodilactones A–N, lancifoic
1–3% volatile oil (composed mainly of citral, acid A, nigranoic acid, rubriflordilactones A
sesquicarene, b-2-bisabolene, aylangene, b- and B, schiprolactone A, schisanlactone B,
chamigrene, a-chamigrene, and chamigre- schisandronic acid, micrandilactone A, micra-
nal), 12% citric acid, 10% malic acid, cin- noic acids A and B, and others.16,20–29
namic acid, small amounts of tartaric acid, A new sesquiterpene, plenoxide, was re-
flavonoids (quercetin and kaempferol), mono- cently isolated from S. plena.30
saccharides, resins, pectin, vitamins A, C, and
E, phospholipids, sterols, tannins, and so PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
on.3–6 ACTIVITIES
Seeds of S. chinensis contain about 19%
lignans (those of S. sphenanthera about 10%) Schisandra fruit exhibits a wide variety of
that are the major active principles.1 Extensive pharmacological activities in humans and in
566 Schisandra
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHP; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FOSTER AND YUE; HONGKUI; HU; IMM-3;
JIANGSU; JILIN; LU AND LI; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NATIONAL; WANG; ZHU.
1. W. Z. Song and Y. Y. Tong, Yaoxue 15. M. Chen et al., J. Nat. Prod., 69, 1697
Xuebao, 18, 138 (1983). (2006).
2. W. Z. Song, Zhongyao Tongbao, 13, 3 16. L. J. Xu et al., Planta Med., 72, 169
(1988). (2006).
3. Y. S. Huang et al., Chin. J. Pharmacol. 17. L. N. Li and H. Xue, Planta Med., 51, 217
Toxicol., 4, 275 (1990). (1985).
4. Y. Ohta and Y. Hirose, Tetrahedron Lett., 18. J. S. Liu et al., Huaxue Xuebao, 46, 483
20, 2483 (1968). (1988).
5. R. Sladkovsky et al., J. Pharm. Biomed. 19. H. J.Wang and Y. Y. Chen, Yaoxue
Anal., 24, 1049 (2001). Xuebao, 20, 832 (1985).
6. X. N. Li et al., Phytochem. Anal., 14, 23 20. W. L. Xiao et al., Org. Lett., 8, 1475
(2003). (2006).
7. H. Hikino et al., Planta Med., 50, 213 21. W. L. Xiao et al., J. Nat. Prod., 69, 277
(1984). (2006).
8. P. G. Xiao and K. J. Chen, Phytother. 22. W. L. Xiao et al., Org. Lett., 8, 991
Res., 2, 55 (1988). (2006).
9. R. Tan et al., Planta Med., 52, 49 (1986). 23. R. T. Li et al., Chem. Commun. (Camb.),
10. Y. Kiso, Planta Med., 51, 331 (1985). 2936 (2005).
11. G. T. Liu in H. M. Chang et al., eds., 24. W. L. Xiao et al., Org. Lett., 7, 2145
Advances in Chinese Medicinal (2005).
Materials Research, World Scientific 25. W. L. Xiao et al., Org. Lett., 7, 1263
Publish, Singapore, 1985, p. 257. (2005).
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3207 (1982). 912 (2003).
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Xuebao, 25, 110 (1990). (Tokyo), 51, 1174 (2003).
14. Y. W. Choi et al., J. Nat. Prod., 69, 356 28. R. T. Li et al., Org. Lett., 5, 1023
(2006). (2003).
568 Senna
29. Y. G. Chen et al., Fitoterapia, 72, 435 42. P. Y. Chiu et al., Planta Med., 68, 951
(2001). (2002).
30. R. T. Li et al., J. Asian Nat. Prod. Res., 7, 43. S. P. Ip et al., Pharmacol. Toxicol., 78,
847 (2005). 413 (1996).
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(1983). (1989).
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35. F. Ahumada et al., Phytother. Res., 3, 175 Sin., 6, 41 (1985).
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(1983). 63 (2006).
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Zhaiyao (1820–1961), Science Press, (1996).
Beijing, 1975, p. 85. 51. C. C. Ruan et al., Chin. J. Cancer, 8, 29
39. S. S. Liu, ed., Zhongyao Yanjiu Wen Xian (1989).
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Sinica, 10, 353 (1989). (1999).
41. T. J. Lin et al., Chin. J. Pharmacol. 54. H. W. Song and F. X.Wang, Zhongguo
Toxicol., 3, 153 (1989). Zhongyao Zazhi, 15, 51 (1990).
The two species of senna are very closely 40 -hy-roxymethyl benzophenone (cassiaphe-
related and have formerly been recognized as none A-2-glucoside and cassiaphenone B-2-
a single species, though later research data glucoside, respectively). The naphthalene gly-
have established them as distinct species.2,3 coside tinnevellin-8-glucoside and kaempferol
Recent taxonomic treatment once again were also isolated.13
merges C. senna, C. acutifolia, and C. angu- Other constituents present in senna leaves
stifolia into one taxonomic entity, Senna include free sugars (glucose, fructose, su-
alexandrina Mill., which is not generally crose, and pinitol), a mucilage (consisting of
recognized in the trade. galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, and galac-
Most of the senna currently used in the turonic acid), and polysaccharides (in
United States is Indian senna (Tinnevelly C. angustifolia);14,15 flavonoids (isorhamne-
senna). tin, kaempferol, etc.); a trace of volatile oil;
and resins; among others (LIST AND
HÖRHAMMER).
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION Senna pods normally contain 2–5% senno-
sides, with Alexandrian pods having higher
Alexandrian and Indian senna leaves have values than Indian pods. In addition to senno-
similar chemical compositions, especially in sides A and B, a closely related glucoside,
their anthracene derivatives. They contain as named sennoside A1, has been isolated from
their active constituents dianthrone glucosides Alexandrian senna pods.16
(usually 1.5–3.0%), consisting mostly of sen- A galactomannon consisting of D-glucose
nosides A and B (rhein-dianthrone gluco- and D-mannose in a 3:2 molar ratio has recent-
sides), with minor amounts of sennosides C ly been isolated from the seeds of Indian
and D (rhein-aloe-emodin-heterodianthrone senna.17
glucosides) and aloe-emodin dianthrone glu-
coside also present.4–10 These dianthrone gly-
cosides are reportedly absent in fresh leaves, PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
and it appears that they are formed during the ACTIVITIES
drying process through enzymatic oxidation
of monoanthrone glycosides that are present in Sennosides are cathartic, with a similar mode
fresh leaves but normally absent in dried of action as cascarosides (see cascara).
leaves (also see cascara).5,11 Sennosides A and C have equal purgative
There is also evidence of the existence of potency in mice but sennoside C has potenti-
primary glycosides of the sennosides (with ating effects on the activity of sennoside A,
additional sugar molecules) that are more exerting a potentiating effect of about 1.6
active than the sennosides.6 when 20% of the dose of sennoside A is
Senna leaves also contain small amounts of replaced by sennoside C.18
free anthraquinones (rhein, aloe-emodin, Senna products along with cascara pro-
chrysophanol, etc.) and their O-glycosides and ducts are generally considered the drugs of
C-glycosides.2,5–8,11,12 choice among anthraquinone cathartics, and
Alexandrian senna leaves generally have a are also generally considered safe (APhA).19,20
higher sennoside content than Indian senna Products containing purified sennosides
leaves. (20 mg) reduced colonic transit time in
Two benzophenone glucosides have recen- healthy human volunteers.21 Senna prepara-
tly been isolated from Tinnevelly senna tions are continuously being evaluated as
pods and were characterized as 60 -carboxy- alternative laxatives in bowel preparation for
20 , 6-dihydroxy- 2 - b - glucopyranosyloxy-40 - colonoscopy. In this respect, they have com-
hydroxymethyl benzophenone and 40 ,60 -dicar- parative efficacy as sodium phosphate and
boxy-20 ,6-dihydroxy-2-b-glucopyranosyloxy- PEG-electrolyte lavage solutions.22,23
570 Senna
REFERENCES
See the General References for BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 1; CLAUS; GUPTA; JIANGSU; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER;
LUST; MORTON 3; NANJING; TUCKER 1–3; WREN; YOUNGKEN.
1. G. Franz, Pharmacology, 47(Suppl. 1), 2 19. Anon., Fed. Regist., 40, 10902
(1993). (1975).
2. J. W. Fairbairn and A. B. Shrestha, 20. J. W. Fairbairn, ed., The Anthraquinone
Lloydia, 30, 67 (1967). Laxatives, S. Karger, Basel, Switzerland,
3. J. Lemli et al., Planta Med., 49, 36 1976, in Pharmacology, 14 (Suppl. 1), 1,
(1983). 1976.
4. A. Stoll and B. Becker in L. Zechmeister, 21. K. Ewe et al., Pharmacology, 47
ed., Fortschritte der Chemie organischer (Suppl. 1), 242 (1993).
Naturstoffe, Vol. 7, Springer-Verlag, 22. S. Kositchaiwat et al., World J.
Vienna, Austria, 1950, p. 248. Gastroenterol., 12, 5536 (2006).
5. J. W. Fairbairn, Lloydia, 27, 79 23. F. Radaelli et al., Am. J. Gastroenterol.,
(1964). 100, 2674 (2005).
6. F. H. L. Van Os, Pharmacology, 14 24. B. Smith, The Neuropathology of the
(Suppl. 1), 7 (1976). Alimentary Tract, Arnold, London,
7. H. Friedrich and S. Baier, Planta Med., 1972.
23, 74 (1973). 25. Monograph Sennae folium, Bundesan-
8. W. D. Brendel and D. Schneider, Planta zeiger (July 21, 1993).
Med., 25, 342 (1974). 26. H. A. Spiller et al., Ann. Pharmacother.,
9. R. Atzorn et al., Planta Med., 41, 1 37, 636 (2003).
(1981). 27. B. Vanderperren et al., Ann.
10. Monograph Sennae, Bundesanzeiger, Pharmacother., 39, 1353 (2005).
no. 228 (December 5, 1984). 28. A. Sonmez et al., Acta Gastroenterol.
11. J. Lemli and J. Cuveele, Plant. Med. Belg., 68, 385 (2005).
Phytother., 10, 175 (1976).
29. E. Leng-Peschlow, Intl. J. Exp. Clin.
12. S. C. Y. Su and N. M. Ferguson, J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 44, S1 (1992).
Sci., 62, 899 (1973).
30. U. Mengs et al., Arch. Toxicol., 78, 269
13. C. Terreaux et al., Planta Med., 68, 349 (2004).
(2002).
31. J. M. Mitchell et al., Arch. Toxicol., 80,
14. B. M. M€ uller et al., Planta Med., 55, 536 34 (2006).
(1989).
32. N. Mascolo et al., Dig. Dis. Sci., 44, 2226
15. J. Lemli and J. Cuveele, Plant. Med. (1999).
Phytother., 10, 175 (1976).
33. D. Brusick and U. Mengs, Environ. Mol.
16. B. Christ et al., Arzeim.-Forsch., 28, 225 Mutagen., 29, 1 (1997).
(1978).
34. A. A. al-Dakan et al., Pharmacol.
17. N. Alam and C.Gupta, Planta Med., 52, Toxicol., 77, 288 (1995).
308 (1986).
35. Monograph Sennae fructus, Bundesan-
18. K. Kisa et al., Planta Med., 42, 302 zeiger (July 21, 1993).
(1981).
572 Sour jujube kernel (see also jujube, common)
decadienoyl]glycerol and a fatty acid mixture Traditional Medicine. Sour jujube was first
of linoleic, oleic, and stearic acids.1 recorded over 2000 years ago and the fruit was
The triterpene glycoside ziziphin isolated listed in the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing (ca. 200
from the leaves has sweetness inhibitory (anti- BC–AD 100) as a tonic in the superior cate-
sweeteness) activity in humans.22,23 gory. Use of the seed, suan zao ren, however,
Other pharmacologic effects of suan zao was not described until the 3rd century AD.24
ren include analgesic, antipyretic, antispas- Traditionally regarded as sweet and sour tast-
modic, hypotensive, uterine stimulant, and ing, neutral, heart nourishing and tranquiliz-
others.6 ing (yang xin an shen), promoting the secre-
tion of body fluids, and stopping excessive
perspiration. It is one of the major traditional
TOXICOLOGY Chinese brain tonics for treating neurasthenia,
insomnia, excessive dreams (nightmares),
Toxicities are very low: 150 g/kg crude drug or night sweat, forgetfulness, and palpitations.
50 g/kg decoction fed to mice did not produce Traditional medical writings distinguish be-
any toxic reactions, and no adverse side effects tween raw and stir-fried suan zao ren: the
have been reported from clinical use of this former for treating sleepiness while the latter
drug. However, since it is known to be a for treating insomnia (LiShi-Zhen’s Ben Cao
uterine stimulant, caution is advised in preg- Gang Mu, ca. AD 1590). However, modern
nant women (JIANGSU; WANG).6 chemical studies have not confirmed the va-
lidity of this distinction.12,25,26
Suan zao ren is normally used in the
USES crushed or powdered form.
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHP; FOSTER AND YUE; IMM-3; JIANGSU; LU AND LI; NATIONAL; STEINER; XIAO
4,6; ZHOU; ZHU.
1. B. N. Su et al., Planta Med., 68, 1125 4. J. L. Guil-Guerrero et al., Plant Foods
(2002). Hum. Nutr., 59, 23 (2004).
2. S. X. Wu et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao 5. K. H. Shin et al., Planta Med., 44, 94
Zazhi, 16, 435 (1991). (1982).
3. J. Zhao et al., J. Chromatogr. A, 1108, 6. G. X. Hong and B. Cao, Zhongyao
188 (2006). Tongbao, 12, 51 (1987).
574 Squill
7. L. Zeng et al., Acta Bot. Sin., 28, 517 17. C. H. Shou et al., Acta Pharmacol. Sin.,
(1986). 22, 986 (2001).
8. S. Y. Li and R. Y. Zhang, Zhongyao 18. X. C. Lang et al., Zhongyao Tongbao, 13,
Tongbao, 11, 43 (1986). 43 (1988).
9. L. Zeng et al., Yaoxue Xuebao, 22, 114 19. X. C. Lang et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao
(1987). Zazhi, 16, 366 (1991).
10. W. S. Woo et al., Phytochemistry, 18, 20. S. Y. Xu et al., Zhongcaoyao, 18, 18
353 (1979). (1987).
11. I. Watanabe et al., Jpn. J. Pharmacol., 23, 21. X. J. Chen et al., Acta Pharmacol. Sin.,
563 (1973). 11, 153 (1990).
12. J. Wang, Zhongchengyao, 11, 19 22. R. Suttisri et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 47,
(1989). 9 (1995).
13. C. L. Yuan et al., Zhongyao Tongbao, 12, 23. Y. Kurihara, Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.,
34 (1987). 32, 231 (1992).
14. W. H. Peng et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 24. F. X. Liu et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao
72, 435 (2000). Zazhi, 16, 444 (1991).
15. M. Zhang et al., Planta Med., 69, 692 25. F. X. Liu and J. F. Gao, Zhongguo
(2003). Zhongyao Zazhi, 15, 28 (1990).
16. C. Shou et al., Planta Med., 68, 799 26. H. Jin and Y. M. Xu, Liaoning Zhongyi
(2002). Zazhi, 20, 40 (1993).
important ones being scillaren A and proscil- against Fusarium oxysporum and Rhizocoto-
laridin A.3,5 Scillaren B has been used to nia solani.16,18 The mechanism of antifungal
describe a mixture of squill glycosides action was proposed to be through a chitino-
as opposed to pure scillaren A. Two new lytic effect on fungal cell wall.16
bufadienolides were isolated from U. mariti- Methanol extracts of red squill have been
ma sensu strictu and were identified as claimed to be effective as hair tonics in treating
11a-acetyl-g-bufotalin glucorhamnoside and chronic seborrhea and dandruff, with the active
11a-hydroxyscilliglucoside.8 principle being attributed to scilliroside.22
Other constituents present in white squill
include flavonoids (vitexin, isovitexin, orien- TOXICOLOGY
tin, isoorientin, scoparin, vicenin-2, quercetin,
dihydroquercetin or taxifolin, dihydroqueree- Red squill is very toxic to rats, the active
tin-40 -monoglucoside, etc.), stigmasterol, principle being scilliroside. It is also extreme-
scilliglaucosidin, mucilage (glucogalactans), ly irritating to the skin, and handling with
lignans, and others (KARRER; MERCK).4–6,9–11 rubber gloves is strongly recommended (MAR-
Red squill contains scilliroside and cardiac TINDALE; REMINGTON). Poisoning of livestock
glycosides as white squill (KARRER; MARTIN- has been observed in North Africa. A case of
12
DALE); it also contains sinistrin, a fructan fatal poisoning due to ingestion of two bulbs of
polysaccharide, and other fructo-oligosac- U. maritima has also been reported in a human
charides.13,14 female. Death was due to cardiac glycoside
Indian squill has same types of active bu- toxicity.23,24
fadienolides as the Mediterranean squill, but
with contents of proscillaridin A and scillaren
USES
A in some cytotypes (diploid and tetraploid
races) considerably higher than the latter.15
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
A novel bioactive 29 kDa glycoprotein and
White squill is used mainly as an expectorant
an antifungal chitinase (also 29 kDa) were
in some cough preparations. In German phy-
recently isolated from the bulb.16–18
tomedicine used for mild cardiac insufficiency
and impaired kidney function.20
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL Traditional Medicine. Has been used for
ACTIVITIES centuries in Europe as a diuretic, emetic,
expectorant, and cardiac stimulant. It has also
The glycosides present in squill have digitalis- been used in cancers.21
like cardiotonic properties, which are due
to their aglycones (GOODMAN AND GILMAN).19 Others. The primary use of red squill is as an
Action is more rapid, but shorter in duration, effective rat poison. However, it is generally
than that of digitalis glycosides.20,21 not effective with mice. It is quite safe with
White squill also reportedly has expecto- humans and animals such as pets (cats and
rant, emetic, and diuretic properties (MARTIN- dogs) and domestic animals (e.g., hogs)
DALE; MERCK). because it causes vomiting in these animals
The recently reported glycoprotein of white promptly, thus not allowing enough poison to
squill has a potent in vitro and in vivo anti- be ingested (REMINGTON).
angiogenic and proapoptotic activity against
a mouse mammary carcinoma. The mecha-
nism of actions appears to be mediated through COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
NF-kB and caspase-activated DNase.17
The chitinase isolated from white squill Crude and extracts; crude, tincture, and fluid
displayed significant fungistatic activity extract were formerly official in N.F. Strengths
576 Stevia
(see glossary) of extracts are expressed in diminished kidney capacity and mild cardiac
weight-to-weight ratios. insufficiency (contraindicated with digitalis
glycosides or potassium deficiency).20
Regulatory Status. Subject of a German
therapeutic monograph, indicated for
REFERENCES
See the General References for BLUMENTHAL 1; BRADLY; BRUNETON; CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER;
GOSSELIN; LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TERRELL; TUCKER 1–3; UPHOF; YOUNGKEN.
1. L. Krenn et al., Planta Med., 57, 560 13. T. Spies et al., Carbohydr. Res., 235, 221
(1991). (1992).
2. H. Lichti et al., Helv. Chim. Acta, 56, 14. W. Praznik and T. Spies, Carbohydr. Res.,
2088 (1973). 243, 91 (1993).
3. M. S. Karawya et al., Planta Med., 23, 15. S. Jha and S. Sen, Planta Med., 47, 43
213 (1973). (1983).
4. A. Von Wartburg et al., Helv. Chim. Acta, 16. S. R. Shenoy et al., Biotechnol. Prog., 22,
51, 1317 (1968). 631 (2006).
5. P. Garcia Casado et al., Pharm. Acta 17. A. V. Deepak and B. P. Salimath,
Helv., 52, 218 (1977). Biochimie, 88, 297 (2006).
6. M. Iizuka et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull. 18. A. V. Deepak et al., Biochem. Biophys.
(Tokyo), 49, 282 (2001). Res. Commun., 311, 735 (2003).
7. B. Kopp et al., Phytochemistry, 42, 513 19. C. L. Gemmill, Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med., 50,
(1996). 747 (1974).
8. L. Krenn et al., Fitoterapia, 71, 126 20. Monograph Scillae bulbus, Bundesan-
(2000). zeiger, no. 154 (August 21, 1985);
9. F. S. Hakim and F. J.Evans, Pharm. Acta corrected (March 2, 1989).
Helv., 51, 117 (1976). 21. W. E. Court, Pharm. J., 235, 194 (1985).
10. M. Fernandez et al., Phytochemistry, 14, 22. S. Giannopoulos, Ger. Offen., 2, 715,214
586 (1975). (1977), through Chem. Abstr., 88,
11. M. Fernandez et al., Galencia Acta, 24, 55079e (1978).
45 (1971). 23. L. elBahri et al., Vet. Hum. Toxicol., 42,
12. A. Von Wartburg, Helv. Chim. Acta, 49, 108 (2000).
30 (1966). 24. Y. Tuncok et al., J. Toxicol. Clin.
Toxicol., 33, 83 (1995).
Brazil, Japan, Korea, Thailand, and China. 3.4 g/kg. Separate 2.0 g/kg doses of stevio-
Much of the Asian production is for export side, rebaudiosides A–C, steviolbioside, or
to Japan, the largest consumer. dulcoside A administered to mice by oral
intubation showed no acute toxicity. Two
weeks after administration, no significant
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION differences in body or organ weights were
reported.2
The main constituents of the leaves responsi- Subacute toxicity studies on rats over a
ble for sweetness are the ent-kaurene diter- 50-day period up to 7.0% concentration of
pene glycosides stevioside (2.218.5%), stevioside in feed produced no remarkable
rebaudiosides A and C, and dulcoside A; toxic effects.2
rebaudiosides B, D, and E and steviolbioside Studies on the effect of stevioside on fertil-
are of much less importance. Labdane diter- ity found that it produced no abnormal mating
penes include jhanol, austroinulin, 6-O-acet- performance or fertility, and produced no
ylaustroinulin; triterpenes include b-amyrin teratogenic effects. Various tests have not
acetate and lupeol; other constituents include shown mutagenic or genotoxic activity; how-
b-sitosterol, stigmasterol, tannins, and a vol- ever, mutagenic activity of metabolized ste-
atile oil (0.12–0.43%) from which at least 25 viol has been reported.2
compounds have been identified.2
USES
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
ACTIVITIES Food. Stevia leaf is reported to have been
used by Indian groups in Paraguay as a sweet-
Stevioside is about 300 times sweeter than ener for mate (Ilex paraguayensis) as early as
sucrose at 0.4% sucrose concentration, 150 the 16th century.2 Use as a sweetener by the
times sweeter at 4% sucrose, and 100 times Guaranı Paraguayan Indians, Mestizos, and
sweeter at 10% sucrose concentration.2 others is documented back to 1887.3 It was
Other reported activities include claims of planted in England during World War II as a
hypoglycemic activity of leaf extracts and possible sugar substitute.3 Stevioside and ste-
stevioside in animals or humans; however, via leaves are used as nonfermentative, non-
follow-up studies have failed to support a caloric commercial sweetening agent primar-
hypoglycemic effect. Weak antimicrobial ily in Japan, as well as Paraguay and Brazil.
activity of unidentified fractions has been As much as 1700 metric tons dry leaf were
reported against Pseudomonas aeruginosa used in Japan in 1987.4 Given high stability to
and Proteus vulgaris.2 heat and acid, a sweetness similar to sucrose
(with only a mild aftertaste), it has been found
to be of use as a sweetener in many food
categories in Japan. Reported Japanese use
TOXICOLOGY includes flavoring pickles, dried seafood, fish,
and meat products; vegetables; confectionery;
Given the interest in the plant and its glyco- desserts; soy sauce; miso (and other products
sides as sweeteners, most of the biological with high levels of sodium chloride); soft
testing has been to assess toxicity. Stevioside drinks; and others.2
has been found to be nontoxic in acute toxic-
ity tests with rabbits, guinea pigs, and fowl, Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Used
being excreted without structural modifica- since the early 1980s; dried leaf a sweetening
tion. A leaf extract (with 50% stevioside) agent in herbal teas, as well as leaf powder or
administered i.p. to rats has an LD50 of extracts as a table or cooking sweetener.5
578 Storax
Traditional Medicine. Stevia has been tra- additive,’’ banning importation into the Unit-
ditionally used in Paraguay to treat diabetes ed States.6 A petition by the American Herbal
and as a contraceptive.1 Products Association to allow the herb to be
sold as a food flavor, arguing that the ingredi-
ent is a food, commonly used before 1958
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS (rather than a food additive), and hence ex-
empt from the import alert, has been rejected
Crude leaf, extracts, and stevioside. by FDA.4,5,7 The agency claims that there
are not sufficient data to establish common
Regulatory Status. Current status: Class 1 food use prior to 1958 and raised questions
dietary supplement (can be safely consumed about possible toxic effects related to reduced
when used appropriately). fertility rates in mice.7,8
Earlier status: Since May 17, 1991, the
FDA has treated stevia leaf as an ‘‘unsafe food
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; GLASBY 2;
MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; UPHOF.
1. D. D. Soejarto et al., Econ. Bot., 37 (1), 71 5. M. Blumenthal, HerbalGram, 26, 22
(1983). (1992).
2. A. D. Kinghorn and D. D. Soejarto in H. 6. FDA Import Alert No. 45-06 (May 17,
Wagner, H. Hikino, and N. R. Farnsworth, 1991).
eds., Economic and Medicinal Plant 7. M. Blumenthal, HerbalGram (1994).
Research, Vol. 1, Academic Press,
8. P. Nunes et al., Brazilian Review of
Orlando, FL, 1985, p. l.
Pharmacy, 69, l, 46 (1988) (in M.
3. W. H. Lewis, Econ. Bot., 46(3), 336 BLUMENTHAL, HerbalGram, 31, 1994).
(1992).
4. M. Blumenthal, Whole Foods, 29 (1992).
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL Food. Storax and storax extracts (e.g., resin-
ACTIVITIES oid and absolute) are used as flavor compo-
nents or fixatives in major food products,
Storax has antiseptic and expectorant proper- including alcoholic and nonalcoholic bev-
ties. It is also reported to have antimicrobial erages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked
and anti-inflammatory properties (JIANGSU). goods, and gelatins and puddings, among
An ethanolic solution of storax was effective others. Use levels are usually quite low
580 Storax
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; FEMA; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; KROCHMAL AND
KROCHMAL; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; LUST; MORTON 3; NANJING; REMINGTON; SARGENT; TERRELL; TYLER 3; UPHOF.
1. S. Hunek, Tetrahedron, 19, 479 (1963). 5. N. K. Andrikopoulos et al., Phytother.
2. Y. Fukuda et al., J. Nat. Prod., 69, 142 Res., 17, 501 (2003).
(2006). 6. B. S. Koo et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 27, 515
3. K. Sakai et al., J. Nat. Prod., 67, 1088 (2004).
(2004). 7. Y. Fukuda et al., Cancer Lett., 240, 94
4. O. Sagdic et al., Phytother. Res., 19, 549 (2006).
(2005). 8. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 32, 247 (1969).
Tagetes 581
The essential oil of T. patula and its major In China, the flower heads of T. erecta are
components (piperitone, piperitenone, and used in treating whooping cough, coughs,
terpinolene) have antifungal activity.11,25 colds, mumps, mastitis, and sore eyes, usually
The total leaf extract of T. minuta and its as a decoction. The leaves are used in treating
major flavonoid (quercetagetin-7-arabinoga- sores and ulcers (JIANGSU). The whole herb of
lactoside) possess considerable antimicrobial T. patula is used in coughs and dysentery,
activity against Gram-positive and Gram- taken internally in the form of a powder or a
negative bacteria in comparison to chlora- decoction (JIANGSU).
mphenicol.26 In India the juice of the leaves of T. erecta is
Carotenoids of T. erecta have an antimuta- used as a treatment for eczema.30
genic effect that may be mediated through In Peru the aerial parts of T. minuta are used
complexation with mutagenic agents.27 in decoction as a digestive, vermifuge, chola-
gogue, sedative in gastric pain, and
antiabortifacient.31
TOXICOLOGY
Others. Tagetes meal and tagetes extract are
Tagetes species have been reported to cause
extensively used in chicken feed to give the
contact dermatitis.28,29
characteristic yellow color to chicken skin and
egg yolk. T. erecta flowers are used as a
mosquito repellent, T. minuta oil for treatment
USES
of wound maggots, T. lucida Cav. in fumigants
and repellents for mosquitoes, and T. terni-
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
flora H. B. & K as an insecticide in South
Tagetes oil (from T. minuta) is used as a
America.32
fragrance component in perfumes.
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; FEMA; FERNALD; JIANGSU; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. K. R. Kirtikar and B. D. Basu, Indian 3. P. C. Carro de la Torre and J. Retamar,
Medicinal Plants, Vol. 2, International Arch. Bioquim., Quim. Farm., 18, 39
book distribution, Dehradun, 1999, p. (1973).
1385. 4. A. Maradufu et al., Lloydia, 41, 181
2. Anon., Fed. Regist., 31, 5069 (1966). (1978).
Tamarind 583
the syrup-preserved product, while East mansoni; molluscicidal against Bulinus trun-
Indian countries produce the salt-preserved catus vector snails.4
product. Tamarindienal is fungicidal against Asper-
gillus niger and Candida albicans; antibacte-
rial against Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa.4
Contains plant acids (16–18%) composed The crude extract of fruit pulp has a hypo-
mainly of d-tartaric acid (up to ca. 18%), with lipemic and antioxidant effect in hamster
minor amounts of l-malic acid.2–4 Citric acid rats.11 The phenolic constituents contribute
has also been reported as a major component to the antioxidant activity.5 The hypolipemic
in the old literature, though it has not been effect was also demonstrated in laying hens
detected in Indian tamarind (YOUNGKEN).2 whose serum cholesterol levels significantly
Other constituents include polyphenolics decreased after dietary supplementation with
(catechin, epicatechin, and procyanidin),5 2% tamarind.12
flavonoids (taxifolin, apigenin, eriodictyol, Seed extract inhibited the hydrolytic en-
luteolin, and naringenin),5 sugars (20–40%),3,6 zymes and reversed the toxic effects of snake
pectin, protein (2.8%), fat, vitamins (e.g., B1 and venom injected in test animals 10 min before
C), minerals (Ca, K, P, etc.), and tartrate (MERCK; administration of the extract. Among the in-
3,6,7
WATT AND MERRILL). hibited enzymes are serine protease, hyaluron-
It also contains a volatile fraction that idase, and 50 -nucleotidase.8,13 Another en-
consists of over 60 identified compounds, zyme inhibited by the methanolic extract of
including limonene, terpinen-4-ol, neral, a- the stem bark is Clostridium chauvoei neur-
terpineol, geranial, and geraniol, which are aminidase (IC50 100 mg/mL).14
responsible for its citrus note; methyl salicy- Tamarind food supplementation enhances
late, safrole, ionones (b- and g-), cinnamalde- the excretion of excess fluoride and the reten-
hyde, and ethyl cinnamate, which contribute tion of calcium in children living in fluoride
to its warm spicy notes; piperitone; and sev- endemic areas.15
eral pyrazines and alkylthiazoles that normal- The seed polysaccharide (xyloglucan) has a
ly occur only in roasted or fried foods such as corneal wound healing effect in albino rabbits
roasted peanuts, coffee, and potato chips.6 that is mediated through the integrin recogni-
b-Sitosterol and a bitter principle tamarin- tion system.16
dienal (5-hydroxy-2-oxo-hexa-3,5-dienal) are
reported from the dried fruit pulp (ca. 0.67%).4
A bioactive protein (ca. 12–15 kDa) was TOXICOLOGY
recently isolated from the seeds.8 A mucoad-
hesive polysaccharide was also isolated from There are indications that prolonged occupa-
the seeds,9 while a galactose-specific lectin tional exposure to tamarind powder may result
was isolated from the fruits.10 in allergy and impairment of lung function.17
Other food categories in which tamarind ex- and fevers; a thick paste of ground seeds has
tracts are used include alcoholic and nonalco- been used as a cast for broken bones.18
holic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy,
baked goods, gelatins and puddings, fats and
oils, and gravies. Highest average maximum COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
use level is about 0.81% (8072 ppm) reported
in gravies. Crude (in cake form or preserved in syrup)
and extracts; crude was formerly official in
Traditional Medicine. Used mainly as a re- N.F. Extracts come in varying flavor strengths
frigerant (in a refreshing drink to cool down based primarily on total acid contents;
fever) and a laxative. In China it is also used to tartaric and citric acids are most commonly
treat nausea in pregnancy and as an anthel- used.
mintic for children. In Saudi Arabia the fruit
pulp juice is used for stomach problems, colds, Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.20).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; FEMA; GRIEVE; JIANGSU; LUST; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN
1 & 2; MORTON 2; TERRELL; UPHOF; WHISTLER AND BEMILLER; YOUNGKEN.
1. K. R. Kirtikar and B. D. Basu, Indian 10. R. Coutino-Rodriguez et al., Arch. Med.
Medicinal Plants, International Book Res., 32, 251 (2001).
Distribution, Dehradun, 1999, p. 887. 11. F. Martinello et al., Food Chem. Toxicol.,
2. Y. S. Lewis and S. Neelakantan, Food Sci. 44, 810 (2006).
(Mysore), 9, 405 (1960). 12. S. R. Chowdhury et al., Poult. Sci., 84, 56
3. Y. S. Lewis et al., Food Sci. (Mysore), 10, (2005).
49 (1961). 13. S. Ushanandini et al., Phytother. Res., 20,
4. E. S. Imbabi et al., Fitoterapia, 63, 537 851 (2006).
(1992). 14. N. M. Useh et al., J. Enzyme Inhib. Med.
5. Y. Sudjaroen et al., Food Chem. Toxicol., Chem., 19, 339 (2004).
43, 1673 (2005). 15. A. L. Khandare et al., Nutrition, 20, 433
6. P. L. Lee, et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 23, (2004).
1195 (1975). 16. S. Burgalassi et al., Eur. J. Ophthalmol.,
7. A. Vialard-Goudou et al., Qualitas Plant. 10, 71 (2000).
et Materiae Vegetabiles, 3–4 (1958). 17. A. Steger et al., Allergy, 55, 376 (2000).
8. J. M. Fook et al., Life Sci., 76, 2881 (2005). 18. H. A. Abulafatih, Econ. Bot., 41, 354
9. E. Ghelardi et al., Antimicrob. Agents (1987).
Chemother., 48, 3396 (2004).
Source: Nutgalls from oaks (Quercus spp.). Tannins are complex polyphenolic substances
isolated from nutgalls formed on young twigs
Common/vernacular names: Tannin, gallo- of certain Middle Eastern oak trees Quercus
tannic acid, and gallotannin. infectoria Olivier and other related Quercus
586 Tannic acid
species (Family Fagaceae) by insects (e.g., precipitate proteins.1 Tannic acid lotions are
Cynips gallae-tinctoriae Olivier). The nut- thus used for skin conditions such as burns and
galls are collected preferably before the insect hyperhidrosis.2,3
matures and leaves the gall through a hole Tannins (both gallic acid and catechin
bored in the wall, as galls with holes contain types) have both carcinogenic and anticancer
less tannin. Other sources of tannin include the properties in experimental animals or sys-
seedpods of Tara [Caesalpinia spinosa (Mol.) tems.4–8 They have also been implicated in
O. Kuntze] of South America and Chinese human cancers (LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS).7 More
nutgalls formed by insects on certain Rhus recent research show that tannic acid has
species growing in China [e.g., R. chinensis potential in the chemotherapy of cancer due
Mill. and R. potaninii Maxim. (Family to its growth inhibition of different tumor cell
Anacardiaceae)]. lines in vitro.9–11In vivo studies in mice bear-
Tannic acid is generally extracted from the ing malignant tumors also show that tannic
galls by a mixture of solvents involving water, acid can act as a chemopreventive agent and
alcohol, ether, and acetone. The complex tan- increase the survival rate at low and high
nic acid is separated from the simple acids doses, respectively.12,13
such as gallic acid (3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic The antioxidant effects of tannic acid have
acid) and is then purified. been recently demonstrated in a number of
Tannic acid is very soluble in water, alcohol, models of hepatotoxicity, free radical inhibi-
acetone, and glycerol; it is practically insoluble tion, NO production, and others.14–20
in carbon disulfide, chloroform, benzene, Tannins have been reported to have nu-
ether, hexane, and fixed oils. Its aqueous solu- merous other biological or pharmacological
tion is acidic and decomposes on standing. properties, including antimicrobial/antiviral
(see balm),21–24 growth suppression (in
rats),4,25 nonspecific CNS depression (in
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
mice),26 cariostasis (in hamsters),27 hypogly-
cemic (in humans),28 antifertility (in
Commercial tannic acid is not the flavanol
males),29 and, more recently, an antiamyloi-
(catechin) type. It is a mixture of glycosides of
dogenic activity in vitro through destabilizing
phenolic acids (mainly gallic acid). Its struc-
Alzheimer’s b-amyloid fibrils30 (see cate-
ture varies in complexity from a few to many
chu).31,32 Earlier studies in mice also showed
molecules of gallic acid per molecule of sugar
that tannic acid inhibits hyaluronidase en-
(especially glucose). Pharmaceutical-grade
zyme and may have potential in managing
tannic acid is generally considered to be pen-
subcutaneous poisoning resulting from
tadigalloylglucose (consisting of 10 gallic
snakebites.33
acid molecules per glucose molecule) or its
higher molecular weight derivatives. How-
ever, in reality, the pharmaceutical-grade (or
TOXICOLOGY
food-grade) tannic acid in commerce can
differ widely in molecular weight and struc-
Toxic effects of tannic acid in humans
ture. There are no official tests that distinguish
include fatal liver damage, which may result
these differences. It may also contain gallic
from the use of tannic acid on burns or as
and digallic acids as well as other impurities.
an ingredient of enemas. There is evidence
that the toxic agent may not be tannic acid
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL but rather digallic acid, which is present as
ACTIVITIES an impurity.4 Ingestion of large doses of
tannic acid may cause gastric irritation,
The most well-known property of tannins nausea, and vomiting (MARTINDALE; USD
is their astringency, due to their ability to 26th).
Tannic acid 587
Food. Tannic acid is used in clarifying Others. Tannic acid is used extensively in
alcoholic beverages (especially beer and tanning hide and in the manufacture of inks.
wines). It is also used as a flavor ingredient For these purposes, industrial grades are usu-
in most major categories of foods, including ally used.
alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen
dairy desserts, candy, baked goods, gelatins
and puddings, and meat and meat products. COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Highest average maximum use level is about
0.018% (182 ppm) reported in frozen dairy Numerous grades (pharmaceutical, food, in-
desserts. dustrial, etc.). Tannic acid is official in U.S.P.
and in F.C.C. Grades differ in their molecular
Traditional Medicine. Nutgalls (especially complexities.
Chinese nutgalls) containing high concentra-
tions of tannic acid (50–80%) have been used Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.20); source
for centuries in China in treating numerous not limited to Quercus species.
REFERENCES
See the General References for APhA; CLAUS; FEMA; GOSSELIN; HORTUS 3rd; JIANGSU; MARTINDALE; NANJING;
SAX; YOUNGKEN.
1. E. C. Bate-Smith, Phytochemistry, 12, 11. H. Kamei et al., Cancer Biother.
907 (1973). Radiopharm., 14, 135 (1999).
2. C. L. Goh and K. Yoyong, Singapore Med. 12. T. Koide et al., Cancer Biother.
J., 37, 466 (1996). Radiopharm., 14, 231 (1999).
3. P. Hupkens et al., Burns, 21, 57 (1995). 13. C. Nepka et al., Cancer Lett., 141, 57
4. Z. Glick, Diss. Abstr. Int. B, 29, 1416 (1999).
(1968). 14. L. R. Richards et al., Biomed. Sci.
5. A. Oler et al., Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 14, Instrum., 42, 357 (2006).
565 (1976).
15. I. H. El-Sayed et al., Toxicol. Ind. Health,
6. G. J. Kapadia et al., J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 22, 157 (2006).
57, 207 (1976).
16. A. Sehrawat et al., Redox. Rep., 11, 85
7. J. F. Morton, Quart. J. Crude Drug Res., (2006).
12, 1829 (1972).
17. R. G. Andrade Jr. et al., Biochimie, 88,
8. H. H. S. Fong et al., J. Pharm. Sci., 61, 1287 (2006).
1818 (1972).
18. R. G. AndradeJr. et al., Arch. Biochem.
9. P. J. Naus et al., J. Hepatol., 46, 222 (2007). Biophys., 437, 1 (2005).
10. C. Marienfeld et al., Hepatology, 37, 1097 19. R. C. Srivastava et al., Cancer Lett., 153, 1
(2003). (2000).
588 Tarragon
20. N. S. Khan et al., Chem. Biol. Interact., 27. A. Stralfors, Arch. Oral Biol., 12, 321
125, 177 (2000). (1967).
21. T. Wauters et al., Can. J. Microbiol., 47, 28. H. Gin et al., Metabolism, 48, 1179
290 (2001). (1999).
22. K. T. Chung et al., Food Chem. Toxicol., 29. I. A. Taitzoglou et al., Reproduction, 121,
36, 1053 (1998). 131 (2001).
23. F. Uchiumi et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. 30. K. Ono et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta,
Commun., 220, 411 (1996). 1690, 193 (2004).
24. V. E. Sokolova et al., Prikl. Biokhim. 31. B. Toth, Kolor. Ert., 9, 77 (1967).
Mikrobiol., 5, 694 (1969). 32. G. V. N. Rayudu et al., Poult. Sci., 49, 957
25. M. A. Joslyn and Z. Glick, J. Nutr., 98, (1970).
119 (1969). 33. U. R. Kuppusamy and N. P. Das, Phar-
26. R. N. Takahashi et al., Planta Med., 4, 272 macol. Toxicol., 72, 290 (1993).
(1986). 34. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 32, 153 (1969).
The root has been reported to contain sev- 1 mL/kg. Sedation and motor impairment were
eral oligosaccharides (including inulobiose), also produced at certain anticonvulsant doses.14
polyacetylenes, artemidiol [3-(1,2-dihydrox-
ybutyl)-isocoumarin], and other isocoumar-
ins.16–19 TOXICOLOGY
Another isocoumarin, artemidinol, has also
been reportedly isolated from tarragon.20 Estragole, the main constituent of tarragon oil,
Fractionation of cell tissue extract of has been reported to produce tumors in mice
A. dracunculus guided by human benzodiaze- (see sweet basil and avocado).
pine receptor binding leads to the isolation of Although undiluted tarragon oil has been
delorazepam and temazepam at concentrations reported to be irritating to rabbit skin and the
ranging 100–200 ng/g. This is the first report on backs of hairless mice, it was found to be
the presence of such compounds in plant cells.21 nonirritating and nonsensitizing to humans at
The aerial parts contain the alkamides, a concentration of 4% in petrolatum; it was
pellitorine, and neopellitorine A and B. The also not phototoxic.26 The ethanolic extract
latter two were isolated as new compounds (tarralin) has recently been shown to be devoid
from A. dracunculus.3 of acute and chronic toxicity in rats at
4,5-Di-O-caffeoylquinic acid, davidigenin, 1000 mg/kg/day oral dose. Mutagenic activity
6-demethoxycapillarisin, and 20 ,40 -dihydroxy- in the Ames test was also negative.27
4-methoxydihydrochalcone have recently
been reported in the ethanolic extract of
tarragon.22 USES
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; FEMA; FOSTER; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; GUPTA; LIST AND
HÖRHAMMER; LUST; ROSENGARTEN; TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. A. Mallabaev et al., Khim. Prir. Soedin., 5, 15. S. Kordali et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 53,
320 (1969). 9452 (2005).
2. P. Tunmann and E. Mann, Z. Lebensm.- 16. A. Lombard et al., Atti Accad. Sci. Torino,
Unters. Forsch., 138, 146 (1968). Cl. Sci. Fis. Mat. Nat., 109, 439 (1975).
3. B. Saadali et al., Phytochemistry, 58, 1083 17. A. Mallabaev and G. P. Sidyakin, Khim.
(2001). Prir. Soedin., 6, 720 (1974).
4. A. Mallabaev et al., Khim. Prir. Soedin., 7, 18. F. Bohlmann and K. M. Kleine, Chem.
120871 (1971). Ber., 95, 39 (1961).
5. A. Mallabaev et al., Khim. Prir. Soedin., 6, 19. H. Greger et al., Phytochemistry, 16, 795
531 (1971). (1977).
6. G. A. Lukonikova, Prikl. Biokhim. 20. A. Mallabaev and G. P. Sidyakin, Khim.
Mikrobiol., 1, 594 (1965). Prir. Soedin., 6, 811 (1976).
7. H. Thieme and N. T. Tam, Pharmazie, 23, 21. D. Kavvadias et al., Biochem. Biophys.
339 (1968). Res. Commun., 269, 290 (2000).
8. G. M. Nano et al., Riv. Ital. Essenze, 22. S. Logendra et al., Phytochemistry, 67,
Profumi, Piante offic., Aromi, Saponi, 1539 (2006).
Cosmet., Aerosol, 98, 409 (1966). 23. D. M. Ribnicky et al., Phytomedicine, 13,
9. S. G. Deans and K. P. Svoboda, J. Hortic. 550 (2006).
Sci., 63, 503 (1988). 24. K. M. Meepagala et al., J. Agric. Food
10. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum Flav., 15, 75 Chem., 50, 6989 (2002).
(1990). 25. M. Benli et al., Cell Biochem. Funct.
11. D. V. Banthrope et al., Planta Med., 20, (2006).
147 (1971). 26. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
12. S. R. Srinivas, Atlas of Essential Oils, 12, 709 (1974).
Bronx, NY, 1986. 27. D. M. Ribnicky et al., Food Chem.
13. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 13, 44 Toxicol., 42, 585 (2004).
(1988). 28. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 31, 71 (1968).
14. M. Sayyah et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 94,
283 (2004).
Source: Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze (syn. Tea originated in China; its use dates back to
C. thea Link; C. theifera Griff.; Thea si- several thousand years. It is an evergreen shrub
nensis L.; T. bohea L.; T. viridis L.) and its to occasionally a tree, much branched; young
varieties (Family Theaceae). leaves hairy; up to about 9 m high if free
Tea 591
All varieties of tea (black, green, Assam, cytotoxic to two human leukemia cell
etc.) have been extensively investigated over lines.33,34
the past decade and numerous pharmacologi- Certain constituents found in tea, especially
cal effects and biological activities have been the tannic substances catechin, epigallocate-
reported. chin, and epigallocatechin gallate, have been
Tea has been reported effective in clinically reported to have antioxidative properties, with
treating bacterial dysentery (>95% effective epigallocatechin being the strongest.8,35–38
in acute cases; 85% chronic), amebic dysen- Following this line are many reports on the
tery (100%, 12 cases), acute gastroenteritis anti-inflammatory,39–42 chemopreventive,43,44
(100%, 20 cases), acute and chronic enteritis hepatoprotective,45–47 and anticataract
(>90% acute; >83% chronic), acute infec- effects48 of different tea extracts and their
tious hepatitis, and dermatitis due to handling constituents in various in vitro and in vivo
of rice plants, among others (JIANGSU). Antidi- models. The chemopreventive, antioxidant,
arrheal effects of black and green tea extracts traditional, and future therapeutic uses of tea
have been attributed to both an antimicrobial have been reviewed.
effect on Salmonella typhimurium, S. typhi Tea has been reported to have antiathero-
and Vibrio cholera as well as a direct effect on sclerotic effects, ‘‘vitamin P’’ activities, and
the opioid system that controls gastric others.2 More recently reported effects in-
motility.21,22 Antimicrobial effects against clude gastroprotective/antiulcer,11,12,14,49,50
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus estrogenic,51,52 immunomodulatory,53 anti-
and Yersinia enterocolitica have also been allergic,54 and neuromuscular-protecting ef-
reported.23,24 Catechins isolated from an ethyl fect against botulinum and tetanus toxins.55,56
acetate fraction of green tea exhibited very There also indications of possible benefits of
strong trypanocidal effects against Trypano- tea in reducing the side effects of diabetes.57,58
soma cruzi at 50% inhibitory concentrations
as low as 0.12 pM.25 Various constituents of
TOXICOLOGY
tea were reported to prevent the adhesion of
pathogenic (e.g., Helicobacter pylori and Pro-
An undesirable proconvulsive effect was
pionibacterium acnes) and cariogenic (e.g.,
observed in three models of experimentally
Streptococcus mutans and S. sobrinus) bacte-
induced convulsions in mice after acute
ria to their respective targets.17,26–28
and chronic administration of extracts of
Tannins have anticancer, carcinogenic, and
both black and green tea. Such effect was
other activities (see tannic acid).29 Cancer-
proposed to be mediated through Ca2 þ
inducing N-nitrosation by-products has been
channels.59
shown to be inhibited by green tea polyphe-
nols. Expression of experimentally induced
chromosome damage in bone marrow cells USES
(in vitro) has been found to be suppressed
by pretreatment with green tea polyphenols.30 Food. The major use of tea domestically is
A recent study found that green tea polyphe- as a beverage usually in the form of tea bags
nols and epigallocatechin gallate arrested (pure ground tea) or as instant teas (tea ex-
skin tumor growth, size, and number in tracts mixed with other ingredients). The tea
mice.31 Green tea catechins suppressed the used is mostly black tea.
growth of prostate cancer and epithelial Tea extract (type not specified) is also report-
ovarian cancer cell lines.32 Nonphenolic frac- edly used as a flavor component in most major
tions of green tea exhibited an anticarcinogenic food products, including alcoholic beverages,
effect when tested in a Salmonella typhimur- frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked goods, and
ium model of genotoxicity, while steroidal gelatins and puddings. Highest average maxi-
saponins isolated from a tea root extract were mum use level is 3% in baked goods.
Tea 593
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Vari- ache, dysentery, and excess phlegm. In India
ous products containing green tea extracts are the leaf juice is used as a topical hemostatic for
appearing in this market, presumably in re- cuts and injuries.30
sponse to reports of antioxidant activity.
Others. Tea (especially low grade) is a po-
Traditional Medicine. The common tea bag tential source of food colors (green, yellow,
is used as a wash for sunburn, as a poultice for orange, black, etc.).60,61
baggy eyes, and as a compress for headache or
tired eyes (ROSE); also used to stop bleeding of
a tooth socket. COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Tea has been used for millennia in Chinese
medicine as a stimulant, diuretic, stomachic, Crude and extracts.
expectorant, and antitoxic. Conditions for
which it is traditionally used include head- Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.20)
REFERENCES
See the General References for BARRETT; BLUMENTHAL 2; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; GOODMAN AND
GILMAN; HUANG; JIANGSU; LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
TERRELL.
1. G. W. Sanderson in V C. Runeckles and 12. M. Yoshikawa et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.
T. C. Tso, eds., Recent Advances in (Tokyo), 53, 1559 (2005).
Phytochemistry, Vol. 5, Academic Press, 13. Y. Lu et al., Phytochemistry, 53, 941
New York, 1972, p. 247. (2000).
2. R. L. Wiskremasinghe in C. O. Chich- 14. T. Murakami et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.
ester et al., eds., Advances in Food (Tokyo), 47, 1759 (1999).
Research, Vol. 24, Academic Press, New
15. I. Kitagawa et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.
York, 1978, p. 229.
(Tokyo), 46, 1901 (1998).
3. D. Reymond, Chemtech, 7, 664 (1977).
16. Y. M. Sagesaka et al., Biosci. Bio-
4. M. Mironescu, Rev. Fiz. Chim. Ser. A, 11, technol. Biochem., 58, 2036 (1994).
218 (1974).
17. J. H. Lee et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 54,
5. C. T. Wu et al., Chung Kuo Nung Yeh Hua 8717 (2006).
Hseuh Hui Chih, 13, 159 (1975).
18. K. Higashi-Okai et al., J. UOEH, 23, 335
6. D. J. Cattell and H. E. Nursten, Phyto- (2001).
chemistry, 15, 1967 (1976).
19. P. Coggon et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 25,
7. T. Bryce, et al., Tetrahedron Lett., 463 278 (1977).
(1972).
20. H. N. Graham, Prev. Med., 21, 334 (1992).
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21. S. E. Besra et al., Phytother. Res., 17, 380
473 (1969).
(2003).
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22. M. Shetty et al., J. Commun. Dis., 26, 147
(Tokyo), 55, 57 (2007).
(1994).
10. K. Kobayashi et al., Phytochemistry, 67, 23. T. S. Yam et al., J. Antimicrob. Chem-
1385 (2006). other., 42, 211 (1998).
11. T. Morikawa et al., J. Nat. Prod., 69, 185 24. T. S. Yam et al., FEMS Microbiol. Lett.,
(2006). 152, 169 (1997).
594 Thyme
25. C. Paveto et al., Antimicrob. Agents 44. I. P. Lee et al., J. Cell Biochem. Suppl., 27,
Chemother., 48, 69 (2004). 68 (1997).
26. L. Z. Touyz and R. Amsel, Quintessence. 45. A. Singal et al., Phytother. Res., 20, 125
Int., 32, 647 (2001). (2006).
27. J. M. Hamilton-Miller, J. Med. Micro- 46. H. A. El-Beshbishy, J. Biochem. Mol.
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31. Z. Y. Wang et al., Cancer Res., 52, 6657 (1998).
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(2006). 52. A. S. Das et al., Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr.,
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(2006). 53. E. Zvetkova et al., Int. Immunophar-
34. Y. Okai and K. Higashi-Okai, Teratog. macol., 1, 2143 (2001).
Carcinog. Mutagen., 17, 305 (1997). 54. M. Akagi et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 20,
35. Y. S. Lin et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 51, 565 (1997).
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(2001). 1,181,079 (1970).
43. A. Halder et al., J. Environ. Pathol. 61. M. A. Bokuchava, et al., Biokhim. Progr.
Toxicol. Oncol., 24, 141 (2005). Tekhnol. Chai. Proizvod., Akad. Nauk
SSSR, Inst. Biokhim., 335 (1966).
Source: Thymus vulgaris L. (Family Labia- There are many species and varieties of thyme
tae or Lamiaceae). whose classification is complicated. Estimates
of legitimate species range from 100 to 400.
Common/vernacular names: Common thyme, The most commonly used species is Thymus
garden thyme, and French thyme. vulgaris. It is an erect evergreen subshrub with
Thyme 595
numerous white hairy stems and a woody variable amounts of phenols (e.g.,
fibrous root; up to about 45 cm high; native 47–74%);21,22 alcohols;21 and monoterpene
to the Mediterranean region (Greece, Italy, hydrocarbons. Either thymol or carvacrol can
Spain, etc.); extensively cultivated in France, be the major phenol in wild thyme, depending
Spain, Portugal, Greece, and the United States on sources (see origanum, Spanish).2,3,10
(California). Parts used are the dried or par-
tially dried leaves and flowering tops from
which thyme oil is produced by water and PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
steam distillation. ACTIVITIES
Other thyme species used include: T.
citriodorus (Pers.) Schreb. (syn. T. serpyllum Thyme oil is reported to have antispasmodic,
L. var. vulgaris Benth.), which is known as expectorant, and carminative properties; it
lemon thyme; T. zygis L.; and T. serpyllum L., also has antimicrobial (bacteria and fungi)
known as creeping thyme, wild thyme, or activities. These activities are mainly due to
mother of thyme. thymol and carvacrol, with the former being
Thyme oil is derived from T. vulgaris and more potent.5,23–25
T. zygis and its var. gracilis Boiss. Two types The most frequently studied activity of
of thyme oil are produced, red thyme oil and thyme is the antioxidant effect of its extracts,
white thyme oil. White thyme oil is obtained volatile oil, and main constituents. Free radical
from red thyme oil by redistillation; it has been scavenging and protective effects against hepa-
reported to be much adulterated (ARCTANDER). totoxicity, DNA damage, brain phospholipid
The major oil-producing country is Spain (see oxidation have been demonstrated.14,16,26–31
also origanum, Spanish). Thyme oil and thymol have been demonstrated
to have antioxidative activities on dehydrated
pork.32 The labiatic acid present in thyme as
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION well as in marjoram, oregano, sage, and
other plants of the mint family also has anti-
Common thyme contains 0.8–2.6% (usually oxidative properties (see marjoram, rosemary,
ca. 1%) volatile oil consisting of highly vari- and sage).
able amounts of phenols (20–80%);1–5 mono- When administered to rabbits orally or per
terpene hydrocarbons (e.g., 51% according to intramuscular injection, the oil caused arterial
one report) such as p-cymene and g-terpi- hypotension accompanied by increased rhyth-
nene;4,6,7 and alcohols (e.g., linalool, a-ter- mic contraction of the heart, and in higher
pineol, and thujan-4-ol each of which can be dosage also increased respiratory frequency.33
the major component and constitute up to 80% When given intravenously to cats as a 5%
or more of the volatile oil).2,3,5,6,8,9 Thymol is emulsion in saline solution, thyme oil also
normally the major phenolic component in increased respiratory volume and lowered
common thyme with carvacrol being only a blood pressure.34
minor component.2–5,8–10 Thymol, carvacrol, Fluid extracts of T. vulgaris and T.
and p-cymene occurring as glucosides or ga- serpyllum have been shown to have a relax-
lactosides have been reported.11–13 ant activity on the smooth muscle of guinea-
Other constituents present include tannins; pig trachea (bronchodilation) and ileum
flavonoids (e.g., quercitin, eridictyol, cirsili- (spasmolytic) in vitro. However, this activity
neol);14,15 caffeic, rosmarinic, labiatic, urso- is not due to thymol or carvacrol but is
lic, and oleanolic acids;16 hydroxyjasmone probably due to unidentified nonphenolic
glucoside;17 acetophenone glycosides;18 and components.35–37
polysaccharides19,20 (STAHL). Thyme has been shown to have an antith-
Wild thyme (T. serpyllum) contains yrotropic effect in rats;38 while thymol has
0.4–2.3% volatile oil consisting of highly been reported to have a sedative effect (GABA
596 Thyme
modulator)39 and to inhibit platelet aggrega- fumes, with maximum use level of 0.8% of the
tion in vitro.40 red type reported in perfumes.47
Thyme oil has been reported to be lethal to
mosquito larvae.41 Its major monoterpenes Food. Lemon thyme is used primarily in
were also found to effectively repel mosqui- spice blends (especially for salads).
toes, with a-terpinene being most active at 2% Thyme is widely used in baked goods, meat
concentration.6 and meat products, condiments and relishes,
Thyme oil is reported to have strongly processed vegetables, soups, gravies, and fats
fungicidal (e.g., against Aspergillus and Can- and oils, among others. Highest average max-
dida), antibacterial (especially Gram-positive imum use level is about 0.172% (1716 ppm)
and Helicobacter pylori), antitrypanosomal, reported in meat and meat products.
and anthelmintic (especially hookworms) as Thyme oil, white thyme oil, tincture, and
well as mildly local irritant properties.42–46 fluid extract are used as flavor components in
However, it is considered to be very toxic. most major food products, including alcoholic
Toxic symptoms include nausea, vomiting, (e.g., liqueurs) and nonalcoholic beverages,
gastric pain, headache, dizziness, convulsions, frozen dairy desserts, candy, baked goods,
coma, cardiac, and respiratory collapse (GOS- gelatins and puddings, meat and meat products,
SELIN; MERCK; USD 26th). and condiments and relishes. Average maxi-
mum use levels are usually below 0.003%.
TOXICOLOGY Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Thyme
is sometimes used as a flavoring ingredient in
Red thyme oil has been reported to be nonir- teas.
ritating, nonsensitizing, and nonphototoxic to
human skin but severely irritating to mouse Traditional Medicine. Common thyme
and rabbit skin when applied undiluted.47 (both fresh and dried) is reportedly used as an
A comprehensive review on the history, anthelmintic, antispasmodic, bronchospasmo-
traditional uses, chemistry, pharmacology, lytic, carminative, sedative, diaphoretic, and
and toxicology of thyme has recently been expectorant, usually in the form of an infusion
published.48 or tincture. Conditions for which it is used
include acute bronchitis, laryngitis, whooping
cough, chronic gastritis, diarrhea, and lack of
USES
appetite. It is also used externally in baths to
help rheumatic and skin pro-blems (bruises,
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
sprains, etc.). In Chinese medicine it is used to
Thyme oil is used as a flavor component,
treat similar conditions (JIANGSU).
antispasmodic, carminative, counterirritant,
Creeping thyme is used for similar pur-
or rubefacient in certain cough drops, antisep-
poses as common thyme. Its infusion is also
tic mouthwashes, and liniments. Thymol is
reputed to be useful in the treatment of alco-
similarly used; in addition, it is used in anti-
holism (LUST).
fungal preparations (for fungal skin infec-
Several species of thyme (e.g., T. vulgaris,
tions), dental formulations, and others.
T. serpyllum, and T. zygis) have been used in
In German phytomedicine, preparations
cancers.50
(tea) prescribed at 1–2 g of dried herb (calcu-
lated to contain at least 0.5% phenols, calcu-
lated as thymol) are used for alleviating the COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
symptoms of bronchitis, whooping cough, and
catarrhs of the upper respiratory tract.49 Crude and oils. Thyme and thyme oil were
Thyme oil is also used in toothpastes, formerly official in N.F. Thyme oil is official in
soaps, detergents, creams, lotions, and per- F.C.C.
Thyme 597
Regulatory Status. GRAS: Common thyme (§182.20). T. vulgaris is the subject of a posi-
and creeping thyme (§182.10 and §182.20); tive German therapeutic monograph, indicat-
derivatives (e.g., essential oils) of T. vulgaris, ed for symptoms of bronchitis and congestion
T. zygis var. gracilis, and T. serpyllum of the upper respiratory tract.50
REFERENCES
See the General References for ADA; APhA; APPLEQUIST; ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; BARNES; BIANCHINI AND
CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; CLAUS; FEMA; FOSTER; GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; LUST;
MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MORTON 3; ROSE; ROSENGARTEN; STAHL; UPHOF; USD 26th.
1. M. C. az-Maroto et al., J. Agric. Food 17. J. Kitajima et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.
Chem., 53, 5385 (2005). (Tokyo), 52, 1013, (2004).
2. B. M. Lawrence, Perfum. Flav., 2, 3, 18. M. Wang et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 47,
(1977). 1911, (1999).
3. J. D. Miguel et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 19. H. Chun et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 24, 941,
24, 833, (1976). (2001).
4. A. J. Poulose and R. Croteau, Arch. 20. H. Chun et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.
Biochem. Biophys., 187, 307, (1978). (Tokyo), 49, 762, (2001).
5. M. Simeon de Bouchberg et al., Riv. 21. U. Asllani, Bul. Shkencave Natyr., Univ.
Ital. Essenze, Profumi, Piante Offic., Shteteror Tiranes, 27, 111, (1973).
Aromi, Saponi, Cosmet., Aerosol, 58, 22. M. Mihajlov and J. Tucakov, Bull. Acad.
527, (1976). Serbe Sci. Arts, Cl. Sci. Med., 44, 57,
6. B. S. Park et al., J. Am. Mosq. Control (1969).
Assoc., 21, 80, (2005). 23. A. C. Pizsolitto et al., Rev. Fac. Farm.
7. M. Hudaib et al., J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal., Odontol. Araraquara, 9, 55, (1975).
29, 691, (2002). 24. M. De Vincenzi and M. R. Dessi,
8. A. B. Svendsen and J. Karlsen, Planta Fitoterapia, 62, 39, (1991).
Med., 14, 376, (1966). 25. D. Patakova and M. Chladek, Pharmazie,
9. M. S. Karawya and M. S. Hifnawy, J. 29, 140, (1974).
Assoc. Offic. Anal. Chem., 57, 997, (1974). 26. S. Aydin et al., Mutat. Res., 581, 43,
10. M. Grims and R. Senjkovic, Acta Pharm. (2005).
Jugoslav., 17, 3, (1967). 27. S. Aydin et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 53,
11. K. Skopp and H. Hoerster, Planta Med., 1299, (2005).
29, 208, (1976). 28. K. Miura et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 50,
12. H. Takeuchi et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. 1845, (2002).
Biochem., 68, 1131, (2004). 29. K. A. Youdim and S. G. Deans, Br. J.
13. J. Kitajima et al., Phytochemistry, 65, Nutr., 83, 87, (2000).
3279, (2004). 30. K. A. Youdim and S. G. Deans, Mech.
14. H. Haraguchi et al., Planta Med., 62, 217, Ageing Dev., 109, 163, (1999).
(1996). 31. K. A. Youdim and S. G. Deans, Biochim.
15. Y. Morimitsu et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biophys. Acta, 1438, 140, (1999).
Biochem., 59, 2018, (1995). 32. H. Fujio et al., Nippon Shokuhin Kogyo
16. A. Dapkevicius et al., J. Nat. Prod., 65, Gakkaishi, 16, 241, (1969).
892, (2002).
598 Tienchi ginseng
33. K. M. Kagramanov et al., Azerb. Med. Zh., 42. I. Rasooli and P. Owlia, Phytochemistry,
54, 49, (1977). 66, 2851, (2005).
34. T. Shipochliev, Vet. Med. Nauki, 5, 63, 43. R. Giordani et al., Phytother. Res., 18,
(1968). 990, (2004).
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Planta Med., 41, 129, (1981). (1999).
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20, 28, (2006). 667, (1996).
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(1999). (2006).
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(1982). 12(Suppl.), 1003 (1974).
39. C. M. Priestley et al., Br. J. Pharmacol., 48. E. Basch et al., J. Herb. Pharmacother., 4,
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40. K. Okazaki et al., Phytother. Res., 16, 49. Monograph Thymi herba (T. vulgaris),
398, (2002). Bundesanzeiger, no. 228 (December 5,
41. D. Novak, Arch. Roum. Pathol. Exp. 1984).
Microbiol., 27, 721, (1968). 50. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 32, 247, (1969).
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Sanqi contains 4.42–12% saponin glyco-
Perennial herb, 30–60 cm high, with spindle- sides (ginsenosides and protopanaxatriols)
shaped, fleshy main root; distributed in south- (WANG);1–4 amino acids, including denci-
ern China; now mostly cultivated in the chine (b-N-oxalo-L-a,b-diaminopropionic
provinces of Yunnan, Guangxi, Guangdong, acid); volatile oil; flavonoids; phytosterols
Jiangxi, and Hubei, especially at altitudes (e.g., b-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and daucoster-
between 800 and 1000 m. ol); polysaccharides (e.g., an arabinogalactan
Tienchi ginseng 599
named sanchinan-A);5 trace minerals, and has been reported to have both hypolipemic
others (HU; WANG).2 and hyperlipemic effects, and a recent study
Saponin glycosides are similar to those of found raw sanqi to be hypolipemic but cured
ginseng (dammarane type) and include: gin- sanqi to be hyperlipemic.12 Oral administra-
senosides Rbl, Rd, Re, Rgl, Rg2, and Rh1, with tion of total saponins in rabbits inhibited
Rbl and Rg1 in predominant amounts; noto- aortic atherosclerotic plaque formation; their
ginsenosides R1, R2, R3, R4, and R6 in minor oral administration in rats increased the con-
amounts; and gypenoside XVII in trace tents of prostacyclin in carotid artery and
amount. The sapogenins so far identified are decreased the amount of thromboxane A in
20(S)-protopanaxadiol and 20(S)-protopa- blood platelets.16
naxatriol; no oleanolic acid is present, hence Most of the cardiovascular studies on
no ginsenoside R0, (see ginseng).1–9 Sapo- sanqi have been performed in China using
nin glycoside contents in raw and, cured the total saponins. Their effects include:
sanqi are similar, except that there is an antiarrhythmic in mice, rats, and rabbits,
increase of monodesmosides (ginsenosides with the anaxatriol saponins being most
Rg2, Rg3 and notoginsenoside R2) and a active;17,18 vasodilating and hypotensive
decrease of bidesmosides (ginsenosides Rbi, in experimental animals;19–22 protective
Rd, Re, Rgi and notoginsenosides R1 and R4) against experimental hemorrhagic shock in
in the cured drug.8 Also, compared to raw rabbits;23 protective against experimental
sanqi, steam-curing markedly increased myocardial injury in rats, inhibiting lipid
amounts of total extractives and saponin peroxidation, and preventing reduction of
glycosides while deep frying reduced superoxide dismutase activity, with ginseno-
amounts of both.10 sides Rb1 and Rg1 being the most active;24,25
selective blocking of calcium channels;26 and
increasing coronary blood flow volume and
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL reducing coronary arterial resistance as well
ACTIVITIES as peripheral vascular resistance, among
others (WANG).22
Sanqi has broad biologic activities, including Sanqi decoction stimulated the activities of
hematologic, cardiovascular, immunomodu- natural killer cells, macrophages, and plaque-
lating, anti-inflammatory, and effects on forming cells while crude polysaccharides
the nervous system (central stimulant, due to stimulated the activities of only macrophages
panaxatriol saponins), digestive system and plaque-forming. cells in mice;27 sanchi-
(antiulcer in rats), metabolism, and endocrine nan-A (a polysaccharide) has activating ef-
system.11–13 fects on the reticuloendothelial system as per
Sanqi is best known for its traditional use the carbon clearance test in mice.5 Similar
as a hemostatic, and modern studies have immunomodulatory properties have recently
verified the rationale for this use by demon- been reported for the saponin and polysaccha-
strating its shortening of coagulation time as ride fractions.14,15,28,29
well as its hemostatic effects in experimental Sanqi total saponins and those from the
animals (dencichine being an active compo- rootlets all exhibited strong anti-inflammatory
nent).11 On the other hand, sanqi has also activities in several experimental models, with
exhibited anticoagulant and antiplatelet ag- rootlet saponins (100 mg) stronger than corti-
gregation activities under other conditions. sone (50 mg) in the ear edema (1.74 0.41 vs.
Its total saponins have hemolytic activity 5.54 0.83 mg; control: 9.35 0.72 mg) in-
in vitro, though some of the saponins duced by croton seed oil in mice.30,31 Oral
only hemolyzed red cells of certain animals administration of sanqi powder to rats
(guinea pig and monkey) but not others markedly reduced lipid peroxide formation
(rabbit, sheep, and pigeon) (WANG).14,15Sangi and greatly increased superoxide dismutase
600 Tienchi ginseng
activity in brain tissue but not in other tissues vasodilating effects and its traditional ability
(heart, liver, and lung).31 Total sanqi saponins to remove dark spots (ZHOU).42
(i.p.) markedly decreased adrenal ascorbic
acid in rats and increased plasma corticoster- Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Pow-
oids in guinea pigs;32 rootlet total saponins der used in tonic formulas, usually in tablet
also greatly increased plasma corticosterone or capsule form.
in mice.30 Other anti-inflammatory mechan-
isms mediated by sanqi include attenuation of Traditional Medicine. First described in Li
pro-inflammatory mediators, such as COX-2, Shi-Zhen’s Ben Cao Gang Mu (ca. 1590
TNF-a and NO.33–36 A.D.), sanqi is traditionally regarded to be
The aqueous extract of sanqi and trilinolein sweet and slightly bitter tasting, warming, and
have hepatoprotective and cardioprotective to have stasis-dispersing, hemostatic, anti-
effects, respectively, that may be due to anti- swelling, and analgesic properties. Used in
oxidant activities.37–39 hemorrhages of various kinds (e.g., coughing
Rootlet total saponins have been shown to blood, vomiting blood, nose bleeds, hemato-
promote growth in mice and to have andro- chezia, and metrorrhagia), traumatic injuries
genic activities in rats.30 Ginsenoside Rg1, on with bleeding and pain, stabbing pain in chest
the other hand, was found to possess in vitro and abdomen, coronary heart disease, and
estrogen-like activity in MCF-7 cells.40 other conditions (CHP; JIANGSU; WANG).
Its most well-known use is as a major
ingredient in Yunnan Bao Yao, which was
TOXICOLOGY carried by both Chinese and American airmen
(the Flying Tigers) during World War II for
Oral toxicity of sanqi powder is low: stomach stopping bleeding resulting from wounds and
feeding of 15 g/kg to mice did not cause any injuries.
fatalities and examination of tissues (heart,
liver, kidney, spleen, and gastrointestinal
tract) did not reveal any abnormalities.11 The COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
pharmacology of tienchi ginseng has recently
been reviewed.41 Crude comes in over 20 grades with top grades
being heavy and hard, 3–6 cm long, and with a
grayish brown or grayish green fracture; pow-
USES dered crude is most likely produced from the
crown, lateral roots, rootlets, or other tradi-
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. tionally considered low-grade materials.
Powder and extracts used primarily in Asia
as an ingredient in shampoos and in skin care Regulatory Status. Class 2d dietary supple-
products (e.g., acne creams and lotions) for its ment (contraindicated for hypertension).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BARNES; CHP; HUANG; IMM-1; IMM-CAMS; JIXIAN; JIANGSU; MA; NATIONAL;
WANG; ZHOU; ZHU.
1. H. Sun et al., Int. Immunopharmacol., 6, 3. H. Matsuura et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.,
14 (2006). 31, 2281 (1983).
2. F. Y. Gan and G. Z. Zheng, Zhongguo 4. C. R. Yang et al., Yaoxue Tongbao, 20,
Yaoxue Zazhi, 27, 138 (1992). 337 (1985).
Tragacanth 601
5. K. Ohtani et al., Planta Med., 53, 166 24. X. Li et al., Acta Pharmacol. Sin., 11, 26
(1987). (1990).
6. Q. Du et al., J. Chromatogr. A, 1008, 173 25. T. B. Ng et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 93,
(2003). 285 (2004).
7. M. Yoshikawa et al., J. Nat. Prod., 66, 922 26. Z. G. Xiong et al., Acta Pharmacol. Sin.,
(2003). 10, 122 (1989).
8. C. R. Yang et al., Zhongyao Tongbao, 10, 27. J. M. Wang et al., Zhongguo Yiyao
33 (1985). Xuebao, 4, 29 (1989).
9. J. B. Wan et al., J. Sep. Sci., 29, 2190 28. H. Sun et al., Chem. Biodivers., 2, 510
(2006). (2005).
10. S. Zhang, Zhongchengyao, 11, 20 (1989). 29. Y. Zhu et al., Planta Med., 72, 1193
11. B. H. Zhang, Zhongcaoyao, 15, 34 (1984). (2006).
12. G. Z. Chen et al., Chin. J. Integr. Trad. 30. Q. S. Chen et al., Zhongyao Tongbao, 12,
West. Med., 4, 540 (1984). 45 (1987).
13. H. X. Quan et al., Henan Zhongyi, 10, 41 31. E. B. Dong et al., Zhongcaoyao, 21, 26
(1990). (1990).
14. H. X. Sun et al., Vaccine, 22, 3882 32. J. D. Wang and J. X. Chen, Acta
(2004). Pharmacol. Sin., 5, 50 (1984).
15. H. X. Sun et al., Acta Pharmacol. Sin., 24, 33. U. H. Jin et al., Phytother. Res., (2006).
1150 (2003). 34. Y. Wang et al., Burns, 32, 846 (2006).
16. L. Shi et al., Acta Pharmacol. Sin., 11, 29 35. H. S. Zhang and S. Q. Wang, Vascul.
(1990). Pharmacol., 44, 224 (2006).
17. S. Liu and J. X. Chen, Acta Pharmacol. 36. A. Rhule et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 106,
Sin., 5, 100 (1984). 121 (2006).
18. B. Y. Gao et al., Yaoxue Xuebao, 27, 641 37. W. H. Park et al., Life Sci., 76, 1675
(1992). (2005).
19. K. Yanai et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. 38. C. F. Lin et al., Phytother. Res., 17, 1119
Biochem., 70, 2501 (2006). (2003).
20. J. D. Wang and J. X. Chen, Acta 39. P. Chan et al., Acta Pharmacol. Sin., 23,
Pharmacol. Sin., 5, 181 (1984). 1157 (2002).
21. J. X. Wu and J. X. Chen, Acta Pharmacol. 40. R. Y. Chan et al., J. Clin. Endocrinol.
Sin., 9, 147 (1988). Metab., 87, 3691 (2002).
22. Y. P. Zhou and W. H. Liu, Zhongcaoyao, 41. T. B. Ng, J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 58, 1007
19, 25 (1988). (2006).
23. L. X. Li et al., Acta Pharmacol. Sin., 9, 52 42. Y. X. Ling, Shanghai Zhongyiyao Zazhi,
(1988). 22 (1991).
Source: Astragalus spp. (especially A. gum- Tragacanth is the dried gummy exudate
mifer Labill.) (Family Leguminosae or from various species of Astragalus (e.g., A.
Fabaceae). gummifer). They are low thorny shrubs, up to
about 1 m high, native to the mountainous
Common/vernacular names: Gum tragacanth. regions of the Middle East (especially Iran,
602 Tragacanth
Turkey, and Syria). Tragacanth is obtained by D-galactose, and three aldobiuronic acids. Ara-
tapping the branches and tap roots (near the binogalactan consists of 75% L-arabinose, 12%
ground surface) whereby the gum exudes, D-galactose, 3% D-galacturonic acid, and small
which after drying becomes horny and is amounts of L-rhamnose. Bassorin is reported to
collected. The word tragacanth is derived from contain about 5% methoxyl groups (LIST AND
3,4
Greek, meaning goat’s horn, probably describ- HÖRHAMMER).
ing the appearance and texture of the gum. The structures and molecular weights of
Iran is the major producer; it also produces the bassorin and tragacanthic acid have not been
best quality product. Tragacanth occurs in two reported, but the molecular weight of traga-
main forms, ribbons and flakes; ribbons are canth itself has been reported to be 310,000 and
considered to be of superior quality (FURIA; 840,000 (FURIA; GLICKSMAN; WHISTLER AND
1
GLICKSMAN). BEMILLER). The structure of the arabinogalactan
Tragacanth partly dissolves and partly component has recently been determined by
swells in water to give a viscous colloidal NMR and MS and was shown to contain malt-
solution (sol); the maximum viscosity is only ose oligosaccharides in addition to the complex
attained after 24 h at room temperature or after branched polymer of arabinose, glucose, galac-
heating for 8 h at 40 C or 2 h at 50 C. The tose, and galacturonic acid.5 A nitrogen content
viscosity of its solutions is generally regarded of about 0.17–0.58% has been attributed to the
as the highest among all the plant gums (see presence of a proteinaceous fraction rich in
guar, karaya, and locust bean). A 1% solution hydroxyproline, praline, serine, and valine.6
has a slightly acidic pH (5.1–5.9). Its solutions Tragacanthin dissolves in water to form a
are stable under acidic conditions (down to pH sol, while bassorin swells to form a thick gel.
2), with maximum viscosity at pH 5; lowering
or increasing its pH beyond 5 would decrease PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
its viscosity.2 Solutions are also heat stable. ACTIVITIES
Like karaya gum, tragacanth forms heavy,
thick gel-like pastes at high concentrations Tragacanth, as a component (5%) of a choles-
(e.g., 2–4%). terol-rich diet fed to rats for 4 weeks, signifi-
Solutions or gels of tragacanth are especially cantly lowered plasma cholesterol and LDL in
susceptible to microbial degradation, some- comparison to a cholesterol-rich diet devoid of
times even in the presence of a preservative. tragacanth.7 A similar effect was observed in
The most effective preservative system for four out of five male volunteers who adminis-
tragacanth gels or sols at neutral and acidic tered 9.9 g tragacanth per day for 21 days.
pHs has been reported to be a mixture of Although their serum cholesterol levels did
parabens (MARTINDALE; WHISTLER AND BEMILLER). not change, their fecal fat concentration sig-
Tragacanth is compatible with other poly- nificantly increased.8
saccharides and with proteins. The application of tragacanth solution to
hydroxyapatite in vitro and as a mouth wash to
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION humans significantly reduced the adhesion
and dental biofilm development of Strepto-
Tragacanth is reported to contain 20–30% of a coccus mutans to hydrxoyapatite and to teeth,
water-soluble fraction called tragacanthin respectively.9
(consisting of tragacanthic acid and an arabi- Tragacanth has also been reported to
nogalactan) and 60–70% of a water-insoluble have strong inhibitory activity on cancer cells
fraction called bassorin as well as 1–3% starch, (MORTON 3).
1–4% cellulose; 3% ash, small amounts of
invert sugar, 2–3% of a volatile acid (probably TOXICOLOGY
acetic acid), and about 15% water. Tragacan-
thic acid is composed of 40% D-galacturonic Tragacanth preparations contaminated with
acid, 40% D-xylose, 10% L-fucose, 4% enterobacteria have been reported to cause
Turmeric 603
death of fetuses when administered intraperi- formulations (emulsions), ice cream, and in
toneally to pregnant mice.10 However, non- confectionery. Other food products in which it
contaminated tragacanth has been found to be is used include nonalcoholic beverages, baked
safe at doses up to ca. 10 g/day.8,11 goods, gelatins and puddings, meat and meat
products, condiments and relishes, processed
fruits, processed vegetables, gravies, and
USES
others. Highest average maximum use level
reported is about 1.3% (13,015 ppm) in fats
Tragacanth has been in use since ancient
and oils (e.g., salad dressings).
times. Most of its uses are based on its emul-
sifying, thickening, and suspending abilities
as well as its stability to acid and heat.
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. Ribbon, flake, and powder in numerous
Extensively used in vaginal jellies and creams, grades; tragacanth is official in N.F. and
in emulsions (e.g., cod liver oil), low-calorie F.C.C. Grades meeting N.F. or F.C.C. stan-
syrups and elixirs, and as binding agent or dards vary considerably in the viscosity of
demulcent in tablets and lozenges. their sols.
It is also used in toothpastes and hand
lotions, among others. Regulatory Status. Has been affirmed as
Food. Tragacanth is used extensively in sal- GRAS (§184.1351).
ad dressings (due to its acid stability), flavor
REFERENCES
See the General References for FURIA; GLICKSMAN; LAWRENCE; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MARTINDALE;
MORTON 3; UPHOF; WHISTLER AND BEMILLER.
1. H. S. Gentry, Econ. Bot., 11, 40 (1957). 7. S. Amer et al., Pak. J. Pharm. Sci., 12, 33
2. T. W. Schwarz et al., J. Am. Pharm. (1999).
Assoc., Sci. Ed., 47, 695 (1958). 8. M. A. Eastwood et al., Toxicol. Lett., 21,
3. G. O. Aspinall and J. Baillie, J. Chem. 73 (1984).
Soc., 1702 (1963). 9. A. Shimotoyodome et al., Biofouling, 22,
4. G. O. Aspinall and J. Baillie, J. Chem. 261 (2006).
Soc., 1086 (1967). 10. H. Frohberg et al., Arch. Toxikol., 25, 268
5. C. A. Tischer et al., Carbohydr. Res., 337, (1969).
1647 (2002). 11. D. M. Anderson, Food Addit. Contam., 6,
6. D. M. Anderson et al., Food Addit. 1 (1989).
Contam., 2, 231 (1985).
Source: Curcuma longa L. (syn. C. domes- A perennial herb of the ginger family with a
tica Val. and C. domestica Loir.) (Family thick rhizome from which arise large, oblong,
Zingiberaceae). and long-petioled leaves; up to about 1 m high;
flowers in spikes; peduncle ca. 15 cm long,
Common/vernacular names: Curcuma; Indian concealed by the sheath, flowering bracts pale
saffron. green;1 native to southern Asia; extensively
604 Turmeric
cultivated in India; China, Indonesia, and This may account for the efficacy of curcuma
other tropical countries (e.g., Jamaica and as a hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, and
Haiti). Part used is the cured (boiled, cleaned, antigenotoxic agent.21–24In vitro protection of
and sun-dried) and polished rhizome. India is mouse liver and cultured rat hepatocytes from
the major producer of turmeric (up to 94% of injury induced by carbon tetrachloride and
annual world production).2,3 galactosamine (curcumin, p-coumaroylferu-
loylmethane, and di-p-coumaroylmethane)
has been reported earlier.7
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Turmeric extracts have recently exhibited
efficacy in managing type-2 diabetes hyper-
Contains 0.3–7.2% (usually 4–5%) of an
glycemia25,26 and reducing the side effects
orange-yellow volatile oil that is composed
(nephrotoxicity and cataract) of induced hy-
mainly of turmerone (ca. 60%), ar-turmerone,
perglycemia27,28 by targeting the peroxisome
a-atlantone, g-atlantone, and zingiberene
proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) and
(25%), with minor amounts of 1,8-cineole, a-
due to their antioxidant activity, respectively.
phellandrene, d-sabinene, borneol, and dehy-
Curcumin was also able to reduce hyperlipid-
droturmerone,amongothers;4–6 yellowcoloring
emia in diabetic rats by increasing cholesterol
matterincluding0.3–5.4%curcumin,monodes-
catabolism.29
methoxycurcumin, and didesmethoxycurcu-
Healing of skin excision wounds as well as
min;4–6p-coumaroylferuloylmethane and di-
peptic ulcers have recently been reported for
p-coumaroylmethane;7 sugars (28% glucose,
turmeric and curcumin.30–33
12% fructose, and ca. 1% arabinose); fixed
Other activities of turmeric and its deri-
oil; protein (ca. 8%); minerals (especially high
vatives include choleretic in dogs (aqueous
inpotassium);vitamins(especiallyC);resin;and
extracts); hypotensive in dogs (alcohol
others (JIANGSU; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MARSH).4
extract); antibacterial (curcumin, volatile
Turmeric and its water-, alcohol-, and
oil, etc.);34 insecticidal against houseflies
ether-soluble fractions have been reported to
(petroleum ether extracts);35 antidepressant
have antioxidative activities;8 curcumin is
MAO inhibition (aqueous extract);36 modu-
mostly responsible for these activities.9–11
lation of multidrug-resistant proteins (curcu-
minoids);37,38 and others (JIANGSU; LIST AND
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL HÖRHAMMER).
ACTIVITIES Choleretic action of the essential oil is
attributed to tolmethyl carbinol.3 Extracts
Curcuma extract, volatile oil, and its curcumin have antispasmodic activity on isolated guinea
components have in vitro and in vivo anti- pig ileum; lower serum cholesterol and tri-
inflammatory activity that may be due to inhi- glyceride levels in mice; anticancer activity
bition of eicosanoid (leukotrienes/thrombox- against Dalton’s lymphoma cells in the
anes) biosynthesis.12–16 A fraction of curcuma Chinese hamster; plus anticoagulant, antifun-
oil (b.p: 80–110 C) has been demonstrated to gal, and antimutagenic, among others.12 The
have anti-inflammatory and antiarthritic activ- pharmacological activities of turmeric have
ities in rats.17 An essential oil-depleted extract been reviewed.39,40
is effective against experimental rheumatoid
arthritis. Involved targets include NF-kB, che-
mokine, COX-2, and others.18,19 Curcumin has TOXICOLOGY
also been reported to exhibit antiedemic effects
in rats (MARTINDALE). One study found no visible signs of acute
Antioxidant activity of curcuma, through toxicity with extracts, though at 3 g/kg
free radical scavenging and inhibition of lipid CNS stimulation was observed; in chronic
peroxidation, has been demonstrated.15,20 toxicity feeding, an increase in weights of the
Turmeric 605
heart and lung was observed, though general Traditional Medicine. Reportedly used in
visceral condition was normal; increased Chinese medicine to treat numerous condi-
sperm motility (without increase in sperm tions including flatulence, liver problems,
count) suggested a possible androgenic menstrual difficulties, bloody urine, hemor-
effect.41 rhage, toothache, bruises and sores, chest
pain, and colic, usually decocted with other
drugs. It is also used as a poultice to relieve
USES pain and itching of sores and ringworms
(JIANGSU).
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. Root tuber of Curcuma spp. is used in
Cut or ground drug (1.5–3 g) or other prepara- China for treating epilepsy and unconscious-
tions are used in European phytomedicine for ness due to febrile diseases (re bing shen hun)
dyspeptic conditions. Use is contraindicated (CHP; JIANGSU).
in obstruction of gall passages; used only In Polynesia, the root is used for asthma,
under medical advice for gallstones.42 skin diseases, constipation, and religious
The essential oil (called curcuma oil) is rituals.43
used to a limited extent in certain perfumes
(especially oriental types).
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Food. Turmeric is a major ingredient of curry
powder and is also used in prepared mustard. Crude and oleoresin. Crude was formerly
Turmeric and turmeric oleoresin are used ex- official in U.S:P. Strength (see glossary) of
tensively both for their color and flavor in oleoresin is often expressed in terms of cur-
many food products, including baked goods, cumin content.
meat and meat products, condiments and
relishes (especially pickles), fats and oils, egg Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.10 and
products, soups, and gravies, among others. §182.20); turmeric and turmeric oleoresin
Highest average maximum use levels are 22% have also been approved as food colorants
and about 0.883% (8834 ppm) reported for exempt from certification (§73.600 and
turmeric in seasonings and flavorings and in §73.615). The rhizome is subject of a positive
condiments and relishes, respectively. German therapeutic monograph for treatment
of dyspeptic conditions.42
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BLUMENTHAL 1; CHP; DER MARDEROSIAN AND
BEUTLER; FEMA; GUPTA;; JIXIAN; JIANGSU; LEUNG; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
ROSENGARTEN; STAHL; TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. K. R. Kirtikar and B. D. Basu, Indian 3. G. S. Randhawa and R. K. Mahey in L. E.
Medicinal Plants, International book Craker and J. E. Simon, eds., Herbs, Spices,
distributors, Dehradun, India, 1999, p. and Medicinal Plants: Recent Advances in
2423. Botany, Horticulture, and Pharmacology,
2. M. Ilays, Econ. Bot., 32, 238 (1988). Vol. 3, Oryx Press, Phoenix, 1988, p. 71.
606 Turmeric
Source: Longleaf pine Pinus palustris Mill; On account of their widely different sources
slash pine P. elliottii Engelm.; and other (plant, geography, method of manufacture,
Pinus spp. etc.) turpentine and rosin often vary consider-
ably in their relative composition.
Common/vernacular names: Gum terpentine, Turpentine contains mostly monoterpene
gum thus, turpentine oil, and turpentine hydrocarbons, the major ones being a-pinene
balsam. (45–95%), b-pinene (0–35%), and 3-carene
(20–60%).1–4 Others present in lesser amounts
include camphene, dipentene, terpinolene, b-
GENERAL DESCRIPTION myrcene, b-phellandrene, and p-cymene (LIST
1,5,6
AND HÖRHAMMER).
The term ‘‘turpentine’’ is rather loosely used Rosin contains mainly diterpene resin acids
to describe either the oleoresin obtained including abietic acid (22–50%), dehydroa-
from the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), bietic acid (6–30%), palustric acid (10–25%),
slash pine (P. elliottii), and other Pinus neoabietic acid (4–20%), isopimaric acid
species that yield exclusively terpene oils, (10–17%), and pimaric acid (4–6%).1 Others
or the essential oil obtained from the above present include dehydropimaric acid, levopi-
oleoresin. The oleoresin is commonly called maric acid, and sandaracopimaric acid.1,5,6 It
gum turpentine or turpentine balsam while also contains small amounts of diterpene al-
the essential oil is called turpentine oil; both cohols and aldehydes, sterols (mainly sitos-
the oleoresin and the essential oil are also terol), and phenolic compounds.1
called simply turpentine. To avoid confu-
sion, gum turpentine (though not a true
gum; see glossary) is here reserved only PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
for the oleoresin, while turpentine or tur- ACTIVITIES
pentine oil (spirits of turpentine) is used for
the essential oil. Thus, gum turpentine on Turpentine has rubefacient and counterirritant
steam distillation yields turpentine (turpen- properties.
tine oil) and rosin (a terpenic resin), also The turpentine exudate of P. nigra has been
known as colophony. shown to possess concentration-dependent
Turpentine and rosin are also produced by antioxidant activity in a number of in vitro
solvent extraction of heartwood chips of pine models. The activity was stronger than that of
stumps, which are by-products of the lumber a-tocopherol. In the same study, the exudate
industry, and as by-products of the paper demonstrated an analgesic effect comparable
(sulfate or kraft pulping) industry. The last to that of the metamizol reference control.7
source is reported to account for the largest Turpentine has contact allergenic activi-
volumes of turpentine and rosin produced in ties that are mainly due to the pinenes and
the United States. These products derived 3-carene as well as dipentene (MARTINDALE;
8–12
from pines and other resinous conifers are MORTON 3). It also has antimicrobial
commonly called naval stores. activities that are reportedly due to a-pinene,
Turpentine is the largest (in volume) essen- 3-carene, and dipentene (LEWIS AND ELVIN-
13–15
tial oil in the world. Its current biggest producer LEWIS).
is the United States; other major producing Turpentine oil has been reported to promote
countries include New Zealand, China, tumor development on rabbit but not mouse
Mexico, Portugal, the former U.S.S.R., and skin.16,17 Inhalation and ingestion of turepen-
the Scandinavian countries. tine oil resulted in a serious case of extensive
608 Turpentine (and rosin)
lung tissue necrosis in a toddler.18 The lung major food products, including alcoholic and
of a 20-year-old male developed chemical nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts,
pneumonitis and a bronchopleural fistula after candy, baked goods, gelatins and puddings,
inhalation of turpentine oil.19 Other toxic meat and meat products, and condiments and
effects of turpentine include erythema, urti- relishes. Highest average maximum use level
caria, headache, insomnia, coughing, vomit- is about 0.002% (20.6 ppm) in baked goods.
ing, hematuria, albuminuria, and coma
(MARTINDALE).8 Turpentine has caused fatali- Traditional Medicine. Turpentine is mainly
ties in children ingesting as little as 15 mL.20 used as a counter-irritant and rubefacient in
Turpentine is used in experimental animal treating rheumatism and aching muscles.
models to induce systemic inflammatory im- In Chinese medicine, gum turpentine and
mune response.21,22 rosin (mainly from Pinus tabulaeformis Carr.,
P. massoniana Lamb., and P. yunnanensis
Franch.) have been used for centuries in treat-
TOXICOLOGY ing rheumatism, stiff joints, toothache, boils,
and sores. Furthermore rosin is used in treating
Rosin also has irritant properties on some ringworms, chronic bronchitis, and neurogen-
individuals (MARTINDALE). ic dermatitis, among others. They are used
both internally and externally.
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; CLAUS; FEMA; GUENTHER; JIANGSU; LIST AND HöRHAMMER;
MORTON 3; NANJING; USDA.
1. D. F. Zinkel, Chemtech, 5, 235 3. W. D. Fordham in L. W. Coddet al., eds.,
(1975). Chemical Technology: An Encyclopedic
2. Y. G. Drochnev, Lesokhim. Podsochka, 3, Treatment, Vol. 5, Barnes & Noble, New
7 (1977). York, 1972, p. 1.
Turpentine (and rosin) 609
4. J. Fousseteau et al., Bull. Soc. Fr. 16. F. Homburger and E. Boger, Cancer Res.,
Dermatol. Syphiligr., 77, 415 (1970). 28, 2372 (1968).
5. I. I. Bardyshev et al., Isv. Vyssh. Ucheb. 17. F. J. C. Roe and W. E. H. Field, Food
Zaved., Les Zh., 12, 161 (1969). Cosmet. Toxicol., 3, 311 (1965).
6. I. I. Bardyshev et al., Vestsi Akad. Nayuk 18. A. J. Khan et al., Pediatr. Emerg. Care,
Belarus. SSR, Ser Khim. Navuk, 5, 123 22, 355 (2006).
(1971). 19. A. Rodricks et al., J. Assoc. Physicians
7. I. Gulcin et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 86, 51 India, 51, 729 (2003).
(2003). 20. B. R. Olin, Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod.,
8. P. Mikhailov et al., Allerg. Asthma, 16, (1993).
201 (1970). 21. M. A. Elhija et al., Am. J. Reprod.
9. P. Mikhailov and N. Berova, Dermatol Immunol., 55, 136 (2006).
Veenerol. (Sofia), 19, 20 (1970). 22. C. Pous et al., Inflammation, 156, 197
10. M. Pambor, Dermatol Monats., 162, 992 (1992).
(1976). 23. C. M. Lee et al., Biotechnol. Lett., 27,
11. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 1487 (2005).
12, 703 (1974). 24. P. M. Satturwar et al., Int. J. Pharm., 270,
12. E. Rudzki et al., Contact Dermatitis, 24, 27 (2004).
317 (1991). 25. S. V. Fulzele et al., AAPS PharmSciTech.,
13. B. N. Uzdennikov, Nauch. Tr. Tyumen. 3, E31 (2002).
Sel. Khoz. Inst., 7, 116 (1970). 26. V. T. Dhanorkar et al., J. Cosmet. Sci., 53,
14. S. V. Iliev and G. Y. Papanov, Khim. Farm. 199 (2002).
Zh., 3, 35 (1969). 27. G. J. Kaplowitz, Int. Endod. J., 29, 93
15. B. N. Uzdennikov, Tr. Tyumenskogo (1996).
Sel’skokhoz. Inst., 7, 120 (1970).
610 Uva ursi
Uva ursi is reported to have diuretic and Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
astringent as well as urinary antiseptic prop- Crude and extracts are used quite extensively
erties (MARTINDALE). as components in certain diuretic as well as
Uva ursi 611
laxative preparations. Also used as a urinary chronic cystitis, nephritis, kidney stones, and
disinfectant, especially in Europe.8 Reported bronchitis, usually in the form of a tea or
dosage is 1.5–2.5 g of crude drug, infusion, or tincture (LUST).
cold aqueous extract, containing not less than
6.0% of hydroquinone derivatives calculated COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
as anhydrous arbutin. Treatment is limited to
7 days or less (ESCOP 3). Crude and extracts; crude and fluid extract
were formerly official in N.F. and U.S.P.
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Crude Strengths (see glossary) of extracts are gener-
and extracts used in various capsule, tablet, ally expressed in weight-to-weight ratios and
and tea formulations with an intended diuretic sometimes in arbutin contents.
or urinary antiseptic effect; also as tea flavor-
ing due to tannin content (FOSTER AND DUKE). Regulatory Status. Undetermined in the
United States. Subject of a positive German
Traditional Medicine. Reportedly used as therapeutic monograph for urinary tract
a diuretic, astringent, and urinary antiseptic. infections.15
Conditions for which it is used included
REFERENCES
See the General References for APhA; APPLEQUIST; BAILEY 1; BARNES; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA;
BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; ESCOP 3; FOSTER AND DUKE; GRIEVE;
LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; LUST; STAHL; TERRELL; UPHOF; YOUNGKEN.
1. V. Moretti, Boll. Soc. Ital. Farm. Osp., 23, 9. F. Grases et al., Int. Urol. Nephrol., 26,
207 (1977). 507 (1994).
2. A. A. Makarov, Uch. Zap. Yakutsk. Gos. 10. D. Beaux et al., Phytother. Res., 13, 222
Univ., 18, 41 (1971). (1999).
3. E. Rubine, Nauch. Tr. Irkutsk. Gos. Med. 11. H. Matsuda et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 19,
Inst., 113, 9 (1971). 153 (1996).
4. G. A. Karikas,et al., Planta Med., 53, 307 12. N. M. OBrien et al., J. Med. Food, 9, 187
(1987). (2006).
5. K. E. Denford, Experientia, 29, 939 13. L. Wang and L. V. Del Priore, Am. J.
(1973). Ophthalmol., 137, 1135 (2004).
6. E. Constantinescu et al., Herba Hung., 8, 14. E. Yarnell, World J. Urol., 20, 285
101 (1969). (2002).
7. T. Kawai et al., Osaka Kogyo Daigaku 15. Monograph Urvae ursi folium,
Kiyo, Rikohen, 19, 1 (1974). Bundesanzeiger, no. 228 (December 5,
8. D. Frohne, Planta Med., 18, 1 (1970). 1984).
612 Valerian root
Common valerian contains as its primary active As with the chemical studies, most biological
constituents several iridoid compounds called work on valerian has been performed on com-
valepotriates including valtrates (valtrate, mon valerian.
valtrate isovaleroxhydrin, acevaltrate, vale- Valerian is reputed for its CNS-depressant
chlorine, etc.), didrovaltrates (didrovaltrate, and sleep enhancing activities, and it is re-
homodidrovaltrate, deoxydodidrovaltrate, ported to have antispasmodic and equalizing
homodeoxydodidrovaltrate, isovaleroxyhy- (sedative in states of agitation and stimulant in
droxydidrovaltrate, etc.), and isovaltrates (iso- fatigue) effects (JIANGSU; STAHL).27 Many stud-
valtrate, 7-epideacetylisovaltrate, etc.);2–7 ies have been performed in animal models
valtrate and didrovaltrate are the major and in humans to investigate this effect. For
Valerian root 613
goods (94.3 ppm), and about 0.002% (16.7%) Kom., V. amurensis P. Smirn. ex Kom., and
reported for the oil in baked goods. V. hardwickii Wall. are similarly used. In
addition, they are used in treating chronic
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Widely backache, numbness due to rheumatic condi-
used in sleep aid and sedative formulations, tions, colds, menstrual difficulties, and bruises
alone or in combination with other herbs, in and sores, among others, generally as a de-
various dosage forms (teas, tincture, capsule, coction or alcoholic infusion.
tablet, etc.).
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST ; ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; BARRETT; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA;
BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; ESCOP 1; FEMA; FOSTER; FOSTER AND DUKE;
GOSSELIN; GRIEVE; JIANGSU; LUST; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; STAHL; TYLER 1; UPHOF.
1. S. Foster, Valerian, Botanical Series 11. E. Lemberkovics et al., Sci. Pharm., 45,
No. 312, American Botanical Council, 281 (1977).
Austin, TX, 1991. 12. H. Hendricks et al., Phytochemistry, 16,
2. S. Popov et al., Phytochemistry, 13, 2815 1853 (1977).
(1974). 13. H. Hoerster et al., Phytochemistry, 16,
3. E. D. Funke and H. Friedrich, Planta 1070 (1977).
Med., 28, 215 (1975). 14. G. Ruecker and J. Tautges, Phyto-
4. N. Marekov et al., Izv. Khim., 8, 672 (1975). chemistry, 15, 824 (1976).
5. J. H. Van Meer et al., Pharm. Weekbl., 15. G. Jommi et al., Collect. Czech. Chem.
112, 20 (1977). Commun., 34, 593 (1969).
6. V. D. Petkov et al., Dokl. Bolg. Akad. 16. E. Pethes et al., Sci. Pharm., 43, 173 (1975).
Nauk, 27, 1007 (1974). 17. H. Hendricks et al., Planta Med., 42, 62
7. G. Verzarne-Petri et al., Herba Hung., 15, (1981).
79 (1976). 18. H. R. Dharmaratne et al., Planta Med., 68,
8. P.W.Thies,TetrahedronLett.,2471(1970). 661 (2002).
9. N. J. Jacobo-Herrera et al., Phytother. 19. K. Torssell and K. Wahlberg, Acta Chem.
Res., 20, 917 (2006). Scand., 21, 53 (1967).
10. H. Wagner et al., Arzneim.-Forsch., 22, 20. R. D. Johnson and G. R. Waller,
1204 (1972). Phytochemistry, 10, 3334 (1971).
Valerian root 615
21. G. R. Szentpetery et al., Pharmazie, 18, 43. J. G. Ortiz et al., Phytother. Res., 20, 794
816 (1963). (2006).
22. G. D. Joshi et al., Perfum. Essent. Oil 44. C. S. Yuan et al., Anesth. Analg., 98, 353
Records, 59, 187 (1968). (2004).
23. C. Bounthanh et al., Planta Med., 41, 21 45. A. M. Fields et al., J. Altern. Comple-
(1981). ment. Med., 9, 909 (2003).
24. V. M. Chari et al., Phytochemistry, 16, 46. J. G. Ortiz et al., Neurochem. Res., 24,
1110 (1977). 1373 (1999).
25. J. Hoelzl and K. Jurcic, Planta Med., 27, 47. M. S. Santos et al., Arch. Int. Pharma-
133 (1975). codyn. Ther., 327, 220 (1994).
26. E. D. Funke and H. Friedrich, Phyto- 48. C. Cavadas et al., Arzneimittelforschung,
chemistry, 13, 2023 (1974). 45, 753 (1995).
27. E. Cionga, Pharmazie, 16, 43 (1961). 49. E. A. Abourashed et al., Phytomedicine,
28. S. Fernandez et al., Pharmacol. Biochem. 11, 633 (2004).
Behav., 77, 399 (2004). 50. B. M. Dietz et al., Brain Res. Mol. Brain
29. M. Marder et al., Pharmacol. Biochem. Res., 138, 191 (2005).
Behav., 75, 537 (2003). 51. S. K. Lacher et al., Biochem. Pharmacol.,
30. B. Schumacher et al., J. Nat. Prod., 65, 73, 248 (2007).
1479 (2002). 52. Z. Vissiennon et al., Planta Med., 72, 579
31. S. V. Pullela et al., Planta Med., 71, 960 (2006).
(2005). 53. C. E. Muller et al., Life Sci., 71, 1939 (2002).
32. P. D. Leathwood and F. Chauffard, Planta 54. M. Sharifzadeh et al., Addict. Biol., 11,
Med., 51, 144 (1985). 145 (2006).
33. K. Shinomiya et al., Acta Med. Okayama, 55. S. Bent et al., Am. J. Med., 119, 1005
59, 89 (2005). (2006).
34. A. J. Francis and R. J. Dempster, 56. L. S. Miyasaka et al., Cochrane Database
Phytomedicine, 9, 273 (2002). Syst. Rev., CD004515 (2006).
35. B. P. Jacobs et al., Medicine (Baltimore), 57. C. Stevinson and E. Ernst, Sleep Med., 1,
84, 197 (2005). 91 (2000).
36. K. T. Hallam et al., Hum. Psycho- 58. F. Donath et al., Pharmacopsychiatry, 33,
pharmacol., 18, 619 (2003). 47 (2000).
37. J. R. Glass et al., J. Clin. Psycho- 59. P. J. Houghton, J. Pharm. Pharmacol.,
pharmacol., 23, 260 (2003). 51, 505 (1999).
38. P. Manolov and V. Petkov, Farmatsiya 60. M. A. Farooki, Pakistan Med. Forum., 1,
(Sofia), 26, 29 (1976). 19 (1966).
39. K. W. Von Eickstedt and S. Rahman, 61. T. Abe, Jpn Kokai 72 47, 664 (1972).
Arzeim.-Forsch., 19, 316 (1969). 62. J. O. Malva et al., Neurotox. Res., 6, 131
40. H. Hendricks et al., Planta Med., 51, 28 (2004).
(1985). 63. E. Skramlik, Pharmazie, 14, 435
41. J. Krieglstein and D. Grusla, Dtsch. (1959).
Apoth. Ztg., 40, 2041 (1988). 64. A. A. Al-Majed et al., Food Chem.
42. T. Komori et al., Chem. Senses, 31, 731 Toxicol., 44, 1830 (2006).
(2006). 65. C. Hobbs, HerbalGram, 21, 19 (1989).
616 Vanilla
TOXICOLOGY
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; BAILEY 2; CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA;
GUENTHER; KARRER; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MERCK; REMINGTON; ROSENGARTEN; STAHL; TERRELL; UPHOF.
1. E. Westpahl and P. C. M. Jansen, 2. G. E. Martin et al., Food Technol., 29, 54
eds., Plant Resources of South-East (1975).
Asia: A Selection, Pudoc, Wageningen, 3. G. E. Martin et al., Food Sci., 42, 1580
Netherlands, 1989. (1977).
618 Vanilla
Source: Gaultheria procumbens L. and other Adverse effects resulting from topical applica-
Gaultheria species (Family Ericaceae). tion and accidental ingestion of wintergreen oil
have been reported. In the first case, symptoms
Common/vernacular names: Checkerberry, of acute salicylism were observed (tinnitus,
teaberry, and gaultheria oil. vomiting, and acid–base disturbance).4,5 Laryn-
geal edema resulted after accidental ingestion.6
Also see sweet birch oil.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
USES
An evergreen shrub with slender and exten-
sively creeping stems from which arise erect
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
branches bearing at the top oval, leathery
Wintergreen oil is used interchangeably with
leaves with toothed (often bristly) margins;
sweet birch oil or methyl salicylate (see sweet
up to about 15 cm high; native to North
birch oil).
America, growing from Newfoundland to
Manitoba and south to Georgia and Alabama. Food. Wintergreen oil is used for similar
Part used is the leaf. Wintergreen oil is flavoring purposes as sweet birch oil, though
obtained by steam distillation of the warm its use levels reported are generally lower than
water-macerated leaves whereby, gaultherin those of sweet birch oil; the highest average
present in the leaves is enzymatically hydro- maximum use level is about 0.04% (405 ppm)
lyzed to yield methyl salicylate (which in candy (see sweet birch oil).
is subsequently distilled with steam), D-glu-
cose, and D-xylose (see sweet birch oil). The Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. The dried
yield of oil is normally 0.5–0.8% from the leaves are used as a tea flavoring ingredient.
leaves (LIST AND HÖRHAMMER).1
Traditional Medicine. Leaf tea reportedly
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION for colds, headache, stomachache, fevers, kid-
ney ailments; externally, wash for rheumatism,
Wintergreen oil contains almost exclusively sore muscles, and lumbago (FOSTER AND DUKE).
methyl salicylate (98%).2
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
REFERENCES
See the General References for APhA; ARCTANDER; BAILEY 1; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FERNALD;
FEMA; FOSTER and DUKE; GRIEVE; GUENTHER; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TERRELL;
UPHOF; USD 26TH.
620 Witch hazel
1. C. C. Mu and I. C. Yang, Yao Hsueh Hsueh 4. A. J. Bell and G. Duggin, Emerg. Med.
Pao, 13, 451 (1966). (Fremantle.), 14, 188 (2002).
2. B. R. Olin, ed., Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod., 5. T. Y. Chan, Hum. Exp. Toxicol., 15, 747
(1992). (1996).
3. B. Zhang et al., Eur. J. Pharmacol., 530, 6. M. Botma et al., Int. J. Pediatr.
166 (2006). Otorhinolaryngol., 58, 229 (2001).
paw edema model) has also been demonstrat- Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Leaves
ed when the hydroalcoholic extract was orally are sometimes used as tea ingredient.
administered in rat.17 Antioxidant activity as
well as inhibition of 5-LO and TNF-a may be Traditional Medicine. The leaf and bark are
involved in the anti-inflammatory effects of reportedly used internally to treat diarrhea and
witch hazel.18–21 externally to treat mouth and throat irritations,
Witch hazel was found to have cell pro- hemorrhoids, eye inflammation, insect bites,
tective/antimutagenic effects,22–25 and to dis- minor burns, and other skin irritations, usually
play antibacterial (against periodontopathic as a decoction, poultice, or ointment. They
anerobes/facultative aerobes) and antiviral have also been used in cancers.28
(against HSV-1) activities.20,26
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
USES
Crudes (leaf and bark), extracts (solid, fluid,
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic. etc.), and witch hazel water. Witch hazel
Witch hazel leaf extract, witch hazel bark leaf and its fluid extracts were formerly offi-
extract, and witch hazel water are all used cial in N.F.; witch hazel bark was formerly
as astringent and hemostatic in prepara- official in U.S.P.; and witch hazel water was
tions (suppositories, ointments, lotions, cloth formerly official in N.F. Strengths (see glos-
wipes, etc.) for use in treating hemorrhoids, sary) of extracts and distillate are expressed
itching, irritations, and minor pains, with in weight-to-weight or volume-to-weight
witch hazel water the most commonly used. ratios.
They are also used in eye drops, shaving
lotions, and others. Regulatory Status. Used in OTC prepara-
In European phytomedicine, preparations tions in the United States. The leaves and
are used as an astringent, anti-inflammatory, branches are the subject of a positive German
and local hemostyptic for mild skin injuries, therapeutic monograph, indicated for minor
hemorrhoids, varicose veins, and local inflam- skin injuries, local skin and mucous mem-
mations of the skin and mucous membranes.27 brane irritation, hemorrhoids, and varicose
The bottled “itch hazel” in most domestic veins.27
medicine cabinets is simply witch hazel
water.
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BAILEY 1; BARNES; BLUMENTHAL 1; CLAUS; DER MARDEROSIAN
AND BEUTLER; FERNALD; FOSTER; GRIEVE; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; LUST;
MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TERRELL; USD 26TH.
1. A. Dauer et al., Planta Med., 69, 89 5. P. Bernard et al., J. Pharm. Belg., 26, 661
(2003). (1971).
2. G. Netien and R. Rochan, Bull. Trav. Soc. 6. W. Messerschmidt, Arch. Pharm.
Pharm. Lyon, 12, 121 (1968). (Weinheim), 300, 550 (1967).
3. H. Friedrich and N. Krueger, Planta 7. W. Messerschmidt, Arzneim.-Forsch.,
Med., 26, 327 (1974). 18, 1618 (1968).
4. B. Vennat et al., Planta Med., 54, 454 8. H. Janitstyn, Parf €um Kosmet., 45, 335
(1988). (1964).
622 Woodruff, sweet
9. A. Deters et al., Phytochemistry, 58, 949 19. C. Hartisch et al., Planta Med., 63, 106
(2001). (1997).
10. H. Glick et al., Carbohydr. Res., 39, 160 20. C. A. Erdelmeier et al., Planta Med., 62,
(1975). 241 (1996).
11. H. Friedrich and N. Krueger, Planta 21. H. Masaki et al., Free Radic. Res.
Med., 25, 138 (1974). Commun., 19, 333 (1993).
12. H. C. Korting et al., Eur. J. Clin. Pharma- 22. A. Dauer et al., Phytochemistry, 63, 199
col., 48, 461 (1995). (2003).
13. H. C. Korting et al., Eur. J. Clin. Pharma- 23. A. Dauer et al., Planta Med., 64, 324
col., 44, 315 (1993). (1998).
14. H. H. Wolff and M. Kieser, Eur. J. Pediatr., 24. H. Masaki et al., J. Dermatol. Sci., 10, 25
(2006). (1995).
15. B. J. Hughes-Formella et al., Skin Phar- 25. H. Masaki et al., Biol. Pharm. Bull., 18,
macol. Appl. Skin Physiol., 15, 125 59 (1995).
(2002). 26. L. Lauk et al., Phytother. Res., 17, 599
16. B. J. Hughes-Formella et al., Dermato- (2003).
logy, 196, 316 (1998). 27. Monograph, Hamamelidis folium et cor
17. M. Duwiejua et al., J. Pharm. Pharma- tex, Bundesanzeiger, no. 154 (August 21,
col., 46, 286 (1994). 1985); revised (March 13, 1990).
18. S. Habtemariam, Toxicon, 40, 83 28. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 32, 247 (1969).
(2002).
Source: Galium odoratum (L.) Scop. (syn. Generally reported to contain coumarin in
Asperula odorata L.) (Family Rubiaceae). bound form (glycoside) that is set free by
enzymatic action during wilting or drying.
Common/vernacular names: Woodruff, mas- However, one study did not detect any cou-
ter of the wood, and woodward. marins in woodruff.1
Other constituents reported present in-
clude asperuloside (0.05%), monotropein,
GENERAL DESCRIPTION tannins, anthracene and naphthalene deriva-
tives, traces of nicotinic acid, fixed oil,
A small perennial herb with a creeping rhizome and bitter principle, among others (LIST AND
2,3
from which smooth erect stems arise (up to HÖRHAMMER; MERCK).
30 cm high) bearing lance-shaped leaves in
whorls of six to eight (usually eight); native to
Eurasia and northern Africa; naturalized in PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
North America. Part used is the dried whole ACTIVITIES
flowering herb that does not have any odor when
fresh but develops a new-mown hay (coumarin- Asperuloside and the leaves are reported
like) odor on drying. European countries (espe- to have anti-inflammatory activity (LIST AND
4
cially Germany) are the major producers. HÖRHAMMER).
Woodruff, sweet 623
Asperuloside has been suggested as a start- sedative (particularly for children and elderly
ing material for prostaglandins.5 people), and diuretic. Conditions for which
Coumarin is reported to be toxic (see it is used include restlessness, insomnia, stom-
deertongue). achache, migraine, neuralgia, and bladder
stones, usually as a tea (FOSTER). In European
tradition, reportedly used for prophylaxis and
USES
therapy of respiratory conditions, as well as
gallbladder, kidney, and circulatory disorders;
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
topically for venous conditions, hemorrhoids;
Used in sachets. Extracts (e.g., concrete and
anti-inflammatory; claimed efficacy not
absolute) are used as fragrance components in
documented.7
perfumes, mostly in Europe.6
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA;
FERNALD; FOSTER; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; LUST; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TUCKER 1–3; UPHOF.
1. M. I. Borisov, Khim. Prir. Soedin., 10, 82 5. W. F. Berkowitz et al., J. Org. Chem., 47,
(1974). 824 (1982).
2. A. Buckova et al., Acta Fac. Pharm., Univ. 6. L. Trabaud, Perfum. Essent. Oil Records,
Comeniana, 19, 7 (1970). 54, 382 (1963).
3. A. R. Burnett and R. H. Thomson, J. Chem. 7. Monograph, Galii odorati herba,
Soc., C, (7), 854 (1968). Bundesanzeiger, no. 193 (October 15,
4. N. Mascolo et al., Phytother. Res., 1(1), 28 1987).
(1987).
624 Xanthan gum
REFERENCES
See the General References for FURIA; GLICKSMAN; LAWRENCE; MARTINDALE; WHISTLER AND BEMILLER.
1. C. T. Blood in L. W. Coddet al., eds., 7. W. H. McNeely and P. Kovacs, ACS
Chemical Technology: An Encyclopedic Symp. Ser., 15, 269 (1975).
Treatment, Vol. 5, Barnes & Noble, 8. M. Oda, Yakuri to Chiryo, 13, 5743
New York, 1972, p. 27. (1985).
2. Fed. Regist., 34, 5376 (1969). 9. N. X. West et al., Br. Dent. J., 196, 478
3. J. K. Rocks, Food Technol., 25, 476 (2004).
(1971). 10. Fed. Regist., 36, 9010 (1971).
4. R. W. Silman and P. Rogovin, Biotechnol. 11. A. G. Andreopoulos and P. A. Tarantili,
Bioeng., 14, 23 (1972). J. Biomater. Appl., 16, 34 (2001).
5. P. A. Sandford et al., ACS Symp. Ser., 45, 12. K. A. Brookshier and J. M. Tarbell,
192 (1977). Biorheology, 30, 107 (1993).
6. F. Garcia-Ochoa et al., Biotechnol. Adv., 13. S. B. Babbar and R. Jain, Curr.
18, 549 (2000). Microbiol., 52, 287 (2006).
626 Yarrow
Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Used Mainly crude; it was formerly official in U.S.P.
in fever and cold formulation, mostly in com-
binations, as minor ingredient. Tincture used Regulatory Status. Has been approved for
as topical styptic (FOSTER). use in alcoholic beverages only; finished bev-
erage must be thujone-free (§172.510). Yar-
Food. Used in bitters and vermouths, with row oil normally contains little or no thujone,
average maximum use level of less than whereas sage oil contains normally about 50%
0.001% (5 ppm) reported. thujone (see sage). The herb is the subject of a
Yarrow flower is used in herb teas. positive German therapeutic monograph.27
REFERENCES
See the General References for APPLEQUIST; BAILEY 1;BARNES; BIANCHINI AND CORBETTA; BLUMENTHAL 1;
BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; FERNALD; FOSTER; FOSTER AND DUKE; GRIEVE; GUPTA;
JIANGSU; KROCHMAL AND KROCHMAL; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; LUST; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
1. R. F. Chandler, et al., Econ. Bot., 36, 203 6. H. Popescu and H. Winand, Clujul Med.,
(1982). 50, 78 (1977).
2. G. Innocenti et al., Phytomedicine (2006). 7. A. Ruminska, Acta Agrobot., 23, 53 (1970).
3. J. Rohloff et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 48, 8. M. Y. Haggag et al., Planta Med., 27, 361
6205 (2000). (1975).
4. G. Verzarne-Petri and A. S. Shalaby, Acta 9. R. B. Chelishvili and A. I. Tavberidze,
Agron. Acad. Sci. Hung., 26, 337 (1977). Maslo-Zhir. Prom., 2, 24 (1974).
5. J. Kozlowski and J. Lutomski, Planta 10. G. Verzarne-Petri and H. N. Cuong, Acta
Med., 17, 226 (1969). Pharm. Hung., 47, 134 (1977).
628 Yerba santa
11. A. J. Falk et al., Lloydia, 37, 598 (1974). 26. F. W. Kudrzycka-Bieloszabska and K.
12. A. Orav et al., Nat. Prod. Res., 20, 1082 Glowniak, Diss. Pharm. Pharmacol.,
(2006). 18, 449 (1966).
13. L. Hofmann et al., Phytochemistry, 31, 27. Monograph Achillea millefolium, Bunde-
537 (1992). sanzeiger, no. 22 (February l, 1990).
14. S. J. Smolenski et al., Lloydia, 30, 144 28. B. Benedek et al., Phytomedicine, 13, 702
(1967). (2006).
15. S. Z. Kasymov and G. P. Sidyakin, Khim. 29. A. M. Cavalcanti et al., J. Ethno-
Prir. Soedin., 2, 246 (1972). pharmacol., 107, 277 (2006).
16. T. Tozyo et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull. 30. R. Lemmens-Gruber et al., Arznei-
(Tokyo), 42, 1096 (1994). mittelforschung, 56, 582 (2006).
17. B. M. Hausen et al., Contact Dermatitis, 31. S. Yaeesh et al., Phytother. Res., 20, 546
24, 274 (1991). (2006).
18. S. Glasl et al., Z. Naturforsch. C, 57, 976 32. F. Candan et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 87,
(2002). 215 (2003).
19. K. Haidara et al., Cancer Lett., 242, 180 33. G. Stojanovic et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
(2006). 101, 185 (2005).
20. I. D. Neshta et al., Khim. Prir. Soedin., 5, 34. J. C. Mitchell in V C. Runeckles, ed.,
676 (1972). Recent Advances in Phytochemistry, Vol.
9, Plenum Press, New York, 1975, p. 119.
21. K. S. Tillyaev et al., Rast. Resur., 9, 58
(1973). 35. P. R. Dalsenter et al., Reprod. Toxicol.,
18, 819 (2004).
22. C. Ivanov and L. Yankov, God. Vissh.
Khimikotekhnol. Inst. Sofia, 14, 61, 73 36. T. Montanari et al., Contraception, 58,
(1970). 309 (1998).
23. C. Ivanov and L. Yankov, God. Vissh. 37. P. Alexander, Cosmet. Perfum., 88, 35
Khimikotekhnol. Inst. Sofia, 14, 195, (1973).
223 (1971). 38. H. Greger and O. Hofer, Planta Med., 55,
24. A. S. Goldberg and E. C. Mueller, J. 216 (1989).
Pharm. Sci., 58, 938 (1969). 39. Int. J. Toxicol., 20(Suppl. 2), 79 (2001).
25. A. Goldberg et al., U.S. Pat. 3,552,350 40. J. L. Hartwell, Lloydia, 31, 71 (1968).
(1970).
REFERENCES
See the General References for DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FEMA; LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; LUST;
MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; MUNZ AND KECK; REMINGTON; UPHOF.
1. Y. L. Liu et al., J. Nat. Prod., 55, 357 2. J. P. Ley et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 53,
(1992). 6061 (2005).
Source: Cananga odorata (Lam.) HOOK. Both ylang ylang oil and cananga oil are derived
f. et Thoms. forma genuina (Family from the same species, Cananga odorata, a tree
Annonaceae). native to tropical Asia (especially Indonesia and
630 Ylang ylang oil
the Philippines). The species is reported to exist pressure and pulse rate, an increase in skin
in different forms; ylang ylang is a different temperature, and enhanced alertness.8,9
form than cananga (see cananga oil). Part used Ylang ylang oil was found to have a mod-
is the fresh flower picked early in the morning. erate acaricidal effect when tested among
Ylang ylang oil is obtained by steam distillation other Korean herbs against Dermatopha-
or water and steam distillation of the freshly goides farinae and D. pteronyssinus.10
picked flowers. The first distillate (usually ca.
40% of the total distillate) constitutes ylang
TOXICOLOGY
ylang extra, which is considered to be the best
grade. As distillation continues, other inferior
Data from one source indicate ylang ylang oil
grades (first, second, and third) are obtained in
to be nonirritating to mouse skin, slightly
decreasing degrees of quality. Major producers
irritating to rabbit skin, and nonirritating and
include the Comoro Islands, Madagascar, and
nonsensitizing to human skin; no phototoxic
Reunion Island (ARCTANDER; GUENTHER).1,2
effects were reported.11
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
USES
Ylang ylang oil contains d-a-pinene, linalool,
Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
geraniol, sesquiterpenes (caryophyllene, g-,
Ylang ylang oil is extensively used as fra-
s- and e-cadinenes, ylangene, farnesol, farne-
grance components in soaps, detergents,
syl acetate, g-muurolene, etc.),3 acids (acetic,
creams, lotions, and perfumes (especially
valeric, isovaleric, benzoic, 2-methylbutyric,
floral and heavy oriental types), with maxi-
hexanoic, heptanoic, octanoic, nonanoic, and
mum use level of 1% reported in perfumes.
trans-geranic acids), phenols (eugenol and
The higher grades are generally used in per-
isoeugenol), benzyl acetate, methyl benzoate,
fumes, while the lower grades are used in
p-cresol methyl ether, eugenol methyl ether
scenting soaps and detergents.
(methyl eugenol), geranyl acetate, p-tolyl
methyl ether, safrole, and isosafrole, among
Food. Used as a flavor component (e.g., fruit
others (LIST AND HÖRHAMMER; MASADA).4–6
flavors) in major food products, including
alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen
PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL dairy desserts, candy, baked goods, gelatins
ACTIVITIES and puddings, and others. Use levels reported
are generally below 0.001% (5.03 ppm).
The oil has a smooth muscle relaxing effect in
animals. In vitro and in vivo relaxing effects on
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
the urinary bladder of experimental animals
have been reported and are suggested to be
Available in several grades, especially extra
mediated by c-AMP.7 A CNS calming effect
and third. Ylang ylang oil and cananga oil have
was also observed in humans after inhalation
been extensively adulterated (ARCTANDER).
and transdermal absorption of ylang ylang oil.
Signs of relaxation included a drop in blood
Regulatory Status. GRAS (§182.20).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ARCTANDER; FEMA; FURIA AND BELLANCA; GUENTHER; MASADA; MERCK; UPHOF.
1. W. D. Fordham in L. W. Coddet al., eds., Treatment, Vol. 5, Barnes and Noble,
Chemical Technology: An Encyclopedic New York, 1972, p. 1.
Yohimbe 631
2. M. Stoll in A. Standen, ed., Kirk-Othmer 7. H. J. Kim et al., J. Korean Med. Sci., 18,
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 409 (2003).
Vol. 14, 2nd ed., Interscience, New 8. T. Hongratanaworakit and G. Buchbauer,
York, 1967, p. 178. Planta Med., 70, 632 (2004).
3. E. M. Gaydou et al., J. Agric. Food 9. T. Hongratanaworakit and G. Buchbauer,
Chem., 34, 481 (1986). Phytother. Res., 20, 758 (2006).
4. D. B. Katague and E. R. Kirch, J. Pharm. 10. I. S. Rim and C. H. Jee, Korean
Sci., 52, 252 (1963). J. Parasitol., 44, 133 (2006).
5. J. A. Wenninger et al., Proc. Sci. Sect. 11. D. L. J. Opdyke, Food Cosmet. Toxicol.,
Toilet Goods Assoc., 46, 44 (1966). 12(Suppl.) (1974).
6. R. Timmer et al., Int. Flavors Food
Addit., 6, 189 (1975).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BLUMENTHAL 1; BRUNETON; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DUKE 2;
GOODMAN AND GILMAN; LEWIS AND ELVIN-LEWIS; MARTINDALE; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; TYLER 1; TYLER 3; USD 23RD &
26TH; WREN.
Yucca 633
Source: Mohave yucca Yucca schidigera Yucca extracts contain steroidal saponins,
Roezl ex Ortgies (syn. Y. mohavensis Sarg.), with the major sapogenins being sarsasapo-
Joshua tree Yucca brevifolia Engelm. (syn. genin and tigogenin in Mohave yucca and
Y. arborescens Trel.), and other Yucca spp. Joshua trees, respectively (see sarsaparilla
(Family Liliaceae or Agavaceae). and fenugreek).1 The concentration of sapo-
nins in these extracts has not been reported,
except that Mohave yucca extracts contain
GENERAL DESCRIPTION about 60% solids.2 Spirostanol saponins
(schidigera-saponins A–F) and furostanol
Mohave yucca (Y. schidigera) is a tree seldom saponin glycosides have been isolated as new
exceeding 4.5 m in height with a simple or saponin compounds from Mohave yucca.3,4
branched trunk that is 15–20 cm in diameter; Biologically active hydroxystilbenes, such
leaves narrow, up to 1.5 m long, with few as resveratrol, and other spirophenolic com-
coarse marginal fibers; native to southwestern pounds (yuccaols A–C) were also isolated
United States (especially southern Nevada, from the bark of Mohave yucca.5,6
northwestern Arizona, the Mojave Desert,
and southern California to northern Baja
California). PHARMACOLOGY AND BIOLOGICAL
Joshua tree (Y. brevifolia) is a tree up to ACTIVITIES
about 20 m high, branched mostly at 1–3 m
aboveground with lance-shaped leaves (blades Saponins generally have hemolytic properties
20–35 cm long) crowded in dense clusters in vitro, but when given orally or intravenous-
near ends of branches; native to southwestern ly, these activities are much weaker. They also
United States (especially the Mojave Desert have numerous other pharmacological activi-
in California, southwestern Utah, and western ties (see quillaia).
Arizona). Water extracts of Y. glauca Nutt. in mice
Parts used are the leaves from which a solid experiments have shown antitumor activity
extract is prepared by hot water extraction. against B16 melanoma (FOSTER AND DUKE).
634 Yucca
The phenolic constituents of Y. schidigera demonstrated that the extract was about half as
were found to possess antiproliferative activi- hemolytic in vitro as commercial soapbark
ty against Kaposi’s sarcoma cells and that, at saponin.16
25 mM, the yuccaols were more active than
resveratrol in inhibiting the mediators of pro-
liferation in the investigated cells.7 USES
The Y. schidigera phenolics were investi-
gated in vitro for other activities by one group Food. Extract (especially Mohave yucca) is
and were found to possess antioxidant (free extensively used as the foaming agent in root
radical scavenging), anti-inflammatory (inhi- beer and other frothy drinks, with average
bition of NF-kB and iNOS), and antiplatelet maximum use level of about 0.062%
adhesion activities.5,8–12 (618 ppm) reported.
The antigiardial effect of a Muhave yucca
powder preparation was studied in vitro in a Dietary Supplements/Health Foods. Used
trophozoite adherence inhibition assay and in in various preparations to treat arthritic
vivo in infected gerbils and lambs. In both conditions (TYLER 1).
cases, the saponin-rich butanol extract
displayed the highest antigiardial activity.13
Traditional Medicine. American Indian
Saponin-rich fractions and saponins from Y.
groups used root of various Yucca spp. in
schidigera possess antimicrobial activities
salves or poultices for sores, skin diseases,
against food-deteriorating fungi and ruminal
inflammations, and to stop bleeding; in steam
bacteria,4,14 and a protein isolated from the
baths for sprains and broken limbs; as hair
leaves of Y. recurvifolia has potent activity
wash for dandruff and baldness (FOSTER AND
against HSV-1.15
DUKE).
TOXICOLOGY
COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
The effects of yucca extracts (or saponins) in
Extracts (mainly Mohave yucca).
humans due to long-term ingestion of small
amounts of these extracts (especially in root
Regulatory Status. Both have been approved
beer) are not known. However, one 12-week
for food use (§172.510).
study indicated Mohave yucca extract
(ca. 60% solids) to be nontoxic to rats; it also
REFERENCES
See the General References for FEMA; FOSTER AND DUKE; HOCKING; MUNZ AND KECK; SARGENT; TYLER 1;
UPHOF.
1. M. E. Wall and C. S. Fenske, Econ. Bot., 5. S. Piacente et al., J. Nat. Prod., 67, 882
15, 131 (1961). (2004).
2. B. L. Oser, Food Cosmet. Toxicol., 4, 57 6. W. Oleszek et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
(1966). 49, 747 (2001).
3. W. Oleszek et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 7. C. Balestrieri et al., Biochem. Pharma-
49, 4392 (2001). col., 71, 1479 (2006).
4. M. Miyakoshi et al., J. Nat. Prod., 63, 332 8. P. Cheeke et al., J. Inflamm. (Lond), 3, 6
(2000). (2006).
Yucca 635
9. B. Olas et al., Nutrition, 21, 199 (2005). 14. Y. Wang et al., J. Appl. Microbiol., 88,
10. S. Marzocco et al., Life Sci., 75, 1491 887 (2000).
(2004). 15. K. Hayashi et al., Antiviral Res., 17, 323
11. B. Olas et al., Nutrition, 19, 633 (2003). (1992).
12. B. Olas et al., Platelets, 13, 167 (2002). 16. L. Liberti, Lawrence Rev. Nat. Prod.
(1988).
13. T. A. McAllister et al., Vet. Parasitol., 97,
85 (2001).
Indian Traditional
Medicine
AYURVEDA During the rule of Chandragupta Maurya (AD
375–415), Ayurveda was part of mainstream
The word Ayurveda is composed of two words Indian medical techniques, and it continued to
‘‘ayus’’ meaning ‘‘life’’ and ‘‘veda’’ meaning be so until the British invasion. Chakrapani
‘‘knowledge,’’ that is, ‘‘science of a long life.’’ Dutta (DuttaSharma) who was a rajabaidya
Ayurveda deals with healthy living, along with (Chief Doctor) of King Nayapala (AD
therapeutic measures that relate to physical, 1038–1055) wrote books on Ayurveda such
mental, social, and spiritual harmony and is as Chakradutta and others. It is believed by
among the few traditional systems of medicine some practitioners that Chakradutta is the
that involve surgery.1 Though documented essence of Ayurveda. Later, about 200 years
references to the precise timing of its origin ago, Pranacharya Shri Sadanand Sharma
are not available, its age has been established wrote the Ras Tarangini, a book with mod-
on the basis of correlating evidence with other ernized Ayurveda practices. In this book,
disciplines as well as circumstantial evidence advances in chemistry were also included.
to be between 2500 and 600 BC.2 Ayurveda The book describes the use of many chemical
was first described by Agnivesha, in his book substances, such as sulfates and nitrates, in
Agnivesh Tantra, written during the Vedic medicine.
period. The book was later revised by Charaka Over the course of time, Ayurveda has
and renamed as Charaka Samhita.1,2,4 evolved as a fully developed medical science
Another early text of Ayurveda is the Sushruta with eight branches that are, more or less,
Samhit a, which in addition to the Charaka parallels to the modern western system of
Samhit a served as the textual material in the medicine. Ayurveda deals elaborately with
ancient Universities of Takshashila and measures of healthy living during the entire
Nalanda.3,5 The Ayurvedic system of medi- span of life and its various phases. Besides
cine was orally transferred via the Gurukul dealing with principles for maintenance of
system until a script came into existence. The health, it has also developed a wide range of
earliest scripts have been written on perishable therapeutic measures to combat illness. These
materials such as Taalpatra (leaf surfaces). principles of positive health and therapeutic
These scripts were later written on stone and measures related to physical, mental, social,
copper sheets. Ayurvedic practices have and spiritual welfare of human beings. Ayur-
evolved over time and flourished during the veda operates on the precept that all materials
time of Buddha (around 520 BC).2 During this of vegetable, animal, or mineral origin have
period, mercury, sulfur, and other metals were some medicinal value. Ayurvedic medicines
used in conjunction with herbs to prepare are made from a single herb or mixture of
medications. Also in this period, Ayurveda herbs, alone or in combination with minerals
evolved and flourished with the invention and other ingredients of animal origin. Several
of new drugs, new methodologies, and inno- classical treatises indicate the presence of two
vations. The practice of the accompanying schools: the physicians (Atreya Sampradaya)
surgery also subsided during that period. and the surgeons (Dhanvantri Sampradaya),
637
638 Pitta
and eight disciplines (Ashtanga Ayurveda) to suit the needs and requirements of different
classified as (1) Kaya chikitsa (Internal structures and functions of the body and its
Medicine), (2) Kaumarabhrtya (Pediatric), parts. It is believed that illness and disease
(3) Shalya (Surgery), (4) Shalakya (Otorhino- result from an imbalance in the five elements.
laryngology and Ophthalmology), (5) Agad The ‘‘Charaka Samhita’’ also defines 32
Tantra (Toxicology), (6) Rasayana (Geria- causes of disease resulting in imbalance.
trics), (7) Bhoot Vidya (microorganism and Among them are pathogens such as parasites,
spirits, or Psychiatry), and (8) Vajikaran amoebae, or bacteria (krimija); genetic fac-
(Eugenics and aphrodisiacs).6–9 The most im- tors (janaja), poisons, trauma, psychiatric fac-
portant and massive ancient compilation tors, and so on. The most important category is
‘‘Charka Samhita’’ contains several chapters prajnaparadha or intellectual insufficiency.
dealing with therapeutic or internal medicine. Life according to Ayurveda is conceived as
About 600 drugs of plant, animal, and mineral the union of body, senses, mind, and soul and
origin are described in it. Besides, it also deals is synonym of dhari, jivita, nityaga, and anu-
with other branches of Ayurveda such as bandha. The living man is a conglomeration
anatomy, physiology, etiology, prognosis, of three doshas/humors (Vata, Pitta, and
pathology, treatment, and medicine.3,4 An Kapha; dosha means ‘‘that which changes’’),
equally exhaustive ancient compilation, ‘‘Sus- seven basic tissues (Rasa, Rakta, Mansa,
hruta Samhita’’ relates more to the school of Meda, Asthi, Majja, and Shukra), and the
surgery. More than 100 kinds of surgical in- waste products of the body (feces, urine, and
struments including scalpels, scissors, for- sweat).5,8 The growth and decay of the body
ceps, specula, and so on are described along and its constituents revolve around food that
with their use. Dissection and operative pro- gets processed into humors, tissues, and
cedures are also explained. In addition to the wastes. Ingestion, digestion, absorption, as-
therapeutic uses of vegetables and dead ani- similation, and metabolism of food have in-
mals, topics such as anatomy, embryology, terplay in health and disease, which are sig-
and toxicology are also mentioned together nificantly affected by psychological mechan-
with ca. 650 drugs.5 isms as well as by bio-fire (Agni).
According to Ayurveda, all objects in the In Ayurvedic philosophy, the five elements
universe including the human body are com- combine in pairs to form three dynamic forces
posed of five basic elements (Panchamahab- or interactions called doshas or prakruti.
hutas), namely, earth, water, fire, air, and The three active doshas are Vata, Pitta, and
vacuum (ether). There is a balanced distribu- Kapha:5,7–9
tion of these elements in different proportions
flame itself. People with more Pitta in their are sharp and determined in thought, speech,
constitutions tend to be of medium propor- and action. There is an element of purpose to
tions, with a frame that is neither petite nor their step and intensity to their voice. Ambi-
heavy, warm skin that is very fair or ruddy and tion is usually their second name. They are
may be sensitive, and fine hair that tends moderate sleepers and gravitate toward cooler
toward premature graying or thinning. They environments.
extensively in Ayurveda and has wide range this system by preparing the medicine in
of approaches in the treatment of mental different dosage forms such as alcohol, oils,
disorders. powder and ointment, and so on, and the
6. Rasayana therapy (use of immunomodu- Persians encouraged and developed physi-
lators and rejuvenation medicines) cians and philosophers. On this foundations,
Rasayana therapy deals with promotion of Islamic physicians such as Al-Razi (Rhazes)
strength and vitality. The integrity of body (AD 850–925) and Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
matrix, promotion of memory, intelligence, (AD 980–1037), Al-Zahrawi (Albucasis) the
immunity against disease, the preservation surgeon and Ibn-el-Nafis, to name only a few,
of youth, luster and complexion, and main- constructed an imposing structure. Unani
tenance of optimum strength of the body medicine got enriched by incorporating what
and senses are some of the positive benefits was best in the contemporary systems of
credited to this treatment. Prevention of traditional medicine in Egypt, Syria, Iraq,
premature wear and tear of body tissues Persia, India, China, and other Middle East
and promotion of total health content of an and Far East countries. The Unani system
individual are the roles that Rasayana ther- received great impetus during the reign of the
apy plays. Abbasids and became a respectable and ‘‘ra-
In Ayurveda, regulation of diet as the- tional’’ science. In India, the Unani system of
rapy has great importance. This is because medicine was introduced by the Arabs and
it considers human body as the product of soon it took firm roots in the soil.11 When the
food. An individual’s mental and spiritual Mongols ravaged Persian and Central Asian
development as well as his temperament is cities such as Shiraz, Tabrez, and Geelan,
influenced by the quality of food consumed scholars and physicians of Unani medicine
by him. Food in human body is transformed fled to India where, during the 13th and 17th
first into chyle or Rasa and then successive centuries, this system reached its peak. The
processes involve its conversion into blood, scholars and physicians of Unani medicine
muscle, fat, bone, bone marrow, and repro- who settled in India subjected Indian drugs to
ductive elements. Thus, food is basic to clinical trials. In this period, they invented the
all the metabolic transformations and life process of distillation, sublimation, calcina-
activities. Lack of nutrients in food or tion, and fermentation to promote the efficacy
improper transformation of food leads to of the medicine and to remove the impurities
diseases. and toxic effects of the drug. As a result of
their experimentation, numerous native drugs
were added to their own system, further en-
UNANI MEDICINE riching its wealth. Among those who made
valuable contributions to the Unani system
The Unani system of medicine originated in were Abu Bakr Bin Ali Usman Ksahani,
Greece. The Greek philosopher physician Sadruddin Damashqui, Bahwa bin Khwas
Hippocrates (460–377 BC) is considered as Khan, Ali Geelani, Akbal Arzani, and
the founder of Unani medicine.10 Before Hip- Mohammad Hashim Alwi Khan. During the
pocrates, medicine was restricted only to the British rule, Unani medicine suffered a set-
Aesclabius family. Later, a number of Greek back and its development was hampered due
scholars enriched the system considerably, to withdrawal of governmental patronage.
but it was Galen (AD 131–210) who stabilized However, since the system enjoyed faith
its foundation. Thus, it was earlier known as among the masses, it continued to be prac-
‘‘Galenic’’ and later became ‘‘Unani’’ system ticed. The very eminent scholar of this period
of medicine when many Arab and Persian was Ibn Sina (Avicenna AD 980–1037). He was
scholars further enriched this science (Arabic the great philosopher physician who gave
name for ‘‘Greek’’). The Egyptians developed shape to the Unani medicine and redefined
Kapha 641
many of its concepts. His book Alqanoon- balance, thus retaining health. Also, correct
fil-Tibb (The Law of Medicine or The Canon diet and digestion are considered to maintain
in Medicine as commonly known in the West) humoral balance.
was an internationally accepted book on med- The diagnosis of diseases in Unani medicine
icine, which was taught in European countries is through examination of pulse, urine, and
until the 17th century.12 stool. This system observes the influence of
Of the famous Unani medicine practi- surroundingsand ecological conditions such as
tioners, Hakim (Arabic for wise man or phy- air, food, drinks, body movement and repose,
sician) Shareef Khan (1725–1807) wrote his psychic movement and repose, sleep and wake-
book Ilaj-ul-Amrad (Arabic for Treatment of fulness, and excretion and retention on the state
Diseases) in Delhi during the Mongol period. of health. This influence causes a dominance
Another physician, Hakim Ajmal Khan of one of the four humors in every human
(1864–1927), was the first person to introduce body. Unani medicine believes that it is this
modern research in Indian systems of medi- dominance that gives a man his individual
cine and under his supervision, various alka- habit and complexion, that is, his temperament.
loids, for example, ajmaline and reserpine, In short, Unanipathy aims at maintaining
were isolated from Asarol (Rauwolfia serpen- proper health by conserving symmetry in the
tina). He also translated 88 Unani books from different spheres of a man’s life. Unani practi-
Arabic and Persian to the Urdu language. tioners not only cure bodily diseases but also
According to Unani medicine, it is estab- act as ethical instructors. When the equilibri-
lished that disease is a natural process and that um of the humors is disturbed and functions of
symptoms are the reactions of the body to a the body are abnormal, in accordance to its
certain disease. It believes in the humoral own temperament and environment, that state
theory that presupposes the presence of four is called disease. Unani medicine believes in
fluids or humors: damm (Arabic for blood), promotion of health, prevention of disease,
balgham (phlegm), safra (yellow bile), and and cure. The health of a human being is based
sauda (black bile) in the body. Each humor has on six essentials that have to be maintained in
its own temperament. So, blood is hot and order to prevent diseases. The six essentials
moist, phlegm is cold and moist, yellow bile are (1) atmospheric air, (2) food and drink,
is hot and dry, and black bile is cold and dry. (3) sleep and wakefulness, (4) excretion and
The temperaments of persons are expressed by retention, (5) physical activity and rest, and
the words sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, and (6) mental activity and mental relaxation.
melancholic according to the preponderance Another distinctive feature of the Unani sys-
of the respective humors blood, phlegm, tem of medicine is its emphasis on diagnosing
yellow bile, and black bile. If the four main a disease through examination of Nabd
humors and the four primary qualities were all (Arabic for pulse), baul (urine), and boraz
in a state of mutual equilibrium, one is con- (stool).
sidered healthy. It is believed that every person Disease treatment in Unani medicine can
has a unique humoral constitution that repre- follow one or more of the following methods:
sents his healthy state, and, to maintain the (1) Ilaj-bil-Tadbeer (regimenal therapy),
correct humoral balance, there is a power (2) Ilaj-bil-Ghiza (dietotherapy), (3) Ilaj-bil-
of self-preservation or adjustment called Dava (pharmacotherapy), and (4) Ilaj-bil-Yad
al-Quwwat-ul-Mudabbira (medicatrix nat- (surgery).10
urae) in the body. If this power weakens,
imbalance in the humoral composition occurs 1. Ilaj-bil-Tadbeer (Arabic for regimenal
and causes disease. Great reliance is placed in therapy)
this power. The medicines used in this system, It includes treatments of certain ailments
in fact, help the body to regain this power to an with exercise, massage, hammam (Turkish
optimum level and thereby restore humoral Bath), douches (Cold and Hot), venesection,
642 Kapha
cupping, diaphoresis, diuresis, cauteriza- his wife Parvati who handed it down to Nandi
tion, purging,emesis,exercise, and leeching. Deva and the Siddhars.14 After that the Siddha
2. Ilaj-bil-Ghiza (dietotherapy) principles were presented to the followers of
In this type of treatment, different diets are Lord Siva and Sakti, starting with Siddhar
recommended for the patients depending on Nantheesar, then Siddhar Thirumoolar,
the kind of disease. Regulating the quantity Agathiyar, and other disciples along with the
and quality of food may also be employed. 18 Siddhars and so on.15 The origin of the
3. Ilaj-bil-Dawa (pharmacotherapy) documented Siddha system of medicine is
The basic concept of treatment is to correct generally attributed to the great Siddha Ayas-
the disease that may be caused by abnormal tiyar, whose writings are still standard books of
humors, due to internal or external causes, medicine and surgery in daily use among the
through (a) drugs of opposite temperament Siddha medical practitioners. According to
to the temperament of the disease (Ilaj-bil- this system, the human body is a replica of
didd ), or (b) drugs of similar temperament the universe as well as the food and drugs
as of the temperament of the disease (Ilaj- irrespective of their origin. Like Ayurveda,
bil-mithl ). The drugs used are mostly of the this system believes that all objects in the
plant origin, but some drugs of animal and universe including human body are composed
mineral origin may also be used. Patients of five basic elements, namely, the earth, water,
are treated either by single drugs (crude fire, air, and sky. The food that the human body
drugs) or by compound drugs (formula- takes and the drugs it uses are all made of these
tions of single drugs). five elements. The proportion of these ele-
ments present in the drugs may vary and their
4. Ilaj-bil-Yad (surgery)
preponderance or otherwise is responsible for
Surgeryhas alsobeeninuseinthissystemfor
certain actions and therapeutic results. As in
quite long. In fact, the ancient physicians of
Ayurveda, this system also considers the hu-
Unani medicine were pioneers in this field
man body as a conglomeration of three hu-
andhad developedtheirowninstrumentsand
mors, seven basic tissues, and the waste pro-
techniques.
ducts of the body such as feces, urine, and
sweat. The food is considered as the basic
building material of human body, which gets
SIDDHA SYSTEM processed into humors, body tissues, and waste
products. An equilibrium of humors is consid-
The word Siddha comes from the word ‘‘Sid- ered healthy and its disturbance or imbalance
dhi,’’ which means an object with perfection or leads to disease or sickness. This system also
heavenly bliss. The principles of this system deals with the concept of salvation in life. The
have close similarity to that of Ayurveda. exponents of this system consider the achieve-
According to Indian history, prior to Aryans ment of this state to be possible by medicines
migration, the Dravidians were the first inha- and meditation. The system has a rich and
bitants of India of whom the Tamilians were unique wealth of drug knowledge in which
the most prominent. Thus, this system of med- use of metals and minerals is advocated. There
icine can also be called the Dravidian system of are 25 varieties of water-soluble inorganic
medicine, since it is unique only to the Dravian compounds called ‘‘uppu’’ and different types
Tamils and was perfected by the Siddhars.13 of alkalis and salts. There are 64 varieties of
The Siddha system of medicine flourished in mineral drugs that do not dissolve in water but
the south India, whereas the Ayurveda was emit vapors when put in fire. There are seven
prevalent in the north. According to tradition, drugs that do not dissolve in water but emit
it is believed that Lord Shiva extended the vapors on heating. The system has metals and
knowledge of Siddha system of medicine to alloys, which melt when heated and solidifies
Kapha 643
on cooling, classified together. These include to vata, pita, and kapha in Ayurveda). These
items such as gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, and three vital forces of cosmic elements are con-
iron, which are incinerated by special process- trolled by the functions of the Punchaboothas.
es and used in medicine. There is a group of The five major concepts of Punchaboothas are
drugs that exhibit sublimation on heating and nilam or prithivi (earth), neer or appu (water),
includes mercury and its different forms such kattru or vayu (air), neruppu or theyu (fire),
as red sulfide of mercury, mercuric chloride and veli or akash (space). According to this
and red oxide of mercury, and so on. Sulfur, theory, all the substances in the universe are
which is insoluble in water, finds a crucial created under the actions or reactions of the
place in Siddha materia medica along with Punchaboothas functions only. If the Punch-
mercury for use in therapeutics and in mainte- aboothas ratio is disturbed, any disease may
nance of health. In addition, there are drugs attack the body (human beings, animals, birds,
obtained from animal sources.16,17 The Sid- flies, etc.) by the way of the deficiency of
dhars were also aware of several chemical certain vitamins and minerals. Siddhars also
procedures, such as calcination, sublimation, cautioned the administration of certain bas-
distillation, fusion, separation, conjunction or mas and sinduras, which are oxidized stages
combination, congelation, cibation, fermenta- of metals and minerals, and advised for intak-
tion, exaltation (the process of refining gold), ing periods and diet restrictions, according to
fixation (bringing to the condition of being age, climate, and location.14,17
nonvolatile), purification, incineration of me- Siddhars classified diseases into different
tals, liquefaction, extraction, and so on. They categories that accounted for a total of 4448
were also skilled pharmacists and as such were human diseases. The fundamental subjects of
engaged in boiling, dissolving, precipitating, Siddha methodology are (1) Vadham (Alche-
and coagulating chemical substances.17 my), (2) Aithiyam (Medicine), (3) Yogam
The Siddha system claims to be capable of (Yoga), and (4) Gnanam or Thathuvam (Phi-
treating all types of diseases other than emer- losophy). Siddhars explored and explained the
gency cases. In general, this system is effective reality of nature and its relationship to man
in treating all types of skin problems, particu- by their yogic awareness and experimental
larly psoriasis, sexually transmitted diseases, findings. They postulated the concept of spir-
urinary tract infections, diseases of liver and itualism for self-improvement and the prac-
gastrointestinal tract, general debility, postpar- tices propounded by them came to be known
tum anemia, diarrhea, and general fevers in as the Siddha system. The spiritual scientists
addition to arthritis and allergic disorders. of Tamil Nadu introduced the eight mighty
The diagnosis of diseases involves identi- Siddhic processes, or octomiracle, ‘‘Atta-
fying its causes. Identification of causative Ma-Siddhi,’’ which could keep the body
factors is through the examination of pulse, strong and perfect for external life, where
urine, eyes, voice, body color, tongue, and the there is no death or rebirth. The Att-Ma-Siddhi
status of the digestive system. This system are (1) ANIMA—the faculty of reducing gross
provides a detailed procedure of urine exami- body to the size of an atom and to enable him to
nation, which includes study of its color, fly in space, (2) MAHIMA—power of expand-
smell, density, quantity, and oil drop spreading ing oneself without limit, (3) KARIMA—pow-
pattern. This treatment is individualistic, er of reducing the primordial elements within
which ensures that mistakes in diagnosis or oneself to a point desired, (4) LAHIMA—
treatment are minimal. In general, single or power of becoming as light as a feather,
compound medicines are advised for the pa- (5) PRAPTHI—faculty of knowing every-
tients based on naadi (pulse) diagnosis meth- thing, past, present, and future, and to secure
ods and the variations of their vali or vaatham, everything as desired, (6) PRAHAMIYAM—
azhal or pitham, and aiyyan or kapam (similar power of penetration like rays by which one
644 Kapha
can attain immortality, (7) ESATHWAM— in the universe, and (8) VASITHAM—power
supreme power over animates and inanimate of securing any object.15,16,18
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
flour from the fruits is made into bread and Ayurvedic medicines Dashamoolarishtha and
eaten during the times of scarcity. The root is Amritha Prasa Ghritha, prescribed for several
credited with laxative and tonic properties. diseases.
It forms a constituent of the well-known
REFERENCES
1. K. R. Kirtikar and B. D. Basu, Indian 3. B.C. Bose et al., Indian J. Med. Res., 17,
Medicinal Plants, Vol. 1, Dehradun, 291 (1963).
India, 1999, p. 419–423. 4. I. Kostova and D. Dinchev, Phytochemistry
2. R. N. Chopra and S. Ghosh, Indian J. Med. Rev., 4, 111 (2005).
Res., 17, 377 (1929).
REFERENCES
1. K. R. Kirtikar and B. D. Basu, Indian 3. A. Tewari et al., J. Med. Arom. Plant Sci.,
Medicinal Plants, Vol. 4, Dehradun, 21, 1155 (1999).
India, 1999, p. 2445. 4. G. Q. Zheng et al., J. Agric. Food Chem.,
2. T. Morikawa et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 41, 153 (1993).
53, 625 (2005).
Woody, branched climber, young stem and The leaves of G. sylvestre were found to have
branches are pubescent, often dense, terete. oleanane-type triterpenes and/or their glyco-
Leaves ca. 5–6 cm long, ovate, elliptic to sides gymnemic acid A,1 3b,16b,22b,28-tet-
lanceolate, shortly acuminate, pubescent on rahydroxy-olean-12-en-30-oic acid,2 sodium
both surfaces, dense on the abaxial side, salt of alternoside II, 21b-O-benzoylsitakiso-
rounded to cordate at base with pubescent genin 3-O-b-D-glucopyranosyl (1 ! 3)-b-D-
petiole. Flowers in sessile to pedunculate glucuronopyranoside, potassium salt of long-
cymes. Peduncles are densely pubescent. ispinogenin 3-O-b-D-glucopyranosyl (1 ! 3)-
Gurmar 649
REFERENCES
1. Y. Wang et al., Huaxi Yaoxue Zazhi, 19, 9. N. P. Sahu et al., Phytochemistry, 41,
336 (2004). 1181 (1996).
2. S. Peng et al., Chin. Chem. Lett., 16, 223 10. K. Yoshikawa et al., Phytochemistry, 31,
(2005). 237 (1992).
3. W. Ye et al., J. Nat. Prod., 64, 232 11. X. Liu et al., Carbohydr. Res., 339, 891
(2001). (2004).
4. W. Ye et al., Phytochemistry, 53, 893 12. K. Yoshikawa et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull.,
(2000). 40, 1779 (1992).
5. N. Murakami et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 13. K. V. Gopiesh and K. Venkatesan, World
44, 469 (1996). J. Microbiol. Biotech., 24, 2737 (2008).
6. H. Liu et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 40, 14. R. K. Satdive et al., Fitoterapia, 74, 699
1366 (1992). (2003).
7. K. Yoshikawa et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 15. K. Shankar et al., Int. J. Chem. Sci., 5, 993
40, 1779 (1992). (2007).
8. K. Yoshikawa et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 16. B. Khan et al., Pak. J. Pharm. Sci., 18, 62
41, 1730 (1993). (2005).
650 Kalmegh
REFERENCES
A small undershrub, branches with stellate The plant is useful in tuberculosis and rheu-
hairs. Leaves variable in shape ca. 5 cm long, matism. The root and leaves are aphrodisiac,
rhomboidal–lanceolate to obovate truncate, tonic, good in urinary disorders, burning sen-
cuneate at base, coarsely toothed, dark green sations, piles, and all kinds of inflammation.
glabrous above, tomentose beneath. Flower- Stem mucilage is employed as demulcent and
ing pedicel axillary yellow or white, solitary or emollient; it is also used internally in skin
in pairs crowded toward the end of the diseases and as a diuretic and febrifuge. Roots
branches. Calyx angular, lobes triangular, are used in the treatment of rheumatism and
acute. Flowers yellow, up to 1.5 cm in diame- leucorrhoea (vaginal discharge). Ethanolic
ter. Fruits globose, enclosed by calyx, carpel extract of the plant depresses the activity of
7–10 with two short awns. Seed black, smooth. the smooth muscles of the ileum of guinea pig.
The yellow flower is eaten with wild ginger to
ease labor pains. Leaf tips crushed in water are
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION drunk to ease menstruation problems. Leaf
tips are chewed with Areca catechu to induce
Three types of alkaloids, b-phenethylamines abortion or to cause sterility. The flower is
(b-phenethylamine, ephedrine, Y-ephedrine), chewed to give temporary relief from tooth-
quinazolines (vasicine, vasicinol, vasicinone), ache. The plant is a major ingredient in several
and carboxylated tryptamines (S-( þ )-Nb- Ayurvedic medicines. The alcoholic extract of
methyltryptophan methyl ester), in addition the roots exhibited antibacterial and antipy-
to choline and betaine, were found in Sida retic activities. It also exhibited antimalarial
rhombifolia.1 Recently, seven ecdysteroids activity in vitro against erythrocytic stages of
and/or their glycosides 25-acetoxy-20- hydro- Plasmodium berghei. It is a potential source
xyecdysone-3-O-b-D-glucopyranoside, pter- of natural antioxidants.4 Ethyl acetate extract
osterone-3-O-b-D-glucopyranoside, ecdy- showed potent cytotoxicity.5
sone-3-O-b-D-glucopyranoside, ecdysone,
REFERENCES
1. A. Prakash et al., Planta Med., 43, 384 4. K. Dhalwal et al., J. Med. Food, 10, 683
(1981). (2007).
2. A. N. Jadhav et al., Chem. Biodivers., 4, 5. M. E. Islam et al., Phytother. Res., 17, 973
2225 (2007). (2003).
3. M. M. Goyal and K. K. Rani, Fitoterapia,
60, 163 (1989).
652 Neem
NEEM USES
Source: Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (syn. The bark exudes a clear, bright, amber-colored
Melia azadirachta L.) (Family Meliaceae). gum, known as the East India gum. The gum is
a stimulant, demulcent, and tonic and is useful
in catarrhal and other infections. The oil is
Common/vernacular names: Neem/Margos used in some chronic skin diseases and ulcers.
tree. It is a common external application for rheu-
matism, leprosy, and sprain. The warm oil
relieves ear trouble; the oil also cures dental
GENERAL DESCRIPTION and gum troubles. A few drops of oil taken in
betel leaf provide relief in asthma. The oil is
Large tree, up to 50 ft tall. Leaves simple, reported to have antifertility properties. It
pinnately compound 16–20 cm long, crowded possesses antiseptic and antifungal activity
near the end of branches, leaflets subopposite, and is found to be active against both
obliquely lanceolate, sometimes falcate, acu- Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms.
minate, serrate, glabrous on both the surfaces, Leaves are used for skin disorders. Nimbin has
base unequal, acute. Flowers in branched been found to be antipyretic and nonirritant.
glabrous panicles, with bract. Bracts minute,
lanceolate, caduceus. Calyx pueblos divided Medicinal, Pharmaceutical, and Cosmetic.
at the base. Corolla oblong–obovate, slightly Oil from the seed kernel is employed in the
puberlous outside, white, slightly fragrant. cosmetic preparations such as creams, hair
Fruits a drupe, ca. 1.5 cm long, glabrous, lotions, medicated soaps, washing soaps and
one-seeded.1 toothpastes; it can be mixed with other oils
also for soaps. Regular application of hair oil
containing oil of margosa is reported to pre-
vent baldness and graying of hair. The shell
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION from the seeds can be used for the production
of activated carbon and tooth powder. The
Hundreds of compounds have been isolated major use of neem oil is in the soap industry.
from neem. The main class includes phenolic Soaps and shampoos prepared from neem oil
diterpenoids (protomeliacins) and limonoids control ticks and fleas. Neem shampoo is used
(C-secomeliacins).2 The main bioactive com- for greasy scalp. A prickly heat powder is also
pounds include azadirachtin, azadiradione, made from neem. A neem face pack is pre-
azadirone, nimbin, nimbinin, nimbolins, nim- pared for oily and pimple-prone skin. Tooth
bolide, margolone, margolonone, isomargo- powder and toothpaste prepared from neem
lonone, meliantriol, melianone, melianol, and are effective dentifrices. Patented extracts of
salanin.3 neem bark Silvose T and Silvose TRS are used
as toothpaste and mouth wash.
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
3. R. Valsaraj et al., J. Nat. Prod., 60, 739 7. K. R Kirtikar and B. D. Basu, Indian
(1997). Medicinal Plants, Vol. 2, Dehradun,
4. S. B. Mahato et al., Tetrahedron, 48, 2483 India, 1999, p. 1018.
(1992). 8. M. A. Iyengar and S. Dwivedi, Indian
5. A. K. Nandy et al., Phytochemistry, 28, Drugs, 26, 655 (1989).
2769 (1989). 9. S. Srivastava et al., Indian Drugs, 29, 144
6. C. Rukmini et al., J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., (1992).
63, 360 (1986). 10. A. H. Gilani et al., J. Ethnopharmacol.,
116, 528 (2008).
REFERENCES
1. A. Rehman et al., Nat. Prod. Lett., 10, 249 10. A. K. Yadav and V. J. Tangpu,
(1997). J. Ethnopharmacol., 119, 322 (2008).
2. R. Thappa et al., Phytochemistry, 42, 11. A. Chakraborty and A. H. Brantner,
1485 (1996). Phytotherapy Res., 15, 532 (2001).
3. B. Joshi et al., J. Nat. Prod., 57, 953 12. A. H. Brantner and A. Chakraborty,
(1994). Pharm. Pharmacol. Lett., 8, 137 (1998).
4. R. S. Singh et al., Fitoterapia, 63, 262 13. N. Shrivastava et al., J. Herb
(1992). Pharmacother., 6, 43 (2006).
5. R. S. Singh, et al., Phytochemistry, 30, 14. D. Bhattacharyya, et al., Fitoterapia, 76,
3799 (1991). 223 (2005).
6. M. P. Jain et al., Phytochemistry, 19, 1880 15. J. N. Dhuley, J. Ethnopharmacol., 67,
(1980). 361 (1999).
7. K. Sarada et al., J. Microb. World, 10, 86 16. Wealth of India, A Dictionary of Indian
(2008). Raw Materials, First Supplement
8. H.Gao etal.,FoodChem.,108,965(2008). Series, Vol. 1, National Institute of
9. R. M. Samarth et al., Food Chem., 106, Science Communication, New Delhi,
868 (2008). 2002.
Chinese Cosmetic
Ingredients
As in other ancient cultures, use of herbs by TRADITIONAL PROPERTIES
the Chinese to modify and improve physical alleviates depression,
appearance dates back thousands of years. benefits/improves complexion,
During the course of using herbs for treating detoxifying,
illnesses and undesirable physical conditions, invigorates/nourishes blood,
they have accumulated considerable experi- lightens skin,
ence in cosmetic treatments and much of this moistens skin/removes dryness,
experience has been documented, and this prevents scar formation,
documentation dates back at least 2000 years. promotes flesh growth,
Common modern-day cosmetic problems promotes hair growth/prevents hair loss,
such as facial dark spots, wrinkles, pimples, removes heat,
and dry skin were already dealt with in ancient removes swelling,
medical treatises such as the HUANG Di Nei and so on.
Jing, which was written 2000 years ago.
However, unlike their Western counterparts,
the Chinese have always considered external MODERN PROPERTIES
beauty as an extension of one’s whole self.
Thus, cosmetic conditions are often simply analgesic,
considered as manifestations of an unbal- antiallergic,
anced whole. Hence, treatments are often a anti-inflammatory,
combination of both internal and external antihistaminic,
applications. antimicrobial,
Among the more than 6000 documented antipruritic,
natural drugs used in traditional Chinese astringent,
medicine, one can find a sizable number that local anesthetic,
are used in treating skin and oral problems vasodilator,
that can be considered as ‘‘cosmetic’’ whitening,
conditions.1,2 wound healing,
To take advantage of the vast resource of and so on.
Chinese herbal medicine as a source of cos- Alternatively, any herb or herbal formula
metic ingredients, it is necessary to define in a that has been recorded as beneficial in external
broad sense the scope of ‘‘cosmetic’’ proper- application in one or more of the following
ties and ‘‘cosmetic’’ usages. conditions can be considered within the scope
For practical purposes, any herb or herbal of ‘‘cosmetic’’ usage:
formula reported to have the following prop-
erties, either traditional or modern, can be dark spots on skin,
considered a potential source of natural cos- lacquer sores,
metic ingredient(s). acne/pimples,
657
658 Chinese cosmetic ingredients
(Precious Formulas), a formulary compiled oils, special chemical fractions, etc.) can serve
by the well-known physician, Sun Si-Miao, as potential sources of cosmetic ingredients.
during the 7th century AD, which contains
ATRACTYLODES (BAIZHU AND
8200 formulas. Among the 160 natural sub-
CANGZHU)
stances used in these beauty formulas, 105
BAIZHU (ATRACTYLODES)
were herbs, 32 were animal by-products, and
BLETILLA TUBER (BAIJI)
23 were minerals. At least two dozen of these
CANGZHU (ATRACTYLODES)
substances repeatedly appeared in the formu-
DAHURIAN ANGELICA (BAIZHI)
las, some over 20 times. Most of them are still
DITTANY BARK (BAIXIANPI)
being used in Chinese cosmetic products.
FORSYTHIA FRUIT (LIANQIAO)
Although most of the cosmetic usage of
GARDEN BURNET (DIYU)
Chinese herbal drugs and formulas is based on
HONEYSUCKLE FLOWER
traditional rationale, some of the uses do
(JINYINHUA)
appear to have a scientific basis.
KNOTWEED, GIANT (HUZHANG)
Thus, among the herbs used to remove dark
LIGUSTICUM (GAOBEN)
spots on the skin, some (especially chuan-
LUFFA (SIGUALUO)
xiong, fangfeng, gaoben, and danggui) have
MUME (SMOKED PLUM OR WUMEI)
been shown to exhibit marked tyrosinase in-
PEARL (ZHENZHU OR MARGARITA)
hibitory effects in vitro.3,4
AND MOTHER-OF-PEARL
Among more than 100 Chinese herbal
(ZHENZHUMU)
drugs screened for in vitro antihistaminic
PEONY (PEONY BARK AND PEONY
activities, numerous were demonstrated to
ROOT)
exhibit strong effects. They include wumei,
PEONY BARK (MUDANPI)
xinyi, baizhi, ginger, and star anise; all have
PEONY ROOT, RED AND WHITE
traditionally been used to treat cosmetic pro-
(SHAOYAO: CHISHAOYAO AND
blems.5–7
BAISHAOYAO)
Also, many of the herbal drugs traditionally
PHELLODENDRON BARK (HUANGBAI)
used for their healing and antiswelling prop-
PURSLANE, COMMON (MACHIXIAN)
erties (e.g., in wounds and burns) have been
RED SAGE (DANSHEN)
scientifically demonstrated to have anti-
SAFFLOWER (FALSE SAFFRON;
inflammatory effects. They include xinyi,
HONGHUA)
gaoben, huzhang, lianqiao, wumei, fangfeng,
SICHUAN LOVAGE (CHUANXIONG)
chishao, sanqi, and rehmannia (see corre-
SKULLCAP, BAIKAL (HUANGQIN)
sponding entries).
Based on above criteria, the following herbs
and/or their derivatives (extracts, essential
REFERENCES
1. A. Y. Leung, D & C I, April, 34 (1989). 4. Y. Masamoto et al., Planta Med., 40, 361
2. A. Y. Leung, Chinese Medicinals in (1980).
J. Janick and J. E. Simon, eds., Advances 5. R. D. Xiang et al., Zhongcaoyao, 15(2), 22
in New Crops, Timber Press, Portland, OR, (1985).
1990, p. 499; reprinted in HerbalGram, 6. Z. X. Zhang and L. S. Liu, Zhong
23, 21 (1990). Chengyao, 14(11), 30 (1992).
3. X. T. Liu, Zhongchengyao, 13(3), 9 7. D. Q. Zhou et al., Zhongcaoyao, 22(2), 81
(1991). (1991).
660 Baizhu
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHP; HONGKUI; IMM-1; JIXIAN; JIANGSU; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; PENG; WANG; ZHOU
AND WANG.
Cangzhu 661
REFERENCES
See the General References for FOSTER AND YUE; HU; IMM-1; JIXIAN; JIANGSU; MCGUFFIN
1 & 2.
1. S. Takagi et al., Phytochemistry, 22, 1011 3. J. D. Zhang and F. H. Tao, Zhongguo
(1983). Zhongyao Zazhi, 14(4), 34 (1989).
2. Z. G. Geng et al., Zhongcaoyao, 21(2), 24
(1990).
Shanxi and Shaanxi; and eastern cangzhu is Contains 1.1–9.0% (w/w) volatile oil,
produced mainly in northeastern provinces, depending on botanical, geographic, and
including Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning reporting sources, with southern cangzhu in
(IMM-1; JIANGSU). Eastern cangzhu (A. japoni- the general range of 5–9%, northern cangzhu
ca) is considered equivalent to baizhu (see that 3–5%, and eastern cangzhu 1–3% (IMM-1;
entry) in Japan (HU).1 The cangzhu available in JIANGSU; NATIONAL). The major volatile com-
the United States is mostly southern or north- ponents present in southern cangzhu include
ern cangzh. atractylol (mixture of b-eudesmol and
First recorded use dates back at least hinesol), elemol, and atractylodin (an acety-
2000 years when it was simply referred to lenic furan);4 minor components present
as ZHU in the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing (ca. include atractylon, vitamin A substances,
200 BC–AD100) without differentiation from vitamin B, and inulin. Major compounds
baizhu. Traditionally considered as acrid and present in northern cangzhu include atracty-
bitter tasting and warming; spleen-invigorat- lodin (12.50–20.93%), atractylon, and atrac-
ing; wetness-drying (zaoshi); anti-inflamma- tylol. The volatile oil in eastern cangzhu
tory (qu feng); alleviating depression (jie yu); contains little or no atractylodin; its major
cold-dispersing; and eye-brightening. Used in components being atractylol and atractylon
treating various conditions, including abdom- (IMM-1; JIANGSU); also contains hypoglycemic
inal distention; diarrhea; edema; lack of appe- glycans (atractans A, B, and C).1
tite; indigestion; tiredness and sleepiness; Although fumes from burning cangzhu
rheumatism and arthritic pain; common cold; have strong disinfectant effects, its decoction
eczema; night blindness; and warts, among does not. The fumes are reported to be nonir-
others.2 ritating and to have very tow toxicity: mice
Also, a traditional practice during an epi- and rats exposed to burning cangzhu and aiye
demic was to burn cangzhu to drive off the (Artemisia argyi leaves) for 0.5–2 h exhibited
‘‘evil’’ that was believed to cause the epi- no abnormalities on external and pathological
demic. Recently, this practice has been examination; and over 4000 normal subjects
adapted for the routine sterilization of oper- exposed nightly to one round of burning
ating rooms, using 1 g/m3 of cangzhou with cangzhu-aiye incense for 30 days did not show
considerable success and safety. The fumes any adverse reactions (WANG).
from burning cangzhu not only killed bac- Used as a component in hair tonic liniments
teria (esp. Staphylococcus aureus) but also and in skin care formulas (e.g., acne creams)
killed viruses and fungi;3 however, they had for its antimicrobial activity as well as its
no effect on mosquitoes and other insects whitening properties.5
(WANG).
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHP; HONGKUI; HU; IMM-1; IMM-CAMS; JIANGSU; JIXIAN; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
NATIONAL; WANG; ZHOU.
1. C. Konno et al., Planta Med., 51, 102 4. H. Y. Sun and A. W. Wang, Zhongcaoyao,
(1985). 23, 298 (1992).
2. C. F. Zhang, Zhongyiyao Xuebao, (4), 32 5. Li Shi-Zhen’s, Ben Cao Gang Mu, 16th
(1992). century, reprinted.
3. L. E. Jiang and Z. X. Zhu, Chin. J. Integr.
Trad. West. Med., 9, 245 (1989).
Dahurian angelica (baizhi) 663
Powder and extracts used in skin care pro- tonics, etc.) for its antimicrobial and anti-
ducts (especially acne creams, freckle remov- inflammatory effects and its traditional anti-
ing and antifungal creams) and in hair care itching, wound-healing, and skin-whitening
products (antidandruff shampoos, hair-growth (tyrosinase inhibitory) properties (ZHOU).15
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHP; HONGKUI; HU; HUANG; IMM-1; JIANGSU; JIXIAN; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
ZHOU; ZHU.
1. H. Y. Li et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi, 9. M. Kozawa et al., Shoyakugaku Zasshi,
16, 560 (1991). 35(2), 90 (1981); through Chem. Abstr.,
2. A. Y. Leung, Drug Cosmet. Ind., 34 95, 209449j (1981).
(1989); (4), Chem. Abstr., 95, 209449j 10. J. M. Zhou et al., Zhongcaoyao, 18(6), 2
(1981). (1987).
3. W. X. Hong, Fujian Zhongyiyao, 18(1), 11. K. Baba et al., Planta Med., 51, 64
39 (1987). (1985).
4. J. Han and Q. Yang, Beijing Yike Daxue 12. H. Y. Li et al., Zhongguo Zhongycao
Xuebao, 21, 186 (1989). Zazhi, 16, 27 (1991). (1990).
5. L. R. Wang et al., Yaoxue Xuebao, 131, 13. R. D. Xiang et al., Zhongcaoyao, 16(2),
(1990) 22 (1985)
6. R. Y. Zhang et al., Beijing Yixueyuan 14. Y. Kimura et al., Planta Med., 45, 183
Xuebao, 17, 104 (1985) (1982).
7. H. Q. Zhang et al., Yaoxue Tongbao, 15. Y. Masamoto et al., Planta Med., 40, 361
15(9), 2 (1980). (1980).
8. J. Han and H. L. Zhang, Zhongcaoyao,
17(8), 0 (1986).
REFERENCES
See the General References for ETIC; HUANG; JIANGSU; JILIN; JIXIAN; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NATIONAL.
1. Z. C. Wang et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao 2. W. S. Woo et al., Planta Med., 53, 399
Zazhi, 17, 551 (1992). (1987).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 2; BRUNETON; CHP; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; HONGKUI; HU;
HUANG; IMM-3; JIANGSU; JIXIAN; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; WANG; ZHOU; ZHU.
666 Garden burnet (diyu)
REFERENCES
See the General References for BARNES; CHP; FERNALD; FOSTER AND DUKE; GRIEVE; HUANG; IMM-2; JIANGSU;
JILIN; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; WANG; ZHOU.
Honeysuckle flower (jinyinhua) 667
1. P. J. Li and C. Z. Li, Hebei Zhongyi, 11(6), 7. G. P. Zhou et al., Chin. J. Dermatol., 24,
16 (1989). 192 (1991).
2. W. B. Lu and Y. Q. Zhao, Henan Zhongyi, 8. M. X. Liu, Faming Zhuanli Gongbao,
8(5), 30 (1988). 7(21), 11 (1991).
3. Y. L. Chen and H. Y. Zhou, Zhongguo 9. G. W. Qin et al., Zhongcaoyao, 22, 483
Yiyuan Yaoxue Zazhi, 9, 277 (1989). (1991).
4. T. S. Wang and B. X. Jiang, Zhongyi, 2(1), 10. F. Abe et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 35,
41 (1989). 1148 (1987).
5. G. S. Xu, Shaanxi Zhongyi, 10, 204(1989). 11. I. Yosioka et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 19,
6. Z. Y. Zhang, Xinzhongyi, 23(4), 18 (1991). 1700 (1971).
resistance and activating phagocytosis of being 1/6 that of caffeine (WANG) (see also
leukocytes in mice; lowering absorption of coffee).
cholesterol in the intestinal tract of rabbits; Toxicity of jinyinhua is low: LD50 in mice
and others (NATIONAL; WANG).10,11 was 53 g/kg (s.c.). Jinyinhua is a major ingre-
Some of the biological activities are due dient in some well-known Chinese cold reme-
to chlorogenic acid and saponins. In addi- dies such as Yinqiao Jiedu San, which is also
tion, chlorogenic acid inhibited nitrosation sometimes used externally to treat itching and
in vitro and in vivo in rats;12 inhibited tumor inflammatory conditions. Aqueous and hydro-
formation in experimental animals;13 and alcoholic extracts of jinyinhua are used in skin-
also has central stimulant effects in mice care products (creams, lotions, cleansers) for its
and rats when administered per os, effect antimicrobial and astringent properties (ETIC).
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHP; FERNALD; FOSTER AND YUE; HU; HUANG; JIANGSU; JIANGSU PROVINCIAL 3;
JIXIAN; LEUNG; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NATIONAL; WANG; ZHU.
1. G. M. Ding and L. C. Sun, Jiangxi 8. Q. Mao and X. S. Jia, Yaoxue Xuebao,
Zhongyiyao, (5), 45 (1988). 24, 269 (1989).
2. X. G. Dong et al., Zhongyao Tongbao, 9. A. Hermans-Lokkerbol and R. Verpoorte,
10(5), 31 (1985). Planta Med., 53, 546 (1987).
3. H. R. Li et al., Jilin Zhongyiyao, (2), 39 10. G. Y. Song et al., Zhongcaoyao, 16(5), 37
(1989). (1985).
4. H. B. Lin et al., Shandong Zhongyi Zazhi, 11. Y. S. Nan et al., Zhongchengyao, 11(8),
9(4), 34 (1990). 17 (1989).
5. B. Q. Liu et al., Jilin Zhongyiyao, (3), 41 12. B. Pignatelli et al., Carcinogenesis, 3,
(1992). 1045 (1982)
6. G. L. Wang et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao 13. Anon., C&EN, 69(37), 27 (1991).
Zazhi, 17, 268 (1992).
7. J. Liu et al., Acta Pharmacol. Sin., 9, 395
(1988).
KNOTWEED, GIANT
(HUZHANG) Recorded use in China dates back at least
2000 years. Traditionally considered slightly
Rhizome and root of Polygonum cuspidatum bitter and cold; used to treat arthritic pain,
Sieb. et Zucc. (Family Polygonaceae), a stout jaundice (shi re HUANG dan), amenorrhea,
perennial with mottled stems, 1–2.5 m high, abdominal mass (zheng jia), cough with ex-
also known as Japanese knotweed and ‘‘huz- cessive phlegm, traumatic injuries, skin sores
hang ¼ tiger cane’’ in Chinese; the plant is and boils, and burns and scalds (CHP); also used
native to eastern Asia, has escaped in North in Japan to treat suppurative dermatitis, gon-
America, and is now a weed throughout New orrhea, favus, athlete’s foot, and
England and neighboring states and Canada; hyperlipemia.2
young shoots edible.1 Rhizome and root are Recently used in treating burns, acute viral
dug up in spring or autumn, cut into sections, hepatitis, leukocytopenia due to chemother-
and sun dried. apy and radiotherapy, and acute infections
Ligusticum (gaoben) 669
(lung infection, appendicitis, etc.) with con- minic effects in experimental animals; decoc-
siderable success (WANG).3 tion and polydatin also had hypotensive and
Contains anthraquinones and their glyco- vasodilating actions; polydatin (not decoc-
sides (chrysophanol, physcione, emodin, tion; per os) markedly lowered serum lipid
emodin-8-O-D-glucoside (polygonin), phys- levels in rats; an alcoholic extract was antiox-
cione-8-O-D-glucoside, etc.); stilbenes (res- idant in vitro;9 resveratrol and polydatin (i.p.,
veratrol (3,5,40 -trihydroxy stilbene)) and or per os) reduced triglyceride synthesis
piceid (polydatin; resveratrol-3-O-D-gluco- from palmitate in mouse liver;4 polydatin also
side); 2-methoxy-6-acetyl-7-methyljuglone had liver-protectant and antioxidant (vs. lipid
(a naphthoquinone); and others, including peroxidation) effects as well as inhibited
fallacinol, citreorosein, questin, questinal, platelet aggregation of rabbits both in vitro
protocatechuic acid, ( þ )-catechin, 2,5-di- and in vivo.4,10
methyl-7-hydroxychromone, torachrysone- The anthraquinones and their glycosides
8-O- D -glucose, 7-hydroxy-4-methoxy-5- (esp. emodin) exhibited cytotoxic effects on
methylcoumarin, condensed tannin, and poly- HL-60 cells.6 Emodin and the stilbenes have
saccharides (IMM-1; JIANGSU).2,4–7 recently been shown to be inhibitors of a
Aqueous extracts have antibacterial (poly- protein-tyrosine kinase partially purified from
gonin and polydatin active principles) and bovine thymus.11
strong antiviral activities in vitro, especially Extracts used in skin lotions and creams
against influenza virus Asian strain 68-1, (e.g., antifatigue, massage, and cleansing
ECHO11, HSV, and Coxsackie enteroviruses creams) for their antimicrobial and astringent
A and B as well as hepatitis B virus (WANG).8 properties (ZHOU); their intensely yellow color
Huzhang decoction exhibited antitussive may limit their scope of application (see
(polydatin an active principle) and antihista- phellodendron bark).
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHP; FERNALD; HUANG; JIANGSU; JIXIAN; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; WANG; ZHOU; ZHU.
1. J. Richardson, Wild Edible Plants of 7. C. G. Ouyang, Zhongcaoyao, 18(8), 45
New England, Delorme Publishing Co., (1987).
Yarmouth, ME, 1981. 8. J. Y. Yang et al., Chin. J. Integr. Trad.
2. Y. Kimura et al., Planta Med., 48, 164 West. Med., 9, 494 (1989).
(1983). 9. Y. L. Zhou and R. X. Xu, Zhongguo
3. W. Z. Huang, Fujian Zhongyiyao, 18(4), Zhongyao Zazhi, 17, 368 (1992).
27 (1987). 10. P. Tong and Z. T. Zhang, Zhongguo
4. C.W.Shan,YaoxueXuebao,23,394(1988). Yaoxue Zazhi, 26, 363 (1991).
5. H. Arichi et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 30, 11. G. S. Jayatilake et al., J. Nat. Prod., 56,
1766 (1982). 1805 (1993).
6. S. F. Yeh et al., Planta Med., 413 (1988).
rhizome bearing many thin roots while the volatile oil and its individual components vary
latter has a short rhizome. Ligusticum sinense with the geographic and botanical sources;
is distributed and produced in central China, major components present include: neocnidi-
including the provinces of Hubei, Shaanxi, lide (0–25.57%), cnidilide (2.93–10.78%),
and Sichuan while L. jeholense (syn. Liaoning myristicin (1.63–9.08%), ligustilide
gaoben) is distributed and produced in north- (0–6.23%), butylidene phthalide (0–2.01%),
eastern provinces, including Liaoning, Jilin, b-phellandrene (0–33.32%), 4-terpinyl ace-
Inner Mongolia, Hebei, and Shandong (HU; tate (3.59–13.82%), limonene (0–14.44%),
JIANGSU). Roots and rhizomes are mostly wild terpineol-4 (2.7–8.0%), and terpinolene
crafted, in spring and autumn, and after being (2.67–3.24%).4 Other compounds present
rid of dirt, stem, and shoots, they are sun-dried include methyleugenol, butyl phthalide,
or dried by artificial heat (ZHU). 3-butylidene-4,5-dihydrophthalide, and sen-
Although Gaoben is closely related to Sich- kyunolides A, G, H, and I (HU; IMM-2).2,5
uan lovage (chuanxiong) and is used inter- Decoction (15–30%) has exhibited antifun-
changeably in some areas, they are distinctly gal activities against dermatophytes in vitro
different drugs, with some distinctly different (JIANGSU). Fat- and water-soluble extractives
uses. They can be differentiated by their reduced inflammation (croton seed oil in-
microscopic features (XU AND XU) as well as duced otitis in mice) by 75.3% and 72.9%,
chemical compositions.1 respectively; water extract also active against
Earliest written record dates back to the experimental edema (egg white induced).5
Shan Hai Jing (ca. 800 BC); and later also The neutral fraction of the volatile oil
described in the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing (ca. (L. sinense) has been shown to have numerous
200 BC–AD 100). Traditionally regarded as biological activities, including: sedative, an-
acrid tasting and warming; removing rheu- algesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory in
matic and arthritic pain (qu feng); dispersing experimental animals;6,7 antispasmodic and
cold; eliminating wetness; and stopping pain. antihistaminic;8 markedly decreasing oxygen
Used to treat the common cold and headache consumption, prolonging survival time, in-
associated with it, headache on top of head creasing ability of tissue to tolerate anoxia
(dian ding tong), migraine, rheumatic and and extending survival time in mice under
arthritic pain, acne, acne rosacea, skin cerebral ischemic anoxia.9
blemishes (freckles and dark spots), and Ferulic acid and ligustilides are some of the
abdominal pain and diarrhea; also used in active principles of gaoben (see also Sichuan
treating ringworm, scabies, and dandruff (CHP; lovage).
JIANGSU; NATIONAL). In Jiangxi, gaoben (chax- Powder and extracts used in hair-care and
iong, L. sinense) is often brewed with tea for skin-care products, (especially acne and whit-
the prevention of diseases.2 Like Sichuan ening creams), often together with Dahurian
lovage, it is one of the most commonly used angelica, for many of the same functions (e.g.,
ingredients in traditional Chinese beauty for- antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, and tyrosinase
mulas (see sichuan lovage).3 inhibitory) as Sichuan lovage;3–10,11 also
Contains 0.3–1.8% volatile oil;1–4 b-sitos- imparts special aroma to products.
terol, ferulic acid, and others. Amounts of
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHP; HONGKUI; HU; IMM-2; JIANGSU; JIXIAN; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; XU AND XU;
ZCYX.
1. B.C. Zhang et al., Zhongcaoyao, 17(8), 34 2. Q. S. Li et al., Zhongcaoyao, 24(4), 180
(1986). (1993).
Luffa (sigualuo) 671
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHEUNG AND LI; CHP; IMM-3; JIANGSU; LEUNG; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2;
NATIONAL.
672 Mume (smoked plum or wumei)
1. S. Y. Zee and L. H. Hui, Hong Kong Food 3. B. Kang et al., Shiyong Zhongxiyi Zazhi, 6,
Plants, The Urban Council of Hong Kong, 227 (1993).
1981, p. 42. 4. B. Kang et al., Zhongcaoyao, 24, 248
2. X. L. Gu, Zhejiang Zhongyi Zazhi, 23, 88 (1993).
(1988).
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; CHP; HU; HUANG; IMM-3; JIANGSU; JIXIAN; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; WANG;
ZHOU AND WANG; ZHU.
1. Z. H. Dong, Zhongchengyao, 11(11), 37 2. L. H. Liu and Z. X. Tang, Zhongyi Zazhi,
(1989). (1), 15 (1989).
Pearl (zhenzhu or margarita) and mother-of-pearl (zhenzhumu) 673
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHP; CMH; HU; JIANGSU; JIXIAN; MA; NATIONAL; ZCYX; ZHU.
1. Y. B. Xie, Dazhong Zhongyiyao, (4), 39 5. W. Y. Yang et al., Haiyang Yaowu Zazhi,
(1990). (1), 29 (1986).
2. L. F. Wen, Zhongguo Yaoxue Zazhi, 24, 6. Y. W. Huang et al., Chin. J. Integr., Trad.
276 (1989). West. Med., 7, 596 (1987).
3. S. X. Sun, Chin. J. Integr, Trad. West. 7. Z. H. Zhu et al., Zhonghua Xiaolzua Zazhi,
Med., 6, 408 (1986). 2, 167 (1982).
4. H. J. Yang et al., Sichuan Zhongyi, (4), 57 8. Y. N. Yang et al., Haiyang Yaowu Zazhi,
(1988). (1), 16 (1986).
stems and thick roots; native to China, now arabinoside), and the monoterpene glyco-
extensively cultivated, also as ornamental in sides paeoniflorin, benzoylpaeoniflorin, and
the United States (HAY AND SYNGE). The roots oxypaeoniflorin (JIANGSU PROVINCIAL 1);1
from 3- to 5-year-old plants are dug up in 1,2,3,4,6-pentagalloylglucose;2 a volatile oil
autumn or early spring, rid of dirt and root- (0.15–0.4%) and phytosterols (NATIONAL). The
lets; the bark is removed and sun dried (yuan amounts of paeonol vary greatly depending
danpi or original bark) or the outer bark on geographic and reporting sources, ranging
is first scraped off with a bamboo knife from a low of 0.19–0.54%1,3 to a high of
or broken porcelain and then dried (gua 3.5%,4 with a more common range of
danpi or scraped bark). Produced mainly in 1.08–2.51% (HU).5
central and eastern provinces. There are Many of the biological activities of peony
numerous grades between the two types of bark can be attributed to paeonol, which
peony bark. include: anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipy-
Earliest recorded medicinal use of peony retic, central depressant, antibacterial and
bark in China dates back at least 2000 years antifungal, diurectic, and antiatherosclerotic
to the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing (ca. 200 and antiplatelet aggregation, among
BC–AD 100). Traditionally considered pungent others.3,6–10 The toxicities of paeonol are low,
and bitter tasting, cooling and to have heat- its LD5O in mice being 196 mg/kg (i.v.),
dispersing, blood-cooling, and blood- 781 mg/kg (i.p.) and 3430 mg/k (p.o.).8
activating as well as stasis-removing proper- 1,2,3,4,6-Pentagalloylglucose had antiviral
ties; it is used in treating skin rashes, nose- activities.2
bleed, and vomiting blood due to ‘‘heat and Extracts (water and hydroalcoholic) and
toxins’’ (wen du fa ban) (e.g., viral or bacte- paeonol are used in dental products (e.g.,
rial infections such as flu, measles, acute toothpaste for inflamed and sore gums),
appendicitis, etc.), neurodermatitis, carbun- hair-care and skin-care products (e.g., antial-
cles, amenorrhea and dysmenorrhea, abdom- lergy creams and lotions) for their antibacte-
inal pain, hypertension, allergic sinusitis, rial, anti-inflammatory, and traditional skin-
urticaria, and traumatic injuries and contu- soothing and skin-protectant properties
sions, and so on. (ETIC).
Peony bark contains paeonol, paeonoside
(paeonol glucoside), paeonolide (paeonoside-
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; CHP; FOSTER AND YUE; HONGKUI; HU; HUANG; JIANGSU; JIANGSU
PROVINCIAL 1; JIXIAN; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NATIONAL; ZHU.
1. J. Yu et al., Yaoxue Xuebao, 20, 229 6. A. B. Wang and X. C. Tang,
(1985). Zhongcaoyao, 14(10), 26 (1983).
2. M. Takechi and Y. Tanaka, Planta Med., 7. L. Shi et al., Acta Pharmacol. Sin., 9, 555
45, 252 (1982). (1988).
3. K. Kawashima et al., Planta Med., 187, 8. Q. A. Li, Zhongcaoyao, 19(6), 36 (1988).
(1985). 9. T. Ohta et al., Yakugaku Zasshi, 81, 100
4. T. Tani et al., J. Ethnopharmacol., 21, 37 (1961).
(1987). 10. M. Harada et al., Yakugaku Zasshi, 92,
5. Y. S. Zhou et al., Zhongchengyao, 14(7), 750 (1972).
23 (1992).
676 Peony root, red and white (shaoyao: chishaoyao and baishaoyao)
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; CHP; ETIC; FOSTER AND YUE; HONGKUI; HU; HUANG; JIANGSU; JIXIAN;
MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NATIONAL; ZHOU; ZHU.
1. R. J. Chai, Beijing Zhongyi Xueyuan 10. M. Y. Wang et al., Liaoning Zhongyi
Xuebao, 14(1), 49 (1991). Zazhi, (9), 43 (1992).
2. J. C. Li, Zhongyao Tongbao, 12(8), 54 11. B. Y. Liang et al., Shanghai Zhongyiyao
(1987). Zazhi, (6), 4 (1989).
3. J. Yu et al., Yaoxue Xuebao, 20, 229 12. J. S. Liang et al., Chin. J. Pharmacol.
(1985). Toxicol., 4, 258 (1990).
4. C. D. Jin et al., Zhongcaoyao, 24, 183 13. M. R. Liang et al., Xinzhongyi, (3), 51
(1993). (1989).
5. C. F. Wu, Zhongyao Tongbao, 10(6), 43 14. H. Zhang et al., Chin. J. Pharmacol.
(1985). Toxicol., 4, 190 (1990).
6. H. Y. Lang et al., Planta Med., 50, 501 15. D. Zhou et al., Jilin Zhongyiyao, (2), 38
(1984). (1993).
7. H. S. Chen et al., Zhongguo Yaoxue 16. K. W. Huang et al., Chin. J. Oncol., 6, 319
Zazhi, 28, 137 (1993). (1984).
8. M. Kaneda et al., Tetrahedron, 28, 4309 17. X. B. Ni, Zhongcaoyao, 22, 429
(1972). (1991).
9. H. Y. Lang et al., Yaoxue Xuebao, 18, 551
(1983).
June from trees at least 10 years old, rid of Amur corktree bark contains alkaloids
outer cork layer, cut into small sections, and composed mainly of berberine (0.6–2.5%),
sun dried. phellodendrine, magnoflorine, jatrorrhizine,
Recorded use of HUANGbai dates back at candicine, and palmatine; limonin (bitter prin-
least 2000 years. Traditionally considered to ciple); obakunone, dictamnolide, g-sitosterol,
taste bitter and cold, with heat-clearing, wet- b-sitosterol, 7-dehydrostigmasterol, stigmas-
ness-drying (zaa shi), fire-purging (xie huo), terol, and mucilage, and so on.
and detoxifying properties. Used in treating Chinese corktree bark contains similar con-
numerous heat (re) conditions, including stituents, but with higher berberine content
acute bacterial dysentery, acute enteritis, acute (4–8%). Aqueous extracts of Amur corktree
icterohepatitis, jaundice, urinary infections, bark have strong antioxidant10 as well as strong
night sweating, wet dreams, leukorrhagia, and and broad antibacterial and antifungal activities
oral sores. Externally used in treating eczema, (berberine is one of the active components); the
pruritus, and skin sores, among others. alkaloids (esp. berberine, phellodendrine, and
In recent years, it has been extensively and palmatine) also have hypotensive action in
successfully used in China as an ingredient in animals; other activities include hypoglycemic,
numerous formulas (in extract or powder hypocholesterolemic, and blood platelet
form) for treating burns, often together with protective effects (JILIN; WANG).
giant knotweed, garden burnet, baikal scull- Extracts used in baby powder and acne
cap (see individual entries), and zicao;1–7 also creams and as natural preservatives in pro-
used in wounds and injuries and to treat acne ducts that are not incompatible with a yellow
and facial dark spots.8,9 tone imparted by these extracts (ETIC; ZHOU).
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHP; ETIC; HU; JIANGSU; JILIN; HUANG; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; NATIONAL; WANG;
ZHOU.
1. Y. D. Ge, Xinzhongyi, (1), 25 (1986). 6. D. C. Chen, Shiyong Zhongxiyi Jiehe
2. H. T. Mao et al., Chin. J. Integr. Trad. Zazhi (PJCM), 4, 414 (1991).
West. Med., 7, 532 (1987). 7. X. W. Sun et al., Xinzhongyi, (12), 30
3. Y. H. Dong, Zhejiang Zhongyi Zazhi, 23, (1992).
495 (1988). 8. X. D. Zhou, Chin. J. Integr. Trad. West.
4. Z. L. Li and Z. P. Xie, Sichuan Zhongyi, Med., 5, 726 (1985).
(2), 43 (1990). 9. L. T. Songand and H. J. Jiang, Jilin
5. H. Q. Song and F. X. Wang, Yunnan Zhongyiyo, (3), 36 (1992).
Zhongyi Zazhi, 12(3), 34 (1991). 10. L. C. Song et al., ShaanxiZhongyi,
14, 185 (1993).
herb, aerial parts are collected in summer and (A, B1, B2, C), niacinamide, nicotinic acid,
early autumn when stems and leaves are in a-tocopherol, (b-carotene, etc.); minerals (es-
their fullest, washed free of dirt, briefly treated pecially potassium); fatty acids, especially
with boiling water, and sun dried. Produced omega-3 acids whose concentration in purs-
throughout China. lane is the highest found in leafy vegetables;2
Also known as garden purslane, green purs- glutathione; glutamic acid; and aspartic
lane, and pigweed, it is eaten as a salad and acid. Other constituents include a mucilage
vegetable by people around the world; and is composed of an acidic and a neutral fraction
used medicinally for various conditions, with structure determined,3 calcium oxalate,
including headache, stomachache, painful uri- malic and citric acids, dopamine and dopa,
nation, dysentery, enteritis, mastitis, lack of coumarins, flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins,
milk flow in nursing mothers, and in postpar- and urea, among others (JIANGSU; WATT AND
1–7
tum bleeding; and externally in treating burns, MERRILL).
earache, insect stings, inflammations, skin An aqueous extract of purslane exhibited
sores, ulcers, pruritus, eczema, and abscesses, skeletal muscle relaxant effects both in vitro
for which the fresh herb is normally used as and in vivo; it also relaxed guinea pig gastric
poultice or expressed juice (FOSTER AND DUKE; fundus, taenia coli, and rabbit jejunum as well
1
GRIEVE). as contracted the rabbit aorta and raised blood
Purslane’s earliest recorded use in China pressure.8–10 Topical application of the aque-
dates back to about 500 AD in the Ben Cao Jing ous extract onto the skin was effective in
Ji ZHU. Traditionally considered sour tasting relieving muscle spasms.9
and cold, with heat-relieving and detoxicant Other biological effects include: antibacte-
(qing re jie du) as well as blood-cooling and rial and antifungal; wound healing; anti-
hemostatic properties; used internally in inflammatory; uterine stimulant; and diuretic
treating bacillary dysentery, hematochezia in rabbits (JIANGSU; NATIONAL).11,12
(bloody stool), bleeding hemorrhoids and Although norepinephrine may account for
metrorrhagia; and externally to treat the same some pharmacologic activities, the active
conditions listed above except in addition to principles for most of the biological activities
using the fresh herb, the Chinese also use and medicinal properties of purslane are still
decoctions and powder of the dried herb for unidentified.
topical application. In recent years, it has also Due to its high content of nutrients, espe-
been used to treat colitis, acute appendicitis, cially antioxidants (vitamins A and C,
diabetes, dermatitis, and shingles (IMM-4; a-tocopherol, b-carotene, glutathione) and
JIANGSU). omega-3 fatty acids, and its wound-healing
Purslane contains large amounts of l-nor- and antimicrobial effects as well as its tradi-
epinephrine (l-noradrenaline; 0.25% in fresh tional use in the topical treatment of inflam-
herb), a neurohormone that has vasopressor matory conditions, purslane is a highly likely
and antihypotensive activities and reduces candidate as a useful cosmetic ingredient.
hemorrhage at the tissue level (JIANGSU; Since most of the reported effects of purs-
MARTINDALE). lane are due to its fresh juice or to its
It also contains numerous common nutri- decoction, water extractives would be most
ents (varying from low to high concentrations suitable.
depending on report), including: vitamins
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHP; FERNALD; FOSTER and DUKE; FUJIAN; GRIEVE; HUANG; IMM-4; JIANGSU;
JIXIAN; MARTINDALE; NATIONAL.
680 Red sage (danshen)
mice (0.5 ml) for 14 days and to rats (2.5 mL) Tanshinones can be extracted with ether,
for 10 days produced no obvious toxic reac- acetone, or related solvents while danshensu
tions (WANG). is extracted with water.
Tanshinone IIA sulfonate (a major active Extracts used in hair liniments and sham-
principle) did not promote growth or metasta- poos for their alleged ability to prevent hair
sis of Lewis carcinoma transplated in mice.19 loss and maintain hair color (see safflower);
In addition to cardiovascular diseases, also used in skin creams and lotions for their
danshen extracts (per os) have been success- alleged whitening effects (ZHOU).
fully used in treating acne, psoriasis, eczema
and other skin diseases (WANG).12,20
REFERENCES
See the General References for BRUNETON; CHP; DER MARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; FOSTER AND YUE; HONGKUI;
HU; HUANG; JIANGSU; JIXIAN; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; WANG; ZHOU.
1. A. Yagi et al., Planta Med., 55, 51 11. Y. D. Shi et al., Zhongyao Tongbao, 11
(1989). (7), 48 (1986).
2. H. W. Luo et al., Phytochemistry, 24, 815 12. D. B. Wang, J. Trad. Chin. Med., 3, 227
(1985). (1983).
3. N. Wang et al., Planta Med., 55, 390 13. Z. W. Zou et al., Yaoxue Xuebao, 28, 241
(1989). (1993).
4. L. N. Li et al., Planta Med., 227 14. Y. G. Gao et al., Chin. J. Integr. Trad.
(1984). West. Med., 3, 300 (1983).
5. Y. S. Huang and J. T. Zhang, Yaoxue 15. Y. L. Zhou and R. X. Xu, Zhongguo
Xuebao, 27, 96 (1992). Zhongyao Zazhi, 17, 368 (1992).
6. C. Z. Li et al., Chin. J. Integr. Trad. West. 16. C. C. Ruan et al., Chin. J. Cancer, 8, 29
Med., 3, 297 (1983). (1989).
7. X. M. Sun et al., Zhongcaoyao, 22, 20 17. P. G. Xiao and K. J. Chen, Phytother.
(1991). Res., 1(2), 53 (1987).
8. H. W. Luo et al., Yaoxue Xuebao, 23, 830 18. H. J. Deng et al., Zhongguo Zhongyao
(1988). Zazhi, 17, 233 (1992).
9. X. M. Xu and Z. Y. Xiao, Zhongcaoyao, 19. M. Z. Liu et al., Acta Pharmacol. Sin., 12,
15(1), 1 (1984). 534 (1991).
10. N. Wang and H. W. Luo, Zhongcaoyao, 20. D. B. Wang et al., Chin. J. Dermatol., 21,
20(4), 7 (1989). 167 (1988).
First described in the Shan Han Lu (circa arabinose, and galactose in b-linkages);2 lig-
3rd century AD), safflower is one of the nans, fatty acids; and others.3
commonly used huo xue hua yu (activating Safflower yellow has immunosuppressive
circulation to dissipate blood stasis) herbs. and strong anticoagulant activities;1,4 and saf-
Traditionally used to invigorate blood, break flower polysaccharide has immunopotentiat-
up stasis, facilitate menstruation, and relieve ing effects.2 Other activities of safflower
pain; used in cardiovascular conditions (e.g., extracts include: cardiac stimulant, vasodilat-
amenorrhea, menorrhalgia coronary heart dis- ing, hypolipemic, hypotensive, uterine stimu-
ease, chest pain, and traumatic injuries). lant, and so on.5 Toxicities are low: i.v. LD50 of
Although also used to ‘‘calm’’ live fetus and carthamin in mice is 2.35 0.14 g/kg while
abort dead fetus, caution in pregnancy is nor- safe oral dose is >8 g/kg; i.p. MLD of decoc-
mally advised. tion in mice is 1.2 g/kg; and a 50% injection
Contains a complex mixture of red and when dropped in rabbit eye produced no irri-
yellow pigments including 20–30% safflower tation to its conjunctiva.
yellow (safflower yellow; SY) which is com- Extract used in most Chinese hair growth
posed of safflomin A (75%), SY-2 (15%), liniments along with danshen and tonic herbs
SY-3, and SY-4, all chalcones;1 glycosides of for its blood-invigorating and vasodilating
chalcone (e.g., carthamin; yellow) and qui- effects that are thought to facilitate transpor-
none (e.g., carthamone; red), with the latter tation of other tonic ingredients to nourish
predominant in the commercial product; also the hair follicles; in facial and body massage
colorless flavonoids and flavonoid glycosides preparations and bath preparations for the
(carthamidin, isocarthamidin, neocarthamin); same effects; also can be used as a coloring
safflower polysaccharide (glucose, xylose, agent.
REFERENCES
See the General References for BRUNETON; DERMARDEROSIAN AND BEUTLER; DUKE 4; GRIEVE; HONGKUI; HU;
HUANG; JIANGSU; JIXIAN; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; WANG; ZHOU.
1. Z. W. Lu et al., Acta Pharmacol. Sin., 12, 4. Z. L. Huang et al., Zhongcaoyao, 18 (4), 22
537 (1991). (1987).
2. H. Huang et al., Zhongcaoyao, 15(5), 21 5. C. Z. Li et al., Zhongcaoyao, 14(7), 27
(1984). (1983).
3. X. Q. An et al., Zhongcaoyao, 21(4), 44
(1990).
warming; promoting blood circulation, and (volatile oil); antibacterial, antifungal, and
activating vital energy (huo xue xing qi); alle- antiviral; radiation protective and other effects
viating mental depression (kai yu); and remov- (WANG; ZHOU AND WANG).
ing rheumatic and arthritic pain (qu feng). In addition to its cardiovascular and hema-
Traditionally used in treating irregular menses, tologic activities, tetramethylpyrazine also
amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, abdominal mass has antimetastatic effects in animals.21 It is
(zheng jia), abdominal pain, chest pain, swell- used in China to treat ischemic cerebrovascu-
ing, and pain due to traumatic injuries, head- lar diseases, coronary heart disease, and angi-
ache, rheumatism, and arthritic pain. Exten- na pectoris (WANG; ZHOU);11,22 with one case
sively used over the centuries as an ingredient of drug-induced skin rash reported.23
in many famous beauty formulas (both internal Adenosine has exhibited antiplatelet aggre-
and topical), ranking third or fourth among the gation and central inhibitory activities (anal-
most frequently used herbs in traditional gesic, reducing spontaneous motor activity,
Chinese beauty formulas (cosmetics).1–3 and prolonging death time induced by caf-
Contains alkaloids (0.15% in rawand 0.20% feine); also has weak muscle relaxant effects
after wine-curing),4 including tetramethylpyr- (see ganoderma).24
azine (ligustrazine, chuanxiongzine), L-isobu- Ferulic acid has antiallergic, broad cardio-
tyl-L-valine anhydride, and perlolyrine;5 vascular, and hematologic effects (antiplatelet
phthalides, including butylphthalide, 4-hy- aggregation, antithrombic, etc.) as well as
droxy-3-butylphthalide (chuanxiongol), inhibitory effects on lipid peroxidation (see
butylidene phthalide, hydroxybutylidene angelica).25,26
phthalide, dihydroxybutylidene phthalide, li- Toxicities of ferulic acid and tetramethyl-
gustilide, sedanenolide, cnidilide, neocnidi- pyrazine were both fairly low (LD50 (i.v.) ¼
lide, and so on;5–10 phenols, including ferulic 866 29 mg/kg and 416 17 mg/kg, respec-
acid, caffeic acid, chrysophanol, and vanillic tively, in mice), but their toxicities were much
acid;5,11,12 volatile oil (1.0–1.6%, depending lower when used together, indicating the
on sources) containing the phthalides;13 ade- traditional rationale of using both danggui
nine and adenosine;14 spathulenol;15 sedano- (ferulic acid) and chuanxiorcg (tetramethyl-
nic acid, and others (HU; IMM-2).11 pyrazine) in the same formula to obtain the
The chemical composition of chuanxiong desired effects with lower toxicity.27
is similar but distinctly different from that of Powder and extracts (aqueous, oil, and hy-
gaoben (Chinese ligusticum).13 droalcoholic) are used in hair care products for
Chuanxiong has exhibited various biologi- their vasodilating and traditional hair-nourish-
cal activities, including: cardiovascular (cor- ing properties to prevent hair loss and premature
onary dilatation, increasing coronary, cerebral graying; and in skin care products (e.g., cleans-
and renal blood flow, reducing vascular resis- ing creams, nourishing creams, acne creams
tance, hypotensive, calcium antagonistic, and and lotions) for their vasodilating, antimicrobi-
others, with tetramethylpyrazine being a ma- al, antiallergic effects as well as traditional skin-
jor active component and perlolyrine a minor whitening (tyrosinase inhibitory),28,29 anti-
active component);9,16–20 antispasmodic swelling, and antiwrinkle properties (ETIC;
1–3
(ligustilide: cnidilide, ferulic acid, and alka- ZHOU). Tetramethylpyrazine hydrochloride
loids);9,11 antiplatelet aggregation (tetra- eye drops are used in the prevention and treat-
methylpyrazine and ferulic acid);9,11 Sedative ment of near-sightedness.30
REFERENCES
See the General References for CHP; ETIC; HONGKUI; IMM-2; IMM-CAMS; JIANGSU; WANG; ZHOU; ZHOU AND
WANG; ZHU.
684 Skullcap, baikal (HUANGQIN)
and dirt removed, the root is partially dried, bitter and cold and to have heat-clearing, wet-
rid of root bark, and then further dried to ness-drying (zao shi), fire-purging (xie huo),
completion. Produced mainly in northern detoxifying, hemostatic, and fetus-calming
China. Several other species of Scutellaria properties; used to treat heat (re) related
Skullcap, baikal (HUANGQIN) 685
conditions, including restlessness and thirst Decoction and alcohol extractives have
(fan ke), cough, diarrhea, tight chest and exhibited broad antibacterial and antifungal
abdominal distention (pi man), jaundice, fever, effects in vitro; also active against several
vomiting of blood, sores, carbuncles, furun- viruses, including influenza strains PR8 and
cles, red eye with swelling and pain, and Asian A; baicalein being one of the major
threatened abortion (restless fetus). active principles. (2S),20 ,5,60 ,7-Tetrahydroxy-
In recent years, Baikal skullcap is also flavanone is active against Gram-negative
used in treating burns, often combined with bacteria (WANG).3
phellodendron, giant knotweed, and garden Baicalein, baicalin, wogonin, skullcapfla-
burnet (see individual entries), as well as vone II, and 20 ,5,50 ,7-tetrahydroxy-60 ,8-di-
different kinds of infections (bacterial, viral, methoxyflavone have anti-inflammatory and
etc.) and hypertension, among others (JIANGSU). antiallergic effects in animals; skullcapfla-
Baikal skullcap contains flavonoids and vone II also exhibited cytotoxic effects on
their glycosides, including baicalein (5,6, L1210 cells (JIANGSU).4–6
7-trihydroxyflavone), wogonin (5,7-dihy- Other biological effects of HUANGqin
droxy-8-methoxyflavone), skullcapflavone I include: sedative; antipyretic; hypotensive, di-
(5,6 0 -dihydroxy-7,8-dimethoxyfiavone), uretic; antiarthritic; hypolipemic; cholagogic;
skullcapflavone II (20 ,5-dihydroxy-6,60 ,7,8- antispasmodic; and detoxicant (WANG);7 also
tetramethoxyflavone), oroxylin A (5,7- strongly antioxidant (due to flavonoids).8–10
dihydroxy-6-methoxyflavone), koganebanain Baikal skullcap has very low toxicity:
(5,7-dihydroxy-6, 8,20 ,3 0 -tetramethoxyfla- 10 g/kg of decoction p.o. and 2 g/kg i.v. of
vone), (2S)-20 , 5,60 ,7-tetrahydroxyfiavanone, alcohol extractives produced only sedation but
(2R, 3R)-20 ,3,5, 60 ,7-pentahydroxyflavanone, no deaths in rabbits; and LD50 of baicalin in
20 ,5,50 ,7-tetrahydroxy-60 ,8-dimethoxyflavone, mice is 3.081 g/kg (i.v.). However, 15 mg/kg
baicalin (5,6,7-trihydroxyfiavone-7-O- D - of baicalin administered i.v. to rabbits was
glucuronide) wogonoside (5,7dihydroxy-8- fatal within 48 h (WANG).
methoxyflavone-7-O-glucuronide), oroxylin Extracts used in skin care products (esp.
A glucuronide, and others, with baicalin in skin freshener, acne creams and lotions, etc.)
major concentration (3.6–6.2%); benzoic acid, for their astringent, anti-inflammatory and
b-sitosterol, and so on (IMM-1; JIANGSU).1 Roots antimicrobial effects (ETIC; ZHOU); also used
of other Scutellaria species have similar in toothpaste.11
chemistry as Baikal skullcap.1
REFERENCES
See the General References for BAILEY 1; CHP; ETIC; FOSTER AND YUE; HONGKUI; HU; HUANG; IMM-1; JIANGSU;
JIXIAN; MCGUFFIN 1 & 2; WANG; ZHOU.
1. W. Z. Song, Yaoxue Xuebao, 16, 139 7. Z. Li and X. Y. Guo, Chin. J. Integr. Trad.
(1981). West. Med., 9, 698 (1989).
2. Q. M. Sun, Yaoxue Tongbao, 17(5), 33 8. Y. Kimura et al., Planta Med., 50, 290
(1982). (1984).
3. M.Kuboetal.,PlantaMed.,43,194(1981). 9. Y. Kimura et al., Chem. Pharm. Bull., 29,
4. Y. Kimura et al., Planta Med., 51, 132 2610 (1981).
(1985). 10. L. C. Song et al., Shaanxi Zhongyi, 14,
5. H.Otsukaetal.,J.Nat.Prod.,51,74(1988). 185 (1993).
6. S. H. Ryu et al., Planta Med., 51, 462 11. Z. Lin, Dazhong Zhongyiyao, (3), 47
(1985). (1990).
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Appendix B
Glossary/
Abbreviations
in water, but their salts are water soluble. Many pared by boiling the botanicals with water for
naturally derived drugs are alkaloids; well- a specific period of time, followed by straining
known examples are morphine, codeine, co- or filtering. These are normally not commer-
caine, caffeine, nicotine, emetine, atropine, and cially available in the United States
quinine DPPH. 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
ALT AND AST. Alanine aminotransferase and DRY EXTRACTS. Same as powdered extracts.
aspartate aminotransferase are enzymes located This term is used mainly in the United Kingdom
in liver cells that leak out into the general and in Commonwealth countries
circulation when liver cells are injured. Previ- EBV. Epstein-Barr virus
ously known as the SGPT (serum glutamic- EDHF. Endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing
pyruvic transaminase) and the SGOT (serum factor
glutaic-oxaloacetic transaminase), respectively ELIXIRS. Clear, sweetened, hydroalcoholic li-
ATPASE. Adenosine triphosphatase quids intended for oral use. They contain fla-
BALSAMS. Mixtures of resins that contain voring substances and, in the case of medicated
relatively large amounts of cinnamic or ben- elixirs, active medicinal agents. Their primary
zoic acid or their esters. Typical balsams are solvents are alcohol and water, with glycerin,
balsam Peru, balsam Tolu, styrax, and benzo- sorbitol, and syrup sometimes used as addition-
in. Canada balsam, Oregon balsam, and co- al solvents and/or sweetening agents. They are
paiba balsam are not true balsams since they prepared by simple solution or admixture of the
do not contain benzoic or cinnamic acid or several ingredients
their esters. Balsams are insoluble in water but ENZYMES. Proteins produced by living organ-
soluble in alcohol isms that can bring about specific changes in
695
696 Appendix B
other compounds (called substrates). En- evaporation of the more volatile components
zymes are also called organic catalysts; they in perfume formulations
are not consumed in the reactions they cata- FIXED (FATTY) OILS. Chemically the same as
lyze but are regenerated at the end of such fats. They differ only physically from fats in
reactions. The most commonly used enzymes that they are generally liquids at room
in the food and drug industries are proteases, temperature
amylases, lipases, and pectinases FLU A. Influenza A virus
ESSENTIAL OILS. Also known as volatile oils,
FLUID EXTRACTS. These extracts are com-
ethereal oils, or essences. When exposed to the monly hydroalcoholic solutions with
air they evaporate at room temperature. They strengths of 1:1. The alcohol content varies
are usually complex mixtures of a wide variety with each product. Fluid extracts are pre-
of organic compounds (e.g., hydrocarbons, pared either from native extracts or solid
alcohols, ketones, phenols, acids, ethers, alde- extracts by adjusting to the prescribed
hydes, esters, oxides, sulfur compounds, etc.). strength with alcohol and water or by direct
They generally represent the odoriferous prin- extraction of the botanicals with alcohol–
ciples of the plants from which they are ob- water mixtures as directed in the official
tained. Most of these compounds are derived compendia. The latter method usually pro-
from isoprene and are terpenes at different duces more desirable products due to the
stages of oxidation. Essential oils are generally fewer steps involved in processing. Fluid
isolated by distillation (most commonly steam extracts are also known as liquid extracts
distillation), solvent extraction, or expression.
GABA. g-Aminobutyric acid
Clove, cinnamon, and peppermint oils are
GLYCOSIDES. Sugar-containing compounds
obtained by steam distillation, whereas berga-
mot and lemon oils and sweet and bitter orange that on hydrolysis yield one or more sugars.
oils are obtained by expression They contain two components in their mole-
cules, glycone, and aglycone. The glycone is
EXTRACTS. Generally but not necessarily
the sugar component, which can be glucose,
concentrated forms of natural substances ob-
rhamnose, xylose, arabinose, or other sugars.
tained by treating crude materials containing
When the glycone is glucose, the glycoside is
these substances with a solvent and then re-
commonly known as a glucoside. The agly-
moving the solvent completely or partially
cone is the nonsugar component of the glyco-
from the preparations. Most commonly used
side; it can be any type of compound such as
extracts are fluid extracts (liquid extracts),
sterols, triterpenes, anthraquinones, hydroqui-
solid extracts, powdered extracts (dry ex-
nones, tannins, carotenoids, and anthocyani-
tracts), tinctures, and native extracts
dins. They are a very important group of
F.C.C. Food Chemicals Codex
natural products, are widely present in plants,
FATS. Glycerol esters (glycerides) of fatty and constitute major classes of drugs. Well-
acids. They are semisolids or solids at room known drug examples are digitalis glycosides,
temperature and are generally produced from sennosides, cascarosides, ginseng glycosides,
botanicals by expression and from animal rutin, and arbutin. Glycoside-containing ma-
materials by extraction or rendering terials that are used in foods include grape skin
FATTY ACIDS. Carboxylic acids obtained from color (betanin), soapbark, fenugreek, alfalfa
natural sources, mostly from fats. They can be (saponins), and licorice (glycyrrhizin)
both saturated and unsaturated. Examples of GRANULAR EXTRACTS. Produced in the same
saturated fatty acids are palmitic and stearic way as powdered extracts. They are also of the
acids; unsaturated ones are oleic, linoleic, and same potency as powdered extracts. The only
linolenic acids difference between them is that granular ex-
FIXATIVES. Materials, usually high boiling tracts have larger particle sizes
and of high molecular weight, that retard the GRAS. Generally regarded as safe
Appendix B 697
GUMS. Hydrocolloids. They are polysacchar- LIPIDS. Fatty materials that are soluble in fat
ides of high molecular weight and can be solvents (ether, chloroform, alcohol, etc.).
dissolved or dispersed in water to form a They include fatty acids, fats, waxes, fixed
viscous colloidal solution. The most common- oils, steroids, lecithins, and fat-soluble vita-
ly used natural gums are seaweed extracts mins (vitamins A, D, and K)
(agar, algin, carrageenan, furcellaran), tree LIQUID EXTRACTS. British equivalents of fluid
exudates (acacia, ghatti, karaya, tragacanth), extracts. They are used in the United Kingdom
tree extracts (larch gum), seed gums (guar, and the Commonwealth countries
locust bean, quince seed), and microbial gums M.W. Molecular weight
(dextran, xanthan)
MAO. Monoamine oxidase
GUM RESINS. Resins occurring admixed with
MENSTRUUMS (MENSTRUA). Solvents used for
gums. They usually also contain small
extraction, for example, alcohol, acetone, and
amounts of volatile oils and sometimes are
water
also called oleogum resins. Common exam-
MIC. Minimum inhibitory concentration.
ples are myrrh, gamboge, asafetida, galba-
num, and olibanum Minimum concentration that inhibits the
growth of a microorganism
HDL. High-density lipoprotein
NATIVE EXTRACTS. In the commercial manu-
HIV. Human immunodeficiency virus
facture of extracts, a botanical is first extracted
HSV-1. Herpes simplex virus type 1
with an appropriate solvent such as denatured
5-HT. 5-Hydroxytryptamine alcohol, alcohol, methanol, water, or mixtures
I.M. Intramuscular of these solvents. The extract is then concen-
I.P. Intraperitoneal trated under reduced pressure at low tempera-
I.V. Intravenous
tures until all solvent is removed. The viscous,
semisolid concentrated extract at this state is
IC50. 50% inhibitory concentration
called a native extract by some manufacturers.
IGE. Immunoglobulin E
The native extracts are usually of high potency
IL-6. Interleukin-6 from which solid, fluid, and powdered extracts
INFUSIONS. Infusions are sometimes the same of various strengths can be prepared by dilut-
as decoctions. They are generally dilute aque- ing with suitable diluents. If the botanical has
ous extracts containing the water-soluble in- resins and volatile oils as its active principles
gredients of the botanicals. They are prepared and the solvent used is a fat solvent, the
by extracting the botanicals with boiling wa- resulting native extract is equivalent to a pre-
ter. The resulting extracts are not concentrated pared oleoresin
further. Because of the dilute and aqueous N.F. National Formulary
nature of infusions and decoctions, they are NF-k B. Nuclear factor kappa B
very susceptible to microbial deterioration.
NO. Nitric oxide
Infusions are not normally available commer-
OLEOGUM RESINS. See gum resin
cially in the United States
OLEORESINS. Mixtures of mostly resins and
INOS. Inducible nitric oxide synthase
volatile oils. They either occur naturally or are
LD50. Lethal dose that kills 50% of a
prepared by solvent extraction of botanicals.
population
Prepared oleoresins are made by extracting the
LDL. Low-density lipoprotein
oily and resinous materials from botanicals
LIPASES. Lipolytic enzymes that hydrolyze with fat solvents (hexane, acetone, ether, al-
fats or fixed oils into their glycerol and fatty cohol). The solvent is then removed under
acid components. They are chiefly used in the vacuum, leaving behind a viscous, semisolid
dairy industry as flavor producers or modifiers extract that is an oleoresin. Examples of pre-
and in medicine as digestive aids pared oleoresins are paprika, ginger, and
698 Appendix B
capsicum (see also native extracts). Examples are solids or semisolids at room temperature.
of natural oleoresins are gum turpentine, Ore- They are soluble in alcohol and alkali solu-
gon balsam, and Canada balsam tions but are insoluble in water. They are
PAF. Platelet-activating factor usually noncrystalline, transparent or translu-
POWDERED EXTRACTS. Prepared from native
cent, and soften or melt on heating. Chemi-
extracts by diluting the native extracts to the cally they are complex oxidation products of
specified strengths with appropriate diluents terpenes. They rarely occur in nature without
(lactose, dextrose, sucrose, starch, etc.) and/or being mixed with gums and/or volatile oils,
anticaking agents (calcium phosphate, mag- forming gum resins, oleoresins, and oleogum
nesium carbonate, magnesium oxide, etc.), resins. Hence in commerce the term ‘‘resins’’
followed by drying, usually under vacuum, to is often used to include all above resinous
yield dry solids. These are then ground into materials. During preparation of a resin, the
fine powders to form powdered extracts or into alcoholic extract is poured into an excess of
coarse granules to produce granular extracts water or acidified water and the precipitated
resin is collected, washed, and dried. Typical
PROTEASES (PROTEINASES). Proteolytic en-
examples of prepared resins are podophyllum
zymes that act on proteins by attacking specific
and jalap resins. A prepared resin may also be
peptide linkages in the proteins and hydrolyz-
derived from a natural oleoresin by removing
ing them. Depending on their specific applica-
the volatile oil by heat or from a natural gum
tions, commonly used proteases can be of
resin by extracting its resin with alcohol fol-
plant, animal, or microbial origin. They find
lowed by removal of the solvent. Resins pre-
uses in tenderizing meat, modifying dough in
pared by alcohol extraction of natural resinous
baking, chillproofing beer, cheese making, in
materials are sometimes referred to as resi-
wound debridement, as digestive aids, in re-
noids. Resinoids may be considered as puri-
lieving inflammations, bruises, and blood
fied forms of certain resins; they are usually
clots, as well as in other industries (leather,
prepared from resins by extraction with
textile, dry cleaning, waste control). Examples
hydrocarbons
of widely used plant proteases are bromelain,
SAPONINS. Glycosides generally with sterols
ficin, and papain; common animal proteases
are pepsin and rennin. Proteases are usually or triterpenes as their aglycones (nonsugar
divided into two types. Endopeptidases break component), although there are exceptions.
up internal peptide bonds of the protein chain, They have the ability of forming foams when
producing peptides. Exopeptidases, on the their aqueous solutions are shaken. The agly-
other hand, cleave terminal peptide linkages, cone portions are called sapogenins. Many
producing amino acids. Most commercial pro- saponins are hemolytic. However their
teases are mixtures of different protease frac- foam-forming properties are utilized in bev-
tions and usually have both endopeptidase and erages. Common examples are extracts of
exopeptidase activities. Commercial proteases soapbark, yucca, and sarsaparilla. Other sapo-
come in many different grades that vary widely nin-containing natural ingredients include al-
in proteolytic strengths. Few published studies falfa, fenugreek, senega, ginseng, and licorice
on proteases, particularly commercial plant SOD. Superoxide dismutase
proteases, specify activity of enzymes used, SOFT EXTRACTS. A British term that is equiv-
and hence results are generally quantitatively alent to our native or solid extracts. It is used in
irreproducible the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth
ROS. Reactive oxygen species countries
RESINS. Natural products that either occur SOLID EXTRACTS. Also known as pilular ex-
naturally as plant exudates or are prepared by tracts. They are usually thin to thick, viscous
alcohol extraction of botanicals that contain liquids or semisolids prepared from native
resinous principles. Naturally occurring resins extracts by adjusting the latter to the correct
Appendix B 699
strength with suitable diluents (liquid glucose, specifications, some of them may actually
corn syrup, glycerol, propylene glycol, etc.). contain little or no active ingredients. Fur-
Solid extracts are generally of the same strength thermore, in recent years, strengths of extracts
as their corresponding powdered extracts are also expressed in reverse numerical order
STRENGTH OF EXTRACTS. The potencies or (e.g., 4 : 1 instead of 1 : 4), causing much
strengths of botanical drug extracts are gener- confusion. Hence one should not rely solely
ally expressed in two ways. If they contain on numerical designations in reporting or
known active principles, for example, alka- interpreting strengths
loids in belladonna and ipecac, their strengths TINCTURES. Alcoholic or hydroalcoholic
are commonly expressed in terms of their solutions usually containing the active prin-
content of active compounds. Otherwise they ciples of botanicals in comparatively low
are expressed in terms of their total extractives concentrations. They are generally prepared
in relation to the crude drug. Thus, a strength either by maceration or percolation or by
of 1:4 means one part of extract is equivalent dilution of their corresponding fluid extracts
to or derived from four parts of crude drug. or native extracts. The strengths of tinctures
This method of expressing drug strength is not are generally 1 : 0.1 or 1 : 0.2
accurate since-in commerce an extract of a TNF-a. Tumor necrosis factor alpha
certain strength, for example, 1:3, may be TPA. 12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate
different in actual potency depending on the
TRP-P-1. 3-Amino-1,4-dimethyl-5H-pyrido
manufacturer and the process or equipment
[4,3-b]indole
used in the production. Examples of such
U.S.P. United States Pharmacopoea
variations can be found in extracts of senna
and cascara, where the active principles are VOLATILE OILS. See essential oils
well known; yet, the strengths are sometimes VSV. Vesicular stomatitis virus
expressed in terms of total extractives. Con- WAXES. Esters of fatty acids with alcohols,
sequently, a solid extract of cascara (1:3) or a both of high molecular weight and straight-
fluid extract of senna (1:1) from one supplier chained. But in reality waxes also contain free
may contain several times more anthraglyco- fatty acids, free fatty alcohols, and hydrocar-
sides than officially equivalent products from bons. They are extensively used in pharma-
another supplier. Even though all these pro- ceutical and cosmetic ointments, creams, and
ducts may pass current or past pharmacopoeial lotions
Appendix C
Botanical Terms
ABAXIAL. Side of an organ away from the axis more seeds but no true stone, as the tomato or
or center of the axis; dorsal grape
ACUMINATE. An acute apex whose sides are BIENNIAL. Of two seasons duration, from
somewhat concave and taper to a protracted seeds to maturity and death
point BILABIATE. Two-lipped, often applied to a
ACUTE. Sharp, ending in a point, the sides of corolla or calyx; each lip may or may not be
the tapered apex essentially straight or slightly lobed or toothed
convex BLADE. Expanded part of a leaf or a petal
ADAXIAL. Side toward the axis BRACT. Much-reduced leaf, particularly the
ADVENTITIOUS. On occasion, rather than resi- small or scale-like leaves in a flower cluster or
dent in regular places and order, as those associated with the flowers; morphologically a
arising about wounds foliar organ
ALTERNATE. Arrangement of leaves or other BRACTEATE. Bearing bracts
parts not opposite or whorled; placed singly at BRACTEOLE. Secondary bract; a bractlet
different heights on the axis or stem BRISTLY. Bearing stiff strong hairs or
ANNUAL. Of one season’s duration from seed bristles
to maturity and death BULB. Thickened part in a resting state and
ANTHER. Pollen-bearing part of the stamen, made up of scales or plates on a much short-
borne at the top of the filament or sometimes ened axis
sessile BULBLET. Little bulb produced in a leaf axil,
700
Appendix C 701
CARPEL. One of the foliar units of a com- CORIACEOUS. Of leathery texture as a leaf of
pound pistil or ovary; a simple pistil has one Buxus
carpel. A foliar, usually ovule-bearing unit of CORM. Solid bulb-like part of the stem, usu-
a simple ovary, two or more combined by ally subterranean, as the ‘‘bulb’’ of Crocus and
connation in the origin or development of a Gladiolus
compound ovary; a female or mega sporophyll COROLLA. Inner circle or second whorl of
of an angiosperm flower floral envelopes; if the parts are separate, they
CATKIN. Scaly-bracted, usually flexuous are petals and the corolla is said to be poly-
spike or spike-like inflorescence of cymules; petalous; if not separate, they are teeth, lobes,
ament; prominent in willows, birches, oaks divisions, or undifferentiated, and the corolla
CAULINE. Pertaining or belonging to an obvi- is said to be gamopetalous or sympetalous
ous stem or axis, as opposed to basal or rosulate CORYMB. Short and broad, more or less flat-
CLEFT. Divided to or about the middle into topped indeterminate inflorescence, the outer
divisions, as a palmately or pinnately cleft leaf flowers opening first
CLONE. Group of individuals resulting from CREEPER. Trailing shoot that takes root most-
vegetative multiplication; any plant propagat- ly throughout its length; sometimes applied to
ed vegetatively and therefore presumably a a tight-clinging vine
duplicate of its parent. Originally spelled clon, CRENATE. Shallowly round-toothed or ob-
but changed to clone by its coiner (H. J. tusely toothed, scalloped
Webber) for reasons of philology and eupho- CROWN. Corona; also that part of the stem at
ny; proposed in application to horticultural the surface of the ground; also a part of the
varieties rhizome with a large bud, suitable for the use
COMPOUND LEAF. Leaf of two or more leaf- in propagation
lets; in some cases (Citrus) the lateral leaflets CULM. Stem of grasses and bamboos, usually
may have been lost and only the terminal hollow except at the swollen nodes
leaflets remain. Ternately compound when the CULTIGEN. Plant or group known only in cul-
leaflets are in 3’s; palmately compound when tivation; presumably originating under do-
3 or more leaflets arise from a common point mestication; contrast with indigen
to be palmate (if only 3 are present they may be
CUNEATE. Wedge shaped; triangular, with the
sessile); pinnately compound when arranged
along a common rachis (or if only 3 are present narrow end at point of attachment, as the bases
at least the terminal leaflet is stalked); odd- of leaves or petals
pinnate if a terminal leaflet is present, and the CUSPIDATE. With an apex somewhat abruptly
total number of leaflets for the leaf is an odd and sharply concavely constricted into an
number; even-pinnate if no terminal leaflet is elongated, sharp-pointed tip
present and the total is an even number CYME. A broad, more or less flat-topped,
of union of septum or partition to the side flowers that make up a very dense form of
wall, circumscissile when the top valve inflorescence
comes off as a lid, poricidal when opening FLOWER. An axis bearing one or more pistils
by means of pores whose valves are often or one or more stamens or both: when only the
flap-like former, it is a pistillate flower; when only the
DENTATE. With sharp, spreading, rather latter, a staminate flower; when both are
coarse indentations, or teeth that are perpen- present, it is a perfect flower (i.e., bisexual
dicular to the margin or hemaphroditic). When this perfect flower
DIGITATE. Hand-like; compound with the is surrounded by a perianth representing two
members arising from one point, as the leaflets floral envelopes (the inner envelope the co-
of horse chestnut rolla, the outer the calyx), it is a complete
DIOECIOUS. Having staminate and pistillate
flower
flowers on different plants; a term properly FOLLICLE. Dry dehiscent fruit opening only
applied to a taxonomic unit, not to flowers on the dorsal (front) suture and the product of a
DISSECTED. Divided into many slender simple pistil
segments FROND. Leaf of a fern; sometimes used in the
FLORETS. Individual flowers, especially of HIRSUTE. With rather rough or coarse hairs
composites and grasses; also other very small HISPID. Provided with stiff or bristly hairs
Appendix C 703
HUSK. Outer covering of some fruits (as Phy- the top of the sheath in grasses and similar
salis or Juglans), usually derived from the plants
perianth or involucre LINEAR. Long and narrow, the sides parallel
HYBRID. Plant resulting from a cross between or nearly so, as blades of most grasses
parents that are genetically unlike; more com- LOBE. Any part or segment of an organ;
monly, in descriptive taxonomy, the offspring specifically, a part of petal or calyx or leaf
of two different species or their infraspecific that represents a division to about the middle
units MEMBRANOUS. Membranaceous. Of parch-
INCISED. Cut; slashed irregularly, more or ment-like texture
less deeply and sharply; an intermediate con- 5-MEROUS. In composition, referring to the
dition between toothed and lobed numbers of parts; as flowers 5-merous, in
INDEHISCENT. Not irregularly opening, as a which the parts of each kind or series are 5
seed pod or anther or in 5s
INDIGEN. Indigenous inhabitat; a native MIDRIB. The main rib of a leaf or leaf-like
INFERIOR. Beneath, lower, below; as an infe- part, a continuation of the petiole
rior ovary, one that seemingly is below the MONOECIOUS. With staminate and pistillate
calyx leaves flowers on the same plant, as in corn
INFLORESCENCE. Mode of flower bearing; MONOTYPIC. In reference to a genus, com-
technically less correct but much more com- posed of a single species
mon in the sense of a flower cluster NODE. Joint where a leaf is borne or may be
INTERNODE. Part of an axis between two borne; also, incorrectly, the space between two
nodes joints, which is properly an internode
INVOLUCRE. One or more whorls of NUT. An indehiscent one-celled and one-
small leaves or bracts (phyllaries) standing seeded hard and bony fruit, even if resulting
close underneath a flower or flower cluster from a compound ovary
LABIATE. Lipped; or, a member of the labiatae NUTLET. Small or diminutive nut; nucule
LAMELLATE. Provided with many fin-like OBLANCEOLATE. Reverse of lanceolate, as a
blades or cross partitions leaf boarder at the distal third than at the
LANCEOLATE. Lance-shaped; much longer middle and tapering toward the base
than broad; widening above the base and OBLONG. Longer than broad, and with the
tapering to the apex sides nearly or quite parallel most of their
LATERAL. On or at the side length
LATEX. Milky sap OBOVATE. Reverse of ovate, the terminal half
LEAF STALK. Stalk of a leaf; petiole broader than the basal
LEAFLET. One part of a compound leaf; sec- OBTUSE. Blunt, rounded
ondary leaf OPPOSITE. Two at a node, on opposing sides
LEGUME. Simple fruit dehiscing on both su- of an axis
tures, and the product of a simple unicarpellate ORBICULATE. Circular or disc-shaped, as leaf
ovary or Nelumbo
LENTICULAR. Lens-shaped OVATE. With an outline like that of hen’s egg,
LIANOUS. Vine-like the broader and below the middle
LIUGULATE. Strap-shaped, as a leaf, petal, or OVOID. Solid that is oval (less correctly
corolla ovate) in flat outline
LIGULE. Strap-shaped organ or body; partic- PALMATE. Lobed or divided or ribbed in a
ularly, a strap-shaped corolla, as in the ray palm-like or hand-like fashion; digitate, al-
flowers of composites; also a projection from though this word is usually restricted to leaves
704 Appendix C
POLLEN. Spores or grains borne by the anther, SHEATH. Any long or more or less tubular
containing the male element (gametophyte) structure surrounding or organ or part
PRICKLE. Small, weak, spine-like body borne SHRUB. A woody plant that remains low and
irregularly on the bark or epidermis produces shoots or trunks from the base, not
Appendix C 705
tree-like nor with a single bole; a descriptive TENDRIL. Rotating or twisting thread-like
term not subject to strict circumscription process of extension by which a plant
SOLITARY. Borne singly or alone grasps an object and clings to it for sup-
SPATULATE. Spoon-shaped
port; morphologically, it may be a stem or a
leaf
SPIKE. Usually unbranched, elongated, sim-
ple, indeterminate inflorescence whose flow- TERMINAL. At the tip, apical, or distal end
ers are sessile, the flowers either congested or TORMENTOSE. With tomentum; densely wool-
remote; a seemingly simple inflorescence ly or pubescent; with matted soft wool-like
whose flowers may actually be composite hairiness
heads (Liatris), or other inflorescence types TUBER. Short congested part; usually defined
(Phleum) as subterranean (as of a root-stock) although
SPINE. A strong and sharp pointed woody this is not essential
body mostly arising from the wood of the stem TUBEROUS. Bearing or producing tubers
SPORE. A simple reproductive body, usually TWIG. Young woody stem; more precisely
composed of a single detached cell and con- the shoot of a woody plant representing the
taining a nucleated mass of protoplasm (but growth of the current season and terminat-
not embryo) and capable of developing into a ed basally by circumferential terminal bud-
new individual; used particularly in reference scar
to the pteridophytes and lower plants
UMBEL. An indeterminate, often flat-
STALK. Stem of any organ, as the petiole
topped inflorescence whose pedicles and
peduncle, pedicel, filament, stipe peduncles (rays) arise from a common point
STEM. Main axis of a plant, leaf-bearing, and resembling the stays of an umbrella; umbels
flower-bearing as distinguished from the root- are characteristic of the umbelliferae and
bearing axis are there usually compound, each primary
STIGMA. Part of the pistil that receives the ray terminated by a secondary umbel
pollen (umbellet)
STIPE. Stalk of a pistil or other small organ UNDULATE. Wavy (up and down, not in and
when axile in origin; also the petiole of the out), as some leaf or petal margins
fern leaf UNISEXUAL. Of one sex; staminate only or
STOLON. Shoot that bends to the ground and pistillate only
takes root; more commonly, a horizontal stem VESICLE. A small bladdery sac or cavity filled
at or below surface of the ground that gives rise with air or fluid
to a new plant at its tip VISCID. Sticky, or with appreciable viscosity
STROBILE. Cone
WHORL. Three or more leaves or flowers at
SUB-. As a prefix, usually signifying some- one node, in a circle
what, slightly, or rather WING. Thin, dry, or membranaceous expan-
SUBSHRUB. A suffrutescent perennial (the sion or flat extension or appendage of an
stems basally woody), or a very low shrub organ; also the lateral petals of a papiliona-
often loosely treated as a perennial ceous flower
SUCCULENT. Juicy; fleshy; soft, and thickened WOOLY. Provided with a long, soft, and more
in texture or less matted hairs; like wool; lanate
Appendix D
Morphological Description
of Plant Organs
LEAF SHAPE
LEAF MARGIN
706
Appendix D 707
LEAF APEX
LEAF BASE
FLOWERS
708 Appendix D
FRUIT
Appendix D 709
UNDERGROUND ORGANS
General Index
Abdominal distention, remedies, Acid-base indicators (pH) Aesculus hippocastanum, 364
cangzhu, 662 indicators, 356 Agathosma betulina, 117
Abelmoschus moschatus, 30 Acid fast beverage color, 210 Agathosma crenulata, 117
Abies balsamea, 64, 65 Acne, remedies, Agavaceae, 633
Abortifacient, parsley, 489 asparagus, 52–53 Agnivesha, 637
Abortion: Baikal skullcap, 684–686 Agropyron repens, 247
mahabala, threatened, balm of Gilead buds, 64–65 Agropyron, see Doggrass
remedies, Baikal 651 chaparral, 174–176 Ague grass, see Aletris
rue oil causing, 543 Dahurian angelica, 663–664, Agueweed, see Boneset
skullcap, 685 670, 677 Ahnfeltia species, 9
Abrasions, remedies, hypericum, garden burnet, 666, 678, 685 Ahuacate, 59
373 goldenseal, 336–338 AIDS, improved helper:
Abscesses, remedies: lavender, 406–408 suppressor ratio, garlic, 309
alkanet, 19 ligusticum, 669–670 Aiyyan, 643
astragalus, 57 olibanum, 471–472 Akbal Arzani 640
broom tops, 116 phellodendron bark, 677–678 Alant, see Elecampane
burdock, 121 red sage, 680–681 Albuminuria:
castor oil, 155 sour jujube kernel, 572–573 as toxic symptom, turpentine,
chervil, 185 tienchi ginseng, 598–600 608
kava, 397 valerian root, 612–614 see also Kidney damage
licorice root, 417 see also Skin disorders Alcohol:
purslane, 679 ACONITE, 7–9 abuse, remedies:
white pine bark, 501 Aconitum carmichaelii, 8 borage, 110–112
see also entries under skin Aconitum chinese, 7, 8 evening primrose, 276–278
Absidia species, inhibition by Aconitum kusnezoffi, 8 kudzu root, 399–402
henna, 355 Aconitum napellus, 7, 8 thyme, 595
ABSINTHIUM, 1–3 Aconitum species, 8 antagonist, ginseng, 330–333
Absolute cire d’abeille, 84 Acorus calamus, 127, 128 intoxication, remedies, bee
ACACIA, 152, see also Cassie Actaea racemosa, 97 pollen, 81–83
absolute Adaptogenic: see also CHEMICAL INDEX
Acacia catechu, 157 eleuthero, 263 Alcoholic beverages, see
Acacia farnesiana, 152 gotu kola, 339 Beverages, alcoholic
Acacia senegal, 4 schisandra, 566 and nonalcoholic
Acacia species, 4 Addictive properties, coca, 213 Alcoholic bitters, see Bitters,
Acanthopanax senticosus, see Adhatoda vasica 655 alcoholic
Eleuthero Adhatoda zeylanica Medic, 655 Alder buckthorn, see Buckthorn,
Acanthopeltis species, 9 Adhesives: alder
ACEROLA, 6–7 algin, 16–17 ALETRIS, 11–12
Aches, see Pain bletilla tuber, 661 Aletris farinosa, 11
Achillea millefolium, 626 a-Adrenergic blocking Aletris foliata, 12
Achiote, see Annatto agent, 631 Aletris formosana, 12
Achiotillo, see Annatto yohimbe, 631–632 Aletris species, 12
Achras sapota, 188 Adrenolytic, codonopsis, 220 Aletris spicata, 24
Achras zapotilla, 188 Adulsa, 655 ALFALFA, 12–15
711
712 General Index
West Indian bay, 79 blessed thistle, 101 Black cutch, see Catechu
white pine bark, 501 boldo leaves, 108 (black and pale)
wild cherry bark, 183 cascarilla bark, 151–152 Black dogwood, see Buckthorn,
wintergreen oil, 619 centaury, 168 alder
yarrow, 627 chamomile, 172 BLACK HAW BARK,
yerba santa, 629 cinchona, 195 99–100
ylang ylang oil, 630 cinnamon and cassia, 199 Black snakeroot, see Black
foaming agents, 519 cloves, 211 cohosh
fragrance ingredients, 375, 504 coriander, 228 Black tea, 591
gums: dandelion root, 239 Blackwort, see Comfrey
algin, 17 elder flowers, 258 Bladder:
guar gum, 348 elecampane, 260 problems, remedies:
karaya gum, 394 gentian, 317 celery seed, 166
tragacanth, 603 ginger, 322 horsetail, 368
other ingredients: hyssop, 376 hypericum, 373
beeswax, 85 juniper berries, 391 psyllium, 512
kava, 396 lemon oil, 411 sweet birch oil, 96
MSG, 453 marjoram, 438 see also Cystitis; Urinary
mume, 672 quassia, 516 disorders
pectin, 497 rhubarb, 526 stones, remedies:
peony root, 677 rue, 543 hydrangea, 370
sweeteners, stevia, 577 saffron, 548 pipsissewa, 504
Bhibitki, 653–654 sage, 551 sweet woodruff, 623
Bhoot Vidya, 638 sweet woodruff, 623 see also Cancer
Big marigold, see Tagetes yarrow, 627 Blazing star, see Aletris
Bignonia sempervirens, 312 see also Beverages, Bleeding, see Hemorrhage
BILBERRY, 93–94 alcoholic and Blepharitis, remedies, eyebright,
Bile secretions, see Choleretic; nonalcoholic 280
Chologogic Bitter stick, see Chirata BLESSED THISTLE,
Binding agents: Bitter tonic: 100–101
agar, 10 absinthium, 2 Bletilla striata, 530
algin, 17 angostura bark, 35 BLETILLA TUBER (BAIJI),
carrageenan, 146 barberry, 73 661
guar gum, 348 cascara sagrada, 150 Blindness, as toxic symptom:
origanum oil, 485 cascarilla bark, 151 aspidium, 54
traeacanth, 603 centaury, 168 cinchona, 195
‘‘Biological scalpel’’, papain, chicory root, 191 Blisters:
114, 292 chirata, 193 remedies, pipsissewa, 504
BIRCH OIL, SWEET, 95–96 cinchona, 194 as toxic symptoms:
Bitter herb, see Centaury goldenseal, 337 anise, 37
Bitter principles, see horehound, 363 mustard, 458
CHEMICAL INDEX quassia, 515 rue, 543
Bitter root, see Gentian (and see also CHEMICAL see also Dermatitis
stemless) INDEX Blood:
Bitters alcoholic, flavor Bitter wintergreen, see pipsissewa clots, see Bromelain; Ficin;
ingredients: Bitterwood, see Quassia Papain
absinthium, 2 Bixaceae, 40 disease, remedies, devil’s claw,
ambrette seed, 31 Bixa orellana, 40 243
angelica, 33 Black beans, Chinese medicine, 8 platelet, protective effect,
angostura bark, 35 BLACKBERRY BARK, phellodendron bark,
anise, 37 96–97 678
artichoke, 47 BLACK COHOSH, 97–99 poisoning, remedies,
balm, 63 Black currant flavor, buchu, 117 echinacea, 255
General Index 725
sweet bay, 77 Cattle, poisoning, avocado, 60 black and white pepper, 499
tagetes, 582 Caulophylfum, see Blue cohosh dandelion root, 239
thyme, 595–596 Caulophyllum thalictroides, 104 dill, 246
valerian root, 614 Cauterization, 642 other ingredients:
yarrow, 627 Cayenne pepper, see Capsicum algin, 17
CAROB, 142–144 Cayenne rosewood oil, see Bois annatto, 41
Carob bean gun, see Locust bean de rose oil carrageenan, 146
gum Cedar: ficin, 293
Carolina vanilla, see Deertongue eastern red, 163 guar gum, 348
Carolina yellow jessamine, see red, 163 karaya gum, 394
Gelsemium CEDAR LEAF OIL, MSG, 453
Carony bark, see Angostura bark 161–162 xanthan gum, 624
Carphephorus odoratissimus, 240 CEDARWOOD OIL, see also Dairy products
CARRAGEENAN, 145–147 162–164 Chemotherapy, side effects,
Carragheenan, see Carrageenan Cedro oil, see Lemon oil remedies:
CARROT OILS, 147–148 Cedrus atlantica, 162 baizhu, 660
Carthamus tinctorius L., 681 Celeriac, 165 lycium fruit, 432
Carum, see Caraway CELERY SEED, 165–166 pearl, 674
Carum carvi, 138 Cement, for lenses and Chenopodiaceae, 86, 179
Carum petroselinum, 487 microscopic slides, Chenopodium ambrosioides,
Caryophyllaceae, 187 balsam Canada, 66 179
CASCARA SAGRADA, Centarium minus, 167 CHENOPODIUM OIL,
149–150 Centariurn umbellatum, 167 179–180
fluid extract, aromatic, flavor Centaurium erythraea, 167 CHEROKEE ROSEHIP,
ingredients, coriander, CENTAURY, 167–168 181–182
228 Centella asiatica, 339 Cherry, see Acerola; Cherry bark,
CASCARILLA BARK, Centella coriacea, 339 wild; Cherry laurel
151–152 Central nervous system, see CNS leaves
Casein, as enzyme substrate, 292 Cephaelis acuminata, 380 CHERRY BARK, WILD,
Cashou, see Catechu (black and Cephaelis ipecacuanha, 379 182–183
pale) Ceratonia siliqua, 142, 426 Cherry birch, see Birch oil, sweet
Cassia, see Cinnamon (and Cereals, see Breakfast cereals CHERRY LAUREL LEAVES,
cassia) Cerebral insufficiency, ginkgo, 183–184
Cassia angustifolia, 568–569 326 CHERVIL, 185
CASSIE ABSOLUTE, 152–153 Ceruloplasmin, serum levels, Chest:
Castanea americana, 186 reduction by Bulgarian pain, see Pain
Castanea dentata, 186 rose oil, 531 tight, remedies, Baikal
Castanea sativa, 186 cGMP, agents affecting, skullcap, 685, 686
Castanea species, 186 astragalus, 56 CHESTNUT LEAVES, 186
Castor bean, see Castor oil Chakradutta, 637 Chewing gum, ingredients:
Castor canadensis, 156 Chamaemelum nobile, 169 balsam tolu, 72
CASTOREUM, 156–157 CHAMOMILE (GERMAN chicle, 189
Castor fiber, 156 AND ROMAN), guarana, 351
Castoridae, 156 169–173 mints, 445
CASTOR OIL, 54, 154–155 Champaca wood oil, see Guaiac sweet birch oil, 96
Catarrh, see Mucous membrane wood oil wintergreen oil, 619
inflammation Chapping, remedies, see also skin Chicken:
CATECHU (BLACK AND entries feed, tagetes, 582
PALE), 157–158 CHASTE-TREE, 177–179 skin, yellow color, tagetes,
Cathartic, see Laxative Checkerberry, see Wintergreen 582
CATNIP, 159–160 Oil Chicken pox, remedies,
Cat repellents, ingredients, Cheeses: Chaparral, 176
mustard, 459 flavoring agents: CHICKWEED, 187–188
730 General Index
Cortex chinae, see Cinchona comfrey, 226 Coumarins, psoriasis and vitiligo
(red and yellow) costus oil, 231 remedies, 33, 93
Corticosteroids, urinary, damiana, 237 see also CHEMICAL INDEX
reduction by Bulgarian ephedra, 267 Counterirritant:
rose oil, 531 eucalyptus, 273 capsicum, 134
Corynanthe johimbi, 631 euphorbia, 275 cedar leaf oil, 161
Cosmetics: evening primrose, 278 cinnamon and cassia,
colorants, annatto, 41 eyebright, 280 199
fragrance ingredient, fennel, 284 cloves, 211
allspice, 20 fenugreek, 287 lobelia, 425
ingredients: ganoderma, 303 magnolia flower, 435
alkanet, 18–19 garlic, 310 mustard, 458
almond oil, 23 giant knotweed, 668 sweet birch oil, 96
arnica, 43–44 ginger, 322 thyme, 596
balsam copaiba, 67 ginkgo, 327 turpentine, 607
benzoin, 91 Gokshura, 646 wintergreen oil, 619
bloodroot, 103 greater galnanga, 648 see also Rubefacient
castor oil, 155 honey, 358 Cramps, remedies, Baikal
chamomile, 172 horehound, 363 skullcap, 684, 686
echinacea, 255 hydrangea, 370 CRANBERRY, 232–233
gentian, 317 hyssop, 376 Crataegus cuneata, 352
jojoba, 386–387 immortelle, 379 Crataegus laevigata, 352
locust bean guns, 427 ipecac, 380 Crataegus monogyna, 352
see also Chinese cosmetic kava, 397 Crataegus oxyacantha, 352
ingredients; Creams licorice root, 417 Crataegus pinnatifida, 352
and lotions; Ointments; lobelia, 425 Crataegus species, 352
Perfumes; Soaps and lycium fruit, 432 Creams and lotions:
detergents marjoram, 438 antiseptics:
COSTUS OIL, 230–231 mints, 445 balsam Canada, 66
Couch grass, see Doggrass myrrh, 462 cade oil, 123
Cough: orange, 480 chamomile, 172
remedies: oregano, 483 emollients:
althea root, 30 parsley, 488 almond oil, 23
angelica, 33 pine needle oil, 503 aloe, 27
anise, 38 poria, 509 castor oil, 155
asafetida, 49 psyllium, 513 cocoa, 218
ashwagandha, 645 quillaia, 519 comfrey, 226
Baikal skullcap, 685–686 red clover tops, 208 fixatives:
balm of Gilead buds, 65 saffron, 548 balsam Canada, 66
balsam copaiba, 67 saw palmetto, 563 balsam copaiba, 67
balsam tolu, 71 schisandra, 566 balsam tolu, 71
bloodroot, 103 squill, 575 benzoin, 91
burdock, 121 storax, 580 castoreum, 157
carrageenan, 146 tagetes, 582 cedarwood oil, 164
cedar leaf oil, 162 tannic acid, 587 civet, 204
cedarwood oil, 164 thyme, 596 costus oil, 231
chaparral, 176 tienchi ginseng, 600 deertongue, 241
Cherokee rosehip, 181 white pine bark, 501 elemi gum, 261
cherry laurel leaves, 184 wild cherry bark, 182–183 galbanum, 300
chestnut leaves, 186 as toxic symptom, turpentine, lime oil, 423
cocillana bark, 216 608 myrrh, 461
cocoa, 218 see also Antitussive; fragrance ingredients:
codonopsis, 221 Whooping cough absinthium, 2
General Index 735
Magnolia wilsonii, 434 Mattress filler, genet, 315 guaiac wood oil, 346
Mahabala, 651 Mayapple, see Podophyllum hyssop, 376
Mahonia aquifolium, 72 (podophyllin) juniper berries, 390
Mahonia, trailing, see Barberry Maypop, see Passion flower labdanum, 405
Mahuang, 265 Meadow clover, see Clover tops, lemongrass, 414
Majoon-e-flasia, 654 red lemon oil, 411
Majorana hortensis, 436 Measles, remedies: licorice root, 416
Majorana onites, 436 burdock, 121 lime oil, 423
Malaria, see Antimalarial coriander, 228 lovage root, 428
Male fern, see Aspidium kudzu root, 401 marjoram, 438
Male sexual function, improved, peony bark, 675 mints, 445
epimedium, 269 rehmannia, 523 mustard, 459
Malnutrition, remedies, royal Meat and meat products: myrrh, 462
jelly, 540 colorants: nutmeg and mace, 469
Malphighia punicifolia, 6 alkanet, 19 olibanum, 472
Malpighia glabra, 6 annatto, 41 onion, 475
Malt syrup, caramel color, 136 capsicum, 134 orange, 479
Malvaceae, 30 caramel color, 137 oregano, 483
Mammary glands, inflammation, turmeric, 605 parsley, 488
see Breast problems flavoring ingredients: patchouly oil, 494
Mandrake, see Podophyllurn alfalfa, 14 rosemary, 536
Manganese, see CHEMICAL allspice, 19 sage, 551
INDEX anise, 36 savory, 560
Manikara achras, 188 asafetida, 48 sweet bay, 77
Manilkara zapota, 188 balsam copaiba, 67 tannic acid, 587
Manilkara zapolilla, 188 bergamot oil, 92 tarragon, 589
Malt syrup, imitation, flavoring black and white pepper, 498 thyme, 596
ingredient fenugreek, bois de rose oil, 106 turmeric, 603
286–288 boronia absolute, 113 turpentine, 608
Margarine, see Oleomargarine cajepul oil, 126 valerian root, 613
Marginal fern, see Aspidium capsicum, 135 gums:
Marigold, see Tagetes caraway, 139 agar, 10
Marijuana, absinthium, 2 cardamon, 141 algin, 16–17
MARJORAM (SWEET, POT, carrot seed oil, 147, 148 carrageenan, 145
AND WILD), castor oil, 155 guar gum, 348
436–438, see also cedar leaf oil, 162 karaya gum, 394
Oregano celery seed, 165 neem, 652
Marrubium, see Horehound chervil, 185 tragacanth, 601
Marrubium vulgare, 362 cinnamon and cassia, 196 xanthan gum, 624
Marshmallow root, see Althea cloves, 210 other ingredients:
root coriander, 228 locust bean gum, 427
Masking agents: cubebs, 234 MSG, 452–453
acacia, 5 cumin, 236 West Indian bay, 77, 78
anise, 38 dill, 244–246 sweeteners, stevia, 577
licorice root, 417 elemi gum, 262 tenderizers:
rosemary, 536 eucalyptus, 273 bromelain, 114
yerba same, 629 fennel, 284 ficin, 292
Massage cream, ingredients, 60 fenugreek, 287 papain, 292
Master of the wood, see galbanum, 300 Meda, 638
Woodruff, sweet garlic, 309 Mecca balsam, 64
Mastitis, see Breast problems Meat and meat products, Medicago sativa, 12
Matricaria chamomilla, 169 flavoring Melaleuca alternifora, 124
Matricaria, see Chamomile ginger, 323 Melaleuca leucadendron, 125
General Index 757
Occult blood, guaiac gum in, Sichuan lovage, 682–683 ligusticum, 669–670
346 witch hazel, 620–621 olibanum, 471–472
Ocimum basilicun, 74 Opobalsam, see Balsam tolu patchouly oil, 493–494
Oculomotor paralysis, as toxic Oral, see Mouth peony bark, 674–675
symptom, kava, 396 ORANGE (BITTER AND peony root, 676–677
Oenothera biennis, 111, 276 SWEET), 477–480 tagetes, 581–582
Oil of cade, see Cade oil acerola, 6–7 tienchi ginseng, 598–600
Oil of juniper tar, see Cade oil Orange flower water, 477, 479, turmeric, 603–605
Oil, see Fats and oils 480 as toxic symptom:
Ointments: Orange root, see Goldenseal arnica, 42–44
antiseptics: Orchanette, see Alkanet castor oil, 154–155
balsam Canada, 66 Orchidaceae, 616, 661 cinchona, 194–195
cade oil, 123 Orchitis, remedies, ginger, 321 fo-ti, 293–297
chamomile, 171 OREGANO, 436–438, 482–483 see also Colic
neem, 653 Oregon grape, see Barberry arthritic, see Arthritis
mints, 445 Origanum majorana, 436 chest, remedies:
base: ORIGANUM OIL, SPANISH, balsam Canada, 65-66
almond oil, 22, 23 485 cinnamon and cassia,
castor oil, 155 Origanum onites, 436 196–200
cocoa butter, 218 Origanum, see Oregano luffa, 671
beeswax, 84–85 Origanum species, 485 musk, 30–31, 455–456
fragrance ingredients: Origanum vulgare, 436, 482, 483 peony root, 674–675
lavender, 408 Osteoporosis, remedies, horsetail, red sage, 680-681
rose oil, 532 368 safflower, 681–682
other ingredients: Otitis, remedies, kava, 397 Sichuan lovage, 682–683
Baikal skullcap, 685, 686 Otto of rose, see Rose oil and tienchi ginseng, 598–600
calendula, 129–131 Ovarian cancer, coffee linked to, turmeric, 603–605
cedar leaf oil, 161–162 449, 592 general, remedies:
chickweed, 187–188 Oxytocic, 116, 315 aconite, 7–9
echinacea, 251–256 allspice, 19–21
fangfeng, 281–282 Panchkarma, 639 beeswax, 84–85
gotu kola, 339–341 Pachyma cocos, 508 cherry laurel leaves,
thyme, 594–597 Pachymma hoelen, 508 183–184
Oleaceae, 382, 420, 665 Padang-cassia, see Cinoamon civet, 203–204
Oleogum resins, see Gum resins Paeonia suffruticosa, 674 eleuthero, 262–264
Oleomargarine, colorants, 19. see Paeonia arborea, 674 gelsemium, 312–313
also Fats and oils Paeoniaceae, 674, 676 ipecac, 379–381
OLIBANUM, 471–472 Paeonia lactiflora, 676 Jasmine, 382–383
Onagraceae, 276 Paeonia moutan, 674 Job’s tears, 384–385
ONION, 474–475. see also Pain: myrrh, 460–462
Squill abdominal: pine needle oil, 502–503
Ophthalmic products, remedies: saffron, 547-548
ingredients: aletris,11–12 sandalwood oil, 553–555
belladonna, 88–89 bee pollen, 81–83 turmeric, 603–605
castor oil, 154–155 belladonna, 88–89 turpentine, 607–608
cherry laurel leaves, capsicum, 132–135 wild cherry bark, 182
183–184 chamomile, 169–173 wintergreen oil, 619
cinchona, 194–195 cinnamon and cassia, 199 kidney, remedies, feverfew,
comfrey, 225–226 jasmine, 382–383 289-291
elder flowers, 257–258 juniper berries, 389–391 sternum, as toxic symptom,
eyebright, 279–280 lavender, 406–408 chaparral, 174–176
ginkgo, 325–327 lemongrass, 412–414 see also Analgesic; Headache;
goldensea, 336–338 licorice root, 415–418 Stomachache
General Index 761
Shuanghua, 667 gotu kola, 340 Skin protectant, 91, 218, 675,
Siberian beaver, see Castoreum henna, 356 see also Demulcent;
SICHUAN LOVAGE kava, 396 Emollient
(CHUANXIONG), lovage root, 428 Skin rash:
670, 682–683 marjoram, 438 remedies:
Sida rhombifolia, 651 oregano, 483 boneset, 109–110
Siddha, 642–644 parsley, 488 calendula, 129–131
Siddhar Thirumoolar, 642 sarsaparilla, 556 cedar wood oil, 164
Siddhar-Nantheesar, 642 sassafras, 558 dittany bark, 659
Siddhars, 642, 643 storax, 579 fangfeng, 282
Simmondsiaceae, 386 thyme, 596 fo-ti, 296
Simmondsia chinensis, 386 turmeric, 604 kudzu root, 399–402
Sinapis alba, 457 yarrow, 627 mints, 446
Sinapis juncea, 457 yucca, 634 mume, 672
Sinduras, 643 as toxic symptom: peony bark, 675
Sinusitis, remedies: acacia, 5 rehmannia, 523
bromelain, 114 cocoa, 218 yarrow, 627
Dahurian angelica, 663 elecampane, 260 as toxic symptom:
garlic, 309 ficin, 292 balsam copaiba, 68
kudzu root, 401 kava, 396 bromelain, 121
magnolia flower, 435 turpentine, 607 castor oil, 154
peony bark, 675 see also Allergy; Dermatitis, chaste-tree, 177–179
Skin: contact cinchona, 194–195
cangzhu, 662 Skin inflamation, see Dermatitis, fo-ti, 296
chapped remedies, bletilla contact kava, 396
tuber, 661 Skin irritation: schisandra, 564–567
conditions, remedies, 658 remedies: turpentine, 607
dark spots, remedies, baizhu, chamomile, 172 see also Dermatitis,
660 hyssop, 376 contact
discoloration, as toxic witch hazel, 620 Skin sensitization, as toxic
symptom, 396 as toxic symptoms: symptoms:
dry, remedies, cassie absolute, cananga oil, 132 cloves, 210
153 capsicum, 133 lavender, 407
lesions: chenopodium oil, 180 lemongrass, 413
remedies, devil’s claw, 243 clary sage, 205 lovage root, 428
as toxic symptom, kava, 396 cloves, 210 pine needle oil, 503
Skin blemishes, remedies, 670, lemongrass, 413 see also Allergy; Dermatitis,
see also Acne lime oil, 423 contact Irritant
Skin disorders: nutmeg, 468 Skin softener:
remedies: olibanum, 472 avocado, 59
alfalfa, 14 pine needle oil, 503 cocoa, 218
angelica, 33 podophyllum, 506 comfrey, 226
burdock, 121 rosemary, 536 hops, 360
cade oil, 123 rue, 543 Skin sores, see Sores
cajeput oil, 125 sage, 551 Skin ulcers, remedies:
calamus, 128 sandalwood oil, 554 gotu kola, 340
cedarwood oil, 162 savory, 560 horsechestnut, 365
chamomile, 171 squill, 575 jasmine, 383
chirata, 193 thyme, 596 lobelia, 424–425
cocillana bark, 215–216 turpentine, 607 musk, 458
dandelion root, 239 ylang ylang oil, 630 myrrh, 461
doggrass, 248 see also Allergy; Dermatitis, red clover tops, 207
eyebright, 280 contact; Irritant tagetes, 582
General Index 769
Sweet bark, see Cascarilla bark coffee, 223 Teratogens, 94, 103, 104, 166,
Sweet cinnamon, see Calanlus ephedra, 266 172, 223, 348, 386, 506,
Sweet cumin, see Anise ipecac, 380 577
Sweeteners, natural, sources: nutmeg, 468 Terigium, 654
artichoke, 47 remedies, chicory root, 190 Terminalia, 653
honey, 358 as toxic symptom, yohimbe, Terminalia bellerica, 653
hydrangea, 370 632 termilignan, 654
orange, 477 see also Cardiac rhythm Textiles:
stevia, 577 TAGETES, 581–582 karaya gum, 394
Sweet flag, see Calamus Tagetes erecta, 581 sizing agents, 17
Sweet myrtle, see Calamus Tagetes glandulifera, 581 Thea bohea, 590
Sweet Orange Peel Tincture N.F., Tagetes minuta, 581 Theaceae, 590
477 Tagetes patula, 581 Thea sinensis, 590
Sweet pepper, 133 Tagetes species, 582 Thea viridis, 590
Sweet root, see Calamus Tailed pepper, see Cubebs Theobroma, see Cocoa (cacao)
Sweet sauces, see Sauces Takshashila, 637 Theobroma cacao subsp, cacao,
Sweet sedge, see Calamus TANNIC ACID, 585–587 216
Sweetwood bark, see Cascarilla Tanning, see Leather industry; Thermal injury, remedies, aloe,
Sweet wood, see Licorice root tannin entries in 26
Swelling, see Edema CHEMICAL INDEX Thickening agents:
Swertia chirata, 192 Tannin, 7, 18, 29, 43, 62, 97, 99, algin, 17
Swiss mountain pine, 502 115, 120, 128, 143, 151, beeswax, 85
Sycocarpus rusbyi, See Guarea 158, 184, 215, 235, 237, carrageenan, 146
rusbyi, 215 249, 265, 269, 355, 362, guar gum, 348
Symphyratm officinale, 557 376, 398, 408, 444, 496, karaya gum, 394
Syneresis: 515, 517, 518, 550, 585, kudzu root, 401
agar, 10 586, 588, 591, 611, 620, psyllium, 512
xanthan gum, 624 629, 669 tragacanth, 602
Syphilis, remedies: Tapeworms, see Anthehnintic xanthan gum, 624
echinacea, 255 Taraxacum mongolicum, 239 Thirst quenching, see Refrigerant
gotu kola, 340 Taraxacum officinale, 238 Thoroughwort, see Boneset
myrrh, 462 Taraxacum, see Dandelion root Thousand leaf, see Yarrow
olibanum, 472 Taraxacum species, 238–239 Throat inflammation, remedies:
podophyllum, 506 Taraxacum vulgare, 238 acacia, 5
sarsaparilla, 556 TARRAGON, see also Estragon cinchona, 195
Syrups, flavor ingredients, Tarweed, see Yerba santa comfrey, 226
bilberry, 94 Tasmanian blue gum, see see also Demulcent
Syzyguiun aromaticum, 209 Eucalyptus Throat, sore:
TEA, 590–593 remedies:
Tabasco pepper, see Capsicum chamomile, 171 althea root, 30
Tablets: dandelion root, 239 black cohosh, 98
binding and disintegrating substitute, cranberry, 233 bloodroot, 103
agents: see also Chenopodium oil burdock, 121
algin, 17 Teaberry, see Wintergreen oil eyebright, 280
carrageenan, 146 Tear producing, see gentian, 317
honey, 358 Lachrymatory honey, 358
tragacanth, 603 properties horehound, 363
polishing agents, beeswax, 85 Teeth, loose, see Gum problems; horsetail, 368
protective coating component, Pyorrhea hyssop, 376
castor oil, 155 Tenderizers, meat, see Meat licorice root, 417
Taalpatra, 637 tenderizers mints, 446
Tachycardia: Tendonitis, remedies, horse myrrh, 462
agents that cause: chestnut, 365 olibanum, 472
774 General Index
Vegetable pepsin, see Papain see also Beverages, alcoholic bromelain, 114
Vegetables, processed: and nonalcoholic castor oil, 155
colorants caramel color, Vertigo: chenopodium oil, 180
137 remedies, 327, 523, 551 eucalyptus, 273
favouring ingredients Vesication, see Blisters fo-ti, 296
cumin, 236 Viburnum prunifolium, 99 horsetnut, 365
fennel, 284 Viburum, see Black haw bark ipecac, 380
marjoram, 438 Viola tricolor var, maxima, 545 nutmeg, 468
mustard, 458 Vipreeta, 639 quassia, 515
nutmeg and mace, 469 Vipreetarthkari, 639 quebracho, 517
orange, 480 visamine rhubarb, 526
oregano, 483 Vision: rue, 543
parsley, 488 blurred, remedies, 421, 431 saffron, 548
rosemary, 536 disturbances, as toxic tannic acid, 586
sage, 551 symptom, 89, 313 thyme, 596
savory, 560 improved, lycium fruit, 431 turpentine, 608
thyme, 596 Vitaceae, 342 yohimbe, 632
gum: Vitality, increased, 14, 640 see also Nausea
agar, 10 Vitex agnus-castes, 177 Vomit wort, see Lobelia
algin, 17 Vitamin C, sources, 6–7, 528 Vulnerarv, see Healing
guar gum, 348 ‘‘Vitamin P’’ activity, 545, 592
tragacanth, 603 Vitamins, see CHEMICAL Warts:
MSG, 453 INDEX remedies:
sweeteners, stevia, 577 Vitiligo, remedies, 92, 326, 650, cangzhu, 662
Venereal disease, remedies, 663, see also Skin cedar leaf oil, 162
cassie absolute, 153 disorders chaparral, 176
Venereal warts, see Warts, Vitis vinifera, 342 Jobs tears, 385
venereal Viverra civerta, 203 sweet basil, 75
Venotonic, horsechestnut, 364 Viverra species, 203 venereal, remedies, 164,
Veratrum album, 317 Viverra zibetha, 203 506
Verbenaceae, 177, 482 Viverridae, 203 Wax, see Beeswax; CHEMICAL
Vermifuge, see Anthelmiones Vomiting: INDEX
Vermouth, ingredients: remedies: Wax myrtle, southerm, see
absinthium, 2 Baikal skullcap, 685, 686 Barberry
ambrette seed, 31 bee pollen, 83 Wax myrtle bark, 80
angelica, 33 cherry laurel leaves, 184 Weakness:
balm, 63 garden burnet, 666 remedies:
centaury, 168 gentian, 317 astragalus, 57
chamomile, 172 ginseng, 333 codonopsis, 221
cinnamon and cassia, 199 lavender, 408 fo-ti, 297
clary sage, 205 marjoram, 438 ganoderma, 303
cloves, 211 oregano, 483 as toxic symptom, 313, 365
coriander, 228 patchouly oil, 494 Weavers broom, see Genet
elder flowers, 258 peony bark, 675 Weight control, see Appetite
elecampane, 260 rehmannia, 523 depressant; Obesity
gentian, 317 sandalwood oil, 554 Weight gain, lycium fruit, 431
lemon oil, 411 tienchi gingseng, 600 Weight loss products, horsetail,
marjoram, 438 valerian root, 614 368
rue, 543 as toxic symptom: Wermutkraut, see Absinthium
saffron, 548 absinthium, 2 Wermut, see Absintltiunt
sage, 551 arnica, 43 West Indian avocado, 59
sweet woodruff, 623 aspidium, 54 West lndian cherry, see Acerola
yarrow, 627 balsam copaiba, 67 Wet process coffee, 222
778 General Index
Wheezing, remedies, ephedra, WITCH HAZEL, 620–621 Yellow bark, see Cinchona (red
267 Withania somnifera, 645 and yellow)
White Pine compound, see Wolfs banae (wolfsbatte), see Yellow jasmine, see Gelsemium
Compound white pin Arnica; Aconite Yellow root, see Goldenseal
syrup Wood, pepper or yellow, see Ash, Yellow starwort, see Elecampane
White Saunders oil, see prickly Yellow wax, see Beeswax
Sandalwood oil Woodbine, see Gelsemium Yellow wood, see Ash, prickly
White thyme oil, 595–596 Wood oil, Champaca, see YERBA SANTA, 628–629
Whitetube stargrass, see Aletris Gelsenium YLANG YLANG OIL, 37, 132,
White wax, see Beeswax WOODRUFF, SWEET, 629–630
Whooping cough, remedies: 622–623 Yogurt, carrageenan, 146
belladonna, 89 Woodward, see Woodruff, Sweet YOHIMBE, 631–632
chestnut leaves, 186 Worcestershire sauce, flavoring Yuan danpi, 675
dogwood, 249 ingredient, 49, 584, see Yu baizhi, 663
elecampane, 260 also Sauces YUCCA, 633–634
evening primrose, 278 Work capacity, ginseng effect, Yucca arborescens, 633
garlic, 310 333 Yucca brerifolia, 633
goldenseal, 338 Wormseed oils, American, see Yucca mohavensis, 633
immortelle, 379 Chenopodium oil Yucca schidigera, 633
lobelia, 425 Worms, remedies for, see Yunnan Bao Yao, ingredients,
red clover tops, 208 Chenopodium oil tienchi ginseng, 600
saffron, 548 Worm wood, see Absinthium
tagetes, 582 Wound healing, see Healing Zanthoxylum americanum, 50
thyme, 596 Wrinkles, remedies: Zanthoxylum clava-herculis, 50
see also Cough baizhu, 660 Zea, see Corn silk
Wigandia californicum, 628 cocoa, 218 Zea mays subsp, mays, 229
Wild cherry bark, 65, 182 jujube, 388 Zhenzhu, 673–674
Wild jessamine, see Gelsemium mother of pearl, 674 Zhenzhmnu, 673–674
Wild lemon, see Podophyllum poria, 509 Zhu, 660, 662
(podophyllin) royal jelly, 540 Zibeth, see Civet
Wild majoram, see Oregano Sichuan lovage, 683 Zicao, 678
Wild tobacco, see Lobelia Wunuei, 672 Zingiberaceae, 140, 320, 603,
Wild vanialla, see Deertongue 647
Wine, tannic acid in, 587, see also Xanthomonas campestris, 624 Zingiber officinale, 320
Nonalcoholic XANTHAN GUM, 624–625 Ziziphus jujuba, 388, 572
Wintergreen, flavoring, sweet Xanthoxylum, see Ash, prickly Ziziphus sativa, 388
birch oil, 619, see also Xidang, 220 Ziziphus spinos, 572
Pipsissewa X-ray irradiation, rutin effect, 545 Ziziphus vulgaris, 388
WINTERGREEN OIL, 619 Zygophyllaceae, 174, 345, 346,
Witchgrass, see Doggrass Yarrow, 626–627 646
Chemical Index
Abienol, 501 plant, 4, 13, 170, 181, 225, 229, diterpene, horehound, 362
Abietic acid, 66, 79, 607 249, 342, 388, 528, 584, ethyl:
Aborigine, 126 672 antagonistic effect of
Absinthin, 1 as acidulants in henna ginseng, 332
Acantolic acid, 352 preparations, 355 effect on acacia, 4
Acetaldehyde, 32, 36, 251, 478, antigonadotropic activity of, ficin inhibition by,
543, 616 225, 398 291–293
9-acetamido-3,4-dihydropyrido- volatile, 59, 120, 412, 428, 602 storax, 579
[3,4-b]indole, 655 Aconitine (acetyl genet, 314
Acetic acid: benzoylaconine), 7, 8, geranium oil, 319
burdock, 120 358, 401 ginger, 321
geranium oil, rose, 319 a-Acoradiene (acorene), 163 high molecular weight:
karaya gum, 394 Actein, 97 alfalfa, 13
orange, 478 Acteoside, 362, 511, 521 chenopodium oil, 180
tragacanth, 602 Actinidine, 612 esters, alkanet, 18
vanilla, 616 Adenine, 302, 350, 352, 508, 591, jojoba, 386
yerba santa, 629 683 West Indian bay, 76, 78
ylang ylang oil, 630 Adenosine, 301–303, 352, 372, lemongrass, 412–414
Acetone, 7, 40, 71, 113, 151, 163, 384, 539, 613, 683 lemon oil, 410–411
205, 299, 321, 367, 384, Adhumulone, 359 ligustrum, 420–421
494, 509, 566, 586, 672, Adipic acid, as acidulant in henna orange, 477–480
680, 681, 697 preparations, 356 patchouly oil, 493–494
Acetophenone, 65, 156, 190, 404, Adlupulone, 359 pine needle oil, 502–503
595 Aescin, 364–366 polyhydric, avocado, 59
(S)-10 -Acetoxychavicol acetate, Aesculin (esculin), 364 terpene, 13, 32, 42, 62, 71,
647, 648 Afzelin, 620 92, 138, 165, 234, 241,
N-Acetylanonaine, 50 Agaropectin, 10 262, 284, 339, 423, 471,
Acetylastragaloside I, 56 Agarose, 10 472, 531
3-Acetyl-b-boswellic acid, 471, Agropyrene (1-phenyl-2,4- thyme, 594–597
472 hexadiyne), 248 Aldehydes:
Acetylcholine, 62, 98, 231, 352, Ajoenes, 308, 309 chicory root, 190
405, 464, 533, 539, 550 Akuammidine, 517 cumin, 235–236
Acetylenes, 170, 660 Alanine, 56, 143, 339, 430, 539, deertongue, 241
2-Acetylnortracheloside, 101 566, 626, 674 eucalyptus, 272
Acetyloleanolic acid, 420 Alantic acid, 259 ginger, 321
8 Acetylthio-p-menthan-3-one, Alantolactone (helenin), 230, grapefruit oil, 344
117 231, 259, 260 orange, 478
Acids: Albaspidin, 54 pine needle oil, 502
diterpene, juniper berries, Albiflorin, 676 Aldobiouronic acid, 511
390 Alcohols: Alginates (algin), 16, 17
mineral, reaction with algin, 16 bergamot oil, 92 Alginic acid, 16, 17
honey, 358 castoreum, 156 Aliphatic, 59, 60
nonhydroxy, burdock, 120 cyclic, citronella oil, 202 Aliphatic esters, 6, 217
779
780 Chemical Index
Alkalis, use in cocoa processsing, piperidine, lobelia, 424 biological activities, 525, 569
217, 218 prickly ash, 50–51 cascara sagrada, 149–150
Alkaloids: purslane, 679 rhubarb, 525
aconite, 7, 8 pyrrolizidine, 18, 109, 111, senna, 569
alfalfa, 13 225, 226, 252 Aloe-emodin glucoside, 150
angostura bark, 35 quassia, 515 Aloesin, 25, 26
ashwagandha, 645 quinoline: Aloesone, 25
biological activities, 35, 88, angostura bark, 35 Aloins, 24–27, 150
116, 194, 213, 337 biological activities, 35, 194 Alphitolic acid, 572
bloodroot, 102, 103 cinchona, 194 Alpinin, 647
boldo leaves, 107 dittany bark, 664 Aluminum, 292, 367, 395, 496
broom tops, 115, 116 roselle, 532–534 ficin inactivation by, 292
carboline, 190, 220, 515, 646 rue, 542–543 Amarogentin, 192, 316, 629
centaury, 167 sassafras, 557 Amarogentin (chiratin), 192
coca, 212, 213 sesquiterpene, patchouly oil, Ambrettolic acid, 31
cocillana bark, 215 493–494 Ambrettolide [(Z)-7-
cocoa, 217, 218 Sichuan lovage, 683 hexadecen-l6-olide], 31
comfrey, 225, 226 sour jujube kernel, 572 Amides, 50, 114, 292, 430,
corn silk, 229 tropane, 88, 89 498
cranberry, 232 uses, 89 Amines:
destruction by acacia, 5 valerian root, 612, 613 cocoa, 217
ephedra, 265–267 xanthine, 350, 352, 591 hawthorn, 352
ganoderma, 302 yarrow, 626 licorice root, 416
gokshura, 646 yohimbe, 631, 632 nettle, 464, 465
mahabala, 651 Alkanes: reaction with acacia, 4
vasaka, 655 bergamot oil, 92 Amino acids:
gelsemium, 313 centaury, 168 agar, 10
genet, 314, 315 elder flowers, 257 alfalfa, 13
gentian, 316 euphorbia, 274 almonds, 22
goldenseal, 336–338 fenugreek, 287 aloe, 25
guarana, 350 ganoderma, 301 asparagus, 52
horehound, 362 high-molecular weight, 85 avocado, 59
hydrangea, 370 mahabala, 651 bee pollen, 82
Indole: yarrow, 626 chamomile, 170
biological activities, 158, Alkannin (anchusin, anchusic cocoa, 217
490 acid, or alkanna red), 18, codonopsis, 220
chicory root, 190 19 ficin, 292
gelsemium, 313 Alkylamide, 251–254 free:
pale catechu, 158 Alkylthiazoles, 584 astragalus, 56
quebracho, 517 Allantoin, 111, 225, 400, 610 coffee, 223
ipecac, 380 Allicin, 308, 309 cumin, 235
isoquinoline: Alliinase, 308, 309, 474 fenugreek, 287
barberry, 72, 73 Alliin (S-allyl-L-cyteine as flavor precursors, coffee,
biological activities, 72, 73, sulfoxide), 308 223
336, 388 Alloxanthoxyletin, 50 jujube, 388
goldenseal, 336 1-Allyl-2, 4-dimethoxybenzene, lycium fruit, 431
jujube, 388 185 rehmannia, 521
lobelia, 424, 425 Allyl isothiocyanate, 457–459 royal jelly, 539
lupine, blue cohosh, 104 Allylpropyl disulfide, 308, ganoderma, 301
magnolia flower, 434–435 474 ginger, 321
monoterpene, 192, 390, 511 Aloctin A, gotu kola, 339
pepper, 133, 135, 177, 499 Aloe-emodin: grape skin extract, 342
phellodendron bark, 678 aloe, 24, 25 Job’s tears, 384
Chemical Index 781
kava, 395 fennel, 283, 284 Arabinose, 13, 48, 56, 111, 225,
kudzu root, 400 sassafras, 558 263, 299, 339, 449, 461,
licorice root, 416 Angelic acid, 428 471, 496, 511, 522, 561,
lycium fruit, 430 Angelicin, 32, 227 569, 602, 604, 626, 666,
mother-of-pearl, 674 Angostura bitters 1 and 2, 35, 317 682, 696
mume, 672 3,6-Anhydro-D-galatose, 145 Arabsin, 1
papain, 3,6-Anhydro-a-L-, Arachidic acid, 400
pearl, 674 galactopyranose, 10 Arborinine, 542
tea, 591 Anisaldehyde, 36, 37, 283, 284, Arbutin, 93, 99, 237, 437, 504,
tienchi ginseng, 598 502 610, 611, 696
yarrow, 626 Anise ketone (p-methoxy- Arctic acid, 120
Aminobutyric acids, 56, 430, phenylacetone), 36 Arctigenin, 101, 120, 121
522, 696 Anisic acid, 36, 404, 542 Arctiin, 101, 120, 121
Ammonia, blood level, MSG Anisotine, 655 Arctiol (8a-hydroxyeudesmol),
ingestion and, 453 Anisyl ethyl ether, 616 120
Ammonium alginate, 17 Anthocyanidins, 342, 696 Arginine, 10, 13, 22, 52, 56, 212,
Ammonium bicarbonate, in cocoa Anthocyanins, 13, 93, 94, 182, 287, 400, 430, 539
processing, 217 229, 232, 233, 258, 342, Arnicin, 43
Ammonium carbonate, 217 474, 533, 591 Arnicolides, 43
Amygdalin, 22, 23, 182, 672 Anthocyanosides, 93, 94 Arnidiol, 129, 238
Amyl alcohol, 482 Anthracene derivatives, 150, Arnifolin, 43
2-n-Amylquinoline, 35 525, 569 Arnisterin, 43
a-Amyrin, 101, 109, 241, 257, Anthraglycosides: Aromadendrene, 272, 581, 667
274, 378, 461, 517 aloe, 24, 25, 27 Aromoline, 73
b-Amyrin: biological activities, 119, Artabin, 1
anise, 36 526 Artabsin, 1
calendula, 129 buckthorn, 119 Artemidinol, 589
centaury, 167 cascara sagrada, 149, 150 Artemisetin, 2
chicle, 188 rhubarb, 525, 526 Asaresinotannols, 48
dandelion root, 238 senna, 25, 119, 568–570 Asarinin, 50, 51
elder flowers, 257, 258 see also Anthraquinones Asarone, 127, 148, 558
gentian, 316 Anthranilates, 382, 423, 478 Asarylaldehyde, 127
euphorbia, 274 Anthranilic acid, 561 Ascaridole, 107, 108, 180
psyllium, 511 Anthraquinones: Ascorbic acid, see Vitamin C
b-Amyrin acetate, 577 biological activities, 150, 526, Ashwagandhine, 645
Amyrin palmitates, 257, 258, 424, 569 Asiaticoside, 339, 340
425 cascara sagrada, 149, 150 Asparagine, 13, 29, 52, 56, 222,
a-Amyrone, 461 cocillana bark, 215 416
Anabsin, 1 fo-ti, 294–296 Asparagosides, 52
Anagyrine, 104, 314 giant knotweed, 669 Asparagusic acid, 52
Anahygrine, 645 rhubarb, 525, 526 Aspartic acid, 10, 22, 52, 56, 222,
Anaferine Apigenin, 45, 143, 416, 430, 539, 674, 679
Anchusic acid, see Alkannin Apigenin-7- Asperuloside, 622, 623
Anchusin, see Alkannin glucuronosylglucoside, Aspidinol, 54
Andro-stenedione, 177 235 Aspidosamine, 517
Andrographolide, 650 Apigetrin (apigenin-7-glucoside), Aspidospermatine, 517
Andrographosterin, 650 36, 169, 170, 235 Aspidospermine, 517
Anethole: Apiin (apigenin-7- apiosyl- Astragalans, 56
anise, 36, 37 glucoside), 165, 170, 185, Astragalin (kaempferol-3-b-
biological activities, 37 487 glucoside), 43, 93, 109,
chervil, 185 Apiole, 245, 283, 487, 488, 558 359, 505, 620
coriander, 227 Arabinogalactan, 5, 130, 252, Astragalosides, 56
doggrass, 248 253, 281, 449, 598, 602 Astrasieversianins, 56
782 Chemical Index
Cyclic AMP, 101, 388, 430, 566, rehmannia, 522 Dihydrobutylidenephthalide, 428
572, 677 tienchi ginseng, 598 Dihydrocapsaicin, 133
Cyclic GMP, 572 Decanal (decyl aldehyde), 46, 84, Dihydrocarvone, 138, 165, 245,
Cycloalliin, 474 227, 319, 413, 478 444
Cyclocostunolide, 230 Decanol, 84, 410 Dihydrocatalpol, 521
Cyclohexanones, 591 g-Decanolactone, 148 Dihydrochamazulenes, 1
Cyclopeptides, 572 2-Decenedioic acid, 539 Dihydrocinnamic acid,
Cycloseychellene, 493 Decussatin (1- hydroxyl-2,6,8- Dihydrocoumarin, 241, 407
Cymbopogonol, 412 Trimethoxyxanthone), Dihydrocurcumene,
Cymene, 197, 245, 467 168, 192 Dihydrodehydrocostus lactone,
p-Cymene: Decyl acetate, 344 230
bay, 76 Dehydroabietic acid, 607 Dihydrogambirtannine, 158
bergamot oil, 92 Dehydroascorbic acid, 6, 187 Dihydroguaiaretic acid, 174, 467
boldo leaves, 107 Dehydrocitronellol, 319 Dihydroyohimbine, 631
chenopodium oil, 180 Dehydrodiisoeugenol, 467 Dihydroisoalantolactone, 259
coriander, 227 5,9-Dehydronepetalactone, 159 7,8-Dihydrokavain, 395, 396
cumin, 235 3-Dehydronobilin, 170, 171 Dihydromethysticin, 395, 396
doggrass, 248 Dehydropimaric acid, 607 Dihydronepetalactone, 159
horehound, 362 7-Dehydrostigmasterol, 678 Dihydropyrocurzerenone, 460,
juniper berries, 390 Dehydroturmerone, 604 461
labdanum, 404 Delphinidin-3-glucoside, 533 Dihydroquercetin-40 -
lime oil, 423 Demethoxyisoguaiacins, 175 monoglucoside, 575
magnolia flower, 434 40 -Demethylpodophyllotoxin, Dihydrotanshinone, 680
marjoram, 437 505, 506 Dihydroxybutylidene phthalide,
olibanum, 471 Dencichine, 598, 599 683
orange, 478 Dendrolasin, 554 3,10-Dihydroxydecanoic acid,
oregano, 482–483 27-Deoxyactein, 97 539
savory, 559 14-Deoxy-11, 650 1,8-Dihydroxy- 3,7-
thyme, 595 Deoxyandrographolide, 650 dimethoxyxanthone, 192
turpentine, 607 14-Deoxyandrographolide, 650 40 ,7-Dihydroxyflavone, 416
Cynarin (1,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic Deoxygomisin A, 566 Dihydroxyfumaric acid, papain
acid), 45–47, 251, 253, Desaspidin, 54 activation by,
254 Desmethoxyaschantin, 557 Dihydroxymaleic acid, papain
Cynaropicrin, 46, 230 Desmethoxyaniflorine, 655 inhibition by,
Cysteine, enzyme activation by, Dextrin, 265, 358 Dihydroxystearic acid, 154
292 Dextrose, honey, 358 3,40 -Dihydroxystilbene, 370
Cytisine, 314 Dhelwangine, 493 Dihydroxytartaric acid, papain
Diallyl disulfide, 308, 309 inhibition by,
Daidzein, 13, 207, 400, 401 Diallyl trisulfide, 308, 309 Diisobutylphthalate, 525
Daidzein-40 ,7-diglucoside, 400 1,3-Di-O-caffeoylquinic acid, 46 b-Diketones, 378
Daidzin, 400, 401 Diarylpropanoids, 467 Diketopiperazine, 217
Damaradienol, 259 1,5-Di-O-caffeoylquinic acid, see Dillanoside, 245
Damascones,tea, 591 Cyndrin Dillapiole, 245
Damianin, 237 Dictamnolide, 678 1,2-Dimercaptopropanol, ficin
Danshensu, 680, 681 12-Didehydroandrographolide, activation by, 292
Daucol, 148 650 6,7-Dimethoxycoumarin, 400,
Daucosterol (eleutheroside A), Didrovaltrates, 612, 613 423, 478
22, 262, 269, 522, 572, Diethyl phthalate, 299, 315 g-g-Dimethylallyl ether, 50
598, 663, 676 Diflavonols, ephedra, 266 9,10-Dimethyl-1,2-
biological activities, 522 Digallyhamamelose, 620 benzanthracene, agents
Dahurian agelica, 663 Dihydroactinidiolide, tea, 591 promoting tumor
eleuthero, 262 Dihydro-b-agarofuran, 554 formation by, 272, 344,
peony root, 676 Dihydroalantolactone, 259 410, 423
788 Chemical Index
immortelle, 378 sweet basil, 74–75 g-Linolenic acid, 18, 111, 187, 277
juniper berries, 390 sweet bay, 76 Lipids, 20, 36, 40, 82, 138, 187,
kulinjan, 647 tagetes, 581 308, 310, 321, 421, 475,
labdanum, 404 tea, 591 572
lavender, 407 thyme, 595 see also Fats and fixed oils
lemon oil, 410 ylang ylang oil, 630 Liquiritigenin, 416
ligusticum, 670 Linalool acetate, see Linalyl Liquiritin, 416
lime oil, 423 acetate Lithospermic acid, 101, 225, 485
magnolia flower, 434 Linalool oxide, 106, 382, 591 Lobelanidine, 424
myrrh, 460 Linalyl acetate: Lobelanine, 424
olibanum, 471 bergamot oil, 92 Lobeline, 424–425
orange, 477–478 clary sage, 205 Loganin, 667
origanum oil, 485 lavender, 407 Longifolene, 655
pepper, 499 majoram, 437 Longispoinogenine, 129
pine needle oil, 502 natural sources of, 251 Lonicerin, 478
rosemary, 535 orange, 478 Lunularic acid, 370
sage, 550 oregano, 482–483 Lunularin, 370
savory, 559 sage, 550 Lupeol, 79, 130, 151, 170, 188,
tagetes, 581 Linalyl oxide, 416 192, 241, 314, 316, 449,
tamarind, 584 Linarin derivative, 612 471, 517, 561, 577
tarragon, 588 Lindestrene, 461 Lupine alkaloids,
dl-Limonene, see Dipentene Linoleic acid: Luproside, 279
Limonin: almonds, 22 Lupulone, 359
orange, 478 arnica, 42 Lutein (xanthophyll), 43, 52, 130,
phellodendron bark, 678 carob, 143 133, 238, 581
Linalool: castor oil, 154 Luteolin, 378
bergamot oil, 92 chervil, 185 ginkgo, 325
boil de rose oil, 106 cocoa, 218 honeysuckle flower, 667
boldo leaves, 107 coffee, 222 hops, 359
calamus oil, 127 elder flowers, 258 horsetail, 367
cananga oil, 132 eyebright, 279 lavender, 407
chaparral, 175 fennel, 283 oregano, 482
cinnamon, 197 gelsemium, 313 sage, 550
citronella oil, 202 ginger, 321 Luteolin-7-apiosylglucoside, 487
clary sage, 205 juniper berries, 390 Luteolin-7-glucoside, 36, 177,
ephedra, 265–266 ligustrum, 420 185, 235, 238–239, 252,
garlic, 308 milk thistle, 439 378, 535, 667
genet, 314 parsley, 487 Luteolin-7-glucuronosyl
ginger, 321 psyllium, 511 glucoside, 235
honeysuckle flower, 667 saw palmetto, 561 Luteolin-b-rutinoside, 46
hyssop, 376 sour jujube kernel, 572–573 Lycium fruit, 429–432
immortelle, 378 terminalia, 654 Lycopene, 130
jasmine, 382 Linolenic acid: Lycopsamine, 111, 225
labdanum, 404 arnica, 42 Lysine, 13, 287, 400, 539, 626
lavender, 407–408 chickweed, 187 Lysozyme, fungal, 301
lemon oil, 410 coriander, 227
lime oil, 423 echinacea, 251–252 Magnesium:
majoram, 437 eyebright, 279 astragalus, 56
natural sources, 251 horse chestnut, 364 bromelain activation by, 114
orange, 478–479 jasmine, 382 chervil, 185
oregano, 482 ligustrum, 420 ganoderma, 302
rosemary, 535 sour jujube kernel, 572 kava, 395
sage, 550 a-Linolenic acid, 111 red clover tops, 207
796 Chemical Index
Sabinene hydrate, 202, 235, 321, Saponins: Sclareol, 205, 206, 467, 469
437, 444, 467 aletris, 12 Scolymoside (luteolin-
Sabinyl acetate, 1, 163 alfalfa, 12 7-b- rutinoside), 46
Safflomin A, 682 ashwagandha, 645 Scoparin (scoparoside), 115
Safflower yellow, 682 astragalus, 56 Scopolamine, 5, 13, 88, 207
Safranal, 547 biological activities, 52, 332, Scopoletin (7-hydroxy-
Safrole: 518, 556, 572, 592, 599, 6-methoxy-coumarin):
biological activities, 558 633, 649 angostura bark, 34–35
cananga oil, 132 calendula, 129 baizhu, 660
cinnamon, 137 chickweed, 187 black haw bark, 99
nutmeg and mace, 467 codonopsis, 220 dill, 245
in production of heliotropin, comfrey, 225 gelsemium, 313
558 corn silk, 229 lycium fruit, 430
sassafras, 557 dittany bark, 664 passion flower, 490
tamarind, 584 fenugreek, 287 tarragon, 588
witch hazel, 620 gokshura, 646 Sebacic acid, 539
ylang ylang oil, 630 ginseng, 331 Secologanin, 667
Sagittatins, 269 guarana, 350 Sedanenolide (3-n-butyl-4,
Salanin, 652 honeysuckle flower, 667 5-dihydrophthalide),
Salicin, 65, 629 horehound, 362 165
Salicylaldehyde, 581 hydrangea, 370 Sedanolide, 165
Salicylic acid (salicylates), 97, ipecac, 388 Sedanonic acid, 683
325, 449, 496, 626 lemongrass, 412 Sedanonic anhydride, 165, 428
Salonitenolide, 101 nutmeg and mace, 467 Selina-3,7(l l)-diene, 319, 359
Salvianolic acids, 680 onion, 474 Selinenes, 331, 359
Salviatannin, 550 purslane, 679 Sempervirine, 313
Salvin, 550, 680 quillaia, 518 Senkyunolide, 165, 428, 670
Salvin monomethyl ether, rosehips, 181 Sennosides, 525, 526, 569,
550 sarsaparilla, 556 570, 696
Salvinone, 680 triterpene, horse chestnut, 364 Senticosides, 263
Sambunigrin (l-mandelonitrile triterpenoid, gotu kola, 339 Serine, 25, 339, 416, 430,
glucoside), 184 witch hazel, 620 539, 584, 602, 674
Sanchinan-A, 599 yarrow, 626 Serotonin
Sandaracopimaric acid, yucca, 633 antagonistic effects of
390, 607 Sarothamnine, 115 horehound, 363
Sanguidimerine Sarsaparilloside, 556 inhibition of release,
Sanguinarine, 102, 103 Sarsasapogenin feverfew, 289
Sanguisorbins, 666 gokshura, 646 Sesamin (eleutheroside B4),
Santalenes, 554 Sarsasaponin (parillin), 556 262
Santalols, 554 Saussurine, 230 Sesquicarene, 565
Santalone, 554 Sauvissimoside R1, 666 b-Sesquiphellandrene, 74,
Santamarin, 76, 289 Saw palmetto, 561–563 321
Santanol, 554 Schisandra, 564–567 b-Sesquiphellandrol, 321
Santene, 554 Schisanhenol, 565, 566 Sesquiterpene esters, 251
Sapogenins: Schisantherin D, 565 Sesquiterpene Lactones:
fenugreek, 287 Schizandrers, 565 baizhu, 660
ginseng, 331 Schizandrins, 565 biological activities, 43
gotu kola, 339 Schizandrols, 565 blessed thistle, 101
as potential source of steroid Scillaren A and B, 575 boneset, 109
hormones, fenugreek, Scilliglaucosidin, 575 chamomile, 170
287 Scilliphaeoside (12b-hydroxy- costus oil, 230
tienchi ginseng, 599 proscillariden A), 574 dill, 244–246
yucca, 633 Scilliroside, 575 elecampane, 259
804 Chemical Index