2015.12.

25 :


,
,
, 1960 ,
, 1962 1995

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, .
1980 ,
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.
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2

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1982.4.


80 ,
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, .
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.
. A .
B E , .
C D ,
. , .
.
4

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, . : 20
() 2.20.
.
8184 ,
, , ,
.

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1984 1


5
1.1 6
1.1.1 6
1.1.2 10
1.1.3 14
1.1.4 15
1.2 18
1.2.1 18
1.2.2 21
1.2.3 26
1.2.4 28
1.2.5 33
1.3 36
1.3.1 36
1.3.2 37
1.3.3 Urysohn Tietze 41
1.4 46
1.4.1 46
1.4.2 52
1.4.3 56
1.5 59
1.5.1 59
6

1.5.2 64
1.6 66
1.6.1 66
1.6.2 70
1.6.3 71
1.6.4 73
1.6.5 73

85
2.1 86
2.1.1 86
2.1.2 89
2.2 94
2.2.1 94
2.2.2 100
2.3 106
2.3.1 106
2.3.2 113
2.4 116
2.4.1 116
2.4.2 121
2.5 126
2.6 131
2.6.1 131
2.6.2 133
2.6.3 136
2.7 140

155
3.1 155
3.1.1 156
 7

3.1.2 158
3.1.3 162
3.1.4 164
3.2 166
3.2.1 166
3.2.2 170
3.2.3 172
3.2.4 173
3.3 Euler-Poincar 179
3.3.1 180
3.3.2 Euler-Poincar 181
3.3.3 Abel 184
3.4 186
3.4.1 188
3.4.2 192
3.5 198
3.5.1 198
3.5.2 201
3.5.3 204
3.6 204
3.7 209
3.7.1 209
3.7.2 215
3.7.3 Borsuk-Ulam 217
3.7.4 Brouwer 222
3.7.5 Lefschetz 223
3.8 228
3.8.1 228
3.8.2 234
3.9 . 1 (|K|) H1 (K) 235
8

251
4.1 251
4.1.1 251
4.1.2 254
4.1.3 256
4.2 259
4.2.1 260
4.2.2 262
4.3 265
4.3.1 266
4.3.2 Mayer-Vietoris 271
4.4 274
4.4.1 274
4.4.2 276
4.4.3 278
4.5 282
4.5.1 282
4.5.2 285

A Abel Abel 287

B Van Kampen 300

C Jordan 308

D 316

E 331
 0

ZQR C
Z+ Q+ R+
1. De Morgan
A = {A | } , A
{x A | }, {A | }, A . A
{x A | }, {A | }, A .
(De Morgan ) {A | } X ,

X\ A = (X\A );


X\ A = (X\A ).

2.
X, Y , X Y (x, y)
, x X, y Y , X Y ,

X Y = {(x, y) | x X, y Y }.

n X1 , X2 , , Xn

X1 Xn = {(x1 , . . . , xn ) | xi Xi , i = 1, , n}.
2 0

n Rn .
3.
M R XX , (x1 , x2 )
R, x1 Rx2 .
(1) x X, xRx, R ;
(2) x, y X, xRy yRx, R ;
(3) x, y, z X, xRy yRz xRz, R .
. .
X , x X, {y X | x y}
x , [x].
R X , {[x] | x X} X

, X = {[x] | x X} [x] [y] = [x] = [y], x, y X.
X/ X , X
, X/ = {[x] | x X}.
4.
X Y , f X Y . x X,
y Y , (x, y) f , f X Y ,
f : X Y . (x, y) f y = f (x). X f , Y f
, {f (x) | x X} f , Imf .
.
f : X Y , A X, B Y ,

f (A) = {f (x) | x A}

A f ;

f 1 (B) = {x | f (x) B}

B f .
f : X Y , Imf = Y , f ;
y Y, f 1 (y) , f ;
.
 3

{A | } X , {B | M}
Y , f : X Y ,

(1) f ( A ) f (A );

(2) f ( A ) = f (A );

(3) f 1 ( M B ) = M f 1 (B );

(4) f 1 ( M B ) = M f 1 (B ).
f : X Y , A X, B Y ,
(1) f 1 (Y \B) = X\f 1 (B);
(2) f , Y \f (A) f (X\A); f , f (X\A)
Y \f (A);
(3) A f 1 (f (A)). f , A = f 1 (f (A));
(4) f (f 1 (B)) B. f , f (f 1 (B)) = B.
f : X Y g : Y Z , f g
g f : X Z g f (x) = g(f (x)), x X. g f gf .
X , 1X : X X 1X (x) = x, x X,
X . f : X Y , A X, f |A : A Y
f |A (x) = f (x), x A, f A , f f |A X
. , 1X |A : A X , i : A X.
X . : X X/
(x) = [x] .
.
{X | } , {f :

X | , f () X }, X . f
(x ) (x ), x = f ().
, 2
, .

, p : X X p ((x ) ) = x ,
.
X, Y, Z , f : X Y , g : Y Z, h : X Z
4 0

, gf = h : X Z, :
f
X / Y

h g
 ~
Z
, gf = qp : X Z,
:
f
X /Y

p g

 q 
W / Z
 1

? , ,
,
. ,
, (),
(), (
), ,
. ,
. , . 8
. 8 ,
.

1.1

.
. Cantor
FrechetHausdorff .
.
6 1

, ,
, .
, ,
(
) .
,
,
.

1.1
1.1.1

, n Rn = {(x1 , , xn ) | xi R, i =
1, , n}. x = (x1 , , xn ) y = (y1 , , yn )
( n ) 21

d(x, y) = (xi yi )2 ,
i=1

: x, y, z Rn ,
(D1 ) d(x, y) 0, x = y d(x, y) = 0;
(D2 ) d(x, y) = d(y, x);
(D3 ) d(x, z) d(x, y) + d(y, z).
1 2 .
. ,
, .
.
1.1 X , d : X X R
(D1 ), (D2 ) (D3 ), (X, d) , X, d X
, d(x, y) x y .
n Rn , ,
( )1/2
x y = (xi yi )2 x y .
 1.1 7

(X, d) , x X, r , X

B(x, r) = {y X | d(x, y) < r}

x r . X, Y , f : X Y
:
x0 X, > 0, > 0,

f (B(x0 , )) B(f (x0 ), ),

f x0 . f X , f .
U X , x U , r > 0, B(x, r) U ,
U . X :
1 X , ;
2 ;
3 .
. f : X Y
. : f : Y U, f 1 (U )
X . , ,
. Rn
:
( n ) 12

d2 (x, y) = (xi yi )2 ,
i=1

n
d1 (x, y) = |xi yi |,
i=1

d (x, y) = max |xi yi |.

1in

. 1.2(n = 2).
, () ,
.
: , ,
, .
8 1

1.2

, ,
,
.
.
1.2 X , T X , :
(O1 ) X T ;
(O2 ) T T ;
(O3 ) T T ,
T X , (X, T ) , X, T
.
(X, d) ,
d , Td . ,
. , n Rn
, TU . ,
.
X , TT = {X, }, (X, TT )
, . TT .
TD = 2X , X , (X, TD ) , X
. TD .
. T1
T2 X , T1 T2 , T1 T2 (T2 T1
 1.1 9

). TT TD X .
R , TR = {R, } {(a, ) | a R}, (R, TR )
, TR .
X , TF = {, X\F | F X }, (X, TF )
, TF .
X , TC = {, X\C | C X },
(X, TC ) , TC .
X = {a, b, c} , X 29
. ( 1.3).

1.3

n ,
.
, , 1.4 .
.
De Morgan :

X\ A = (X\A ),

10 1

1.4

X\ A = (X\A ),

. ,
. :
1.3 (X, T ) , F X , X\F
, F .
, , .
De Morgan :
1.4 :
(C1 ) ;
(C2 ) ;
(C3 ) .
: X
F , 1.4 , X T
F . , T F
.

1.1.2

, r , B(x, r)
x . . ,
, .
1.5 X , x X, N X ,
U , x U N , N x . x x
 1.1 11

, N (x).
, x x , .
, x (a, b), (a, b), [a, b], (a, b], (a, ) x
, [x, b), (a, x] x .
:
1.6 X , x X N (x)
:
(N1 )N (x) = , N N (x), x N ;
(N2 ) N1 , N2 N (x), N1 N2 N (x);
(N3 ) N N (x), N U , U N (x);
(N4 ) N N (x), U N (x), U N ,
y U , U N (y).
.
: (N1 ), X ;
(N2 ) ; (N3 ),
; (N4 ), .
, .
1.7 X A : x
A, N N (x), N A.

. A , x A, U = A,
U N (x), U A.
. x A, Nx N (x), Nx A.

Nx , A = xA Nx .

, : .
, .
1.8 A X , A
A , A Cl A.
, A , F , A F , A ,
A F , A A . , A
12 1

A A A = A.
, A A .
1.9 x A : N N (x), N A = .
: x X\A : N N (x),
N A = , N X\A.

. x X\A, A , X\A , (X\A)

A = , N = X\A .
. x N N (x), N X\A. ,
N , A X\N , X\N , A X\N ,
x N X\A.

:
1.10 X . A, B X , :
(K1 ) = ;
(K2 ) A A;
(K3 ) A = A;
(K4 ) A B = A B.

(K1 )(K3 ) . (K4 ).

A A, B B, AB AB , A B AB;
, A B A B , A A B, B A B,
A B A B. A B = A B.

(K4 ) : A B, A B.
X , , Cl : 2X
2X , . ,
: X , Cl : 2X 2X , A Cl A,
1.10 , X T ,
, A Cl A. (K1 )(K4 ) Kuratowski
.
1.11 A X , x X. N
N (x), N (A\{x}) = , x A . A
 1.1 13

A , A .
A = A A .
R , Z Q,

Z = , Z = Z;

Q = R, Q = R;

{ }
1 1
A = 1, , , , ,
2 n
{ }
1 1
A = {0}, A = 1, , , , .
2 n
1.12 A X , A
A , A Int A, A .
A . De Morgan
, A
:
= X\A.
X\A

. 1.9 :
: N N (x), N A.
1.13 x A
1.14 A X , A X\A
A X\A A , Bd A. A A
.
R , Bd Z = Z, Bd Q = R, Bd [a, b) = {a, b}.
, ,
, .
1.15 D X , D = X, D X
; .
. Q . (R, TD ) ,
R R , .
14 1

1.16 A B X , B A, A
B . A = A , A . Int A = , A
. , .
X X ,
X Baire .
, , .
, Q , Baire .
Cantor ,
\
( )
3k + 1 3k + 2
A0 = [0, 1], An = An1 , ,
3n 3n
k=0


C= An
n=0
Cantor . .

1.1.3

(X, T ) , A X . X T
A TA , (A, TA ) (X, T )
, .
1.17 (X, T ) , A X, A TA = {A
U | U T } A . (A, TA ) (X, T ) ,
TA T A ().

1.5
 1.1 15

TA A .
, . R3 S 2 = {x R3 | x =
1} R3 .
.
(A, TA ) (X, T ) , A B (X, T )
, (A, TA ) . . R2
, R1 = {(x, y) R2 |y = 0} .
B = {(x, y) R2 |y = 0, a < x < b} R1 , R2 .
,
. , .
1.18 (A, TA ) (X, T ) , B A,
(1) B (A, TA ) : (X, T ) F ,
B = A F . , A X , B A , B X
.
(2) (B)A (B) A B (A, TA ) ,

(B)A = B A; B A A.
= (B)

(1) .
A = [0, 1] , ,
(a, b), [0, b), (a, 1] , a, b (0, 1).

1.1.4

, , .
, ,
. , ,
(), ,
. .
, . .
1.19 (X, T ) , B T , X
16 1

U B , B T .
, B T , X U , U
x, B B , x B U .
(X, d) {B(x, r) | x X, r R+ }
. X , {{x} | x X}
, .

, X B , X = BB B,
X . :

X = {a, b, c}, B = {{a, b}, {a, c}}.

1.20 X B X :

1 X = BB B;
2 B1 , B2 B , B1 B2 B
(, x B1 B2 , B B , x B B1 B2 ).
. B T . X , 1
. B , B1 , B2 B , B1 B2 .
, 2 .
. B . B
, T . T (O1 ) (O2 ). (O3 ),
U1 , U2 T . U1 U2 = , U1 U2 T ; U1 U2 = ,
x U1 U2 , x U1 , x U2 . T , B1 , B2 B ,
x B1 U1 , x B2 U2 , x B1 B2 U1 U2 .
2 , Bx B , x Bx B1 B2 U1 U2 , ,
U1 U2 = UxU1 U2 Bx T .
X B X T , B
X , T B . , .
.
, , .
1.21 (X, T ) , S T . S
T , S T , T
 1.1 17

S .
, S T , X U , U
x, S1 , , Sn S , x S1 Sn U .
R , {(a, +), (, a) | a R}
; R2 ,
( 1.6).

1.6

1.22 X S , X = SS S,
T , S .
S X B .

X = SS B, B1 , B2 = B , B , B1 B2 S
, B1 B2 B . 1.20, T , B
, S . , B T S B
.
T S , S .
,
1.23 X , x X, B (x) N (x) .
N N (x), B B (x), B N , B (x) x
.
{ ( ) }
(X, d) , B x, m1 | m Z+ x .
1.24 X , x X:
(1) B , B (x) = {B B | x B} x ;
18 1

(2) B (x) x , A X, x A :
B B (x), B A = .
.

1.2
. ,
, , n ()
. , ,
. ,
() , . ,
.
,
, .

1.2.1

1.25 X Y , f : X Y , x X.
f (x) N , x M , f (M ) N , f
x . f X , f X Y ,
f .
.
1.26 X Y , f : X Y ,
:
1 f ;
2 Y V , f 1 (V ) X ;
3 Y F , f 1 (F ) X ;
4 A X, f (A) f (A);
5 B Y , B B , f 1 (B) X ;
6 S Y , S S , f 1 (S) X .
1 = 2 . V Y . x f 1 (V ), V
 1.2 19

f (x) . f , x M , f (M ) V ,
x M f 1 (V ). f 1 (V ) ;
2 = 1 . x X, N f (x) , Y
V , f (X) V N . 2 , M = f 1 (V ) , x. , M
x , f (M ) V N , f x ;
2 3 . f 1 (Y \ A) = X \ f 1 (A) ;
3 = 4 . f (A) f (A) A f 1 (f (A)). 3 , f (A)
f 1 (f (A)) , , A f 1 (f (A)), f (A) f (A);
4 = 3 . F Y . 4 , f f 1 (F ) F ,
f (f 1 (F )) f f 1 (F ) F = F , f 1 (F ) f 1 (F ). , f 1 (F )
;
2 , 5 6 .
1.27 f : X Y , g : Y Z, ,
gf : X Z .
X, Y , y0 Y , c : X Y c(x) = y0 (x X)
, . c . V Y ,

X, y V ,
1 0
c (V ) =
, y /V 0

.
A X , i : A X . U
X , , i1 (U ) = U A A . ,
i A .
f : X Y A X f |A : A Y
. f |A = f i.
.
.
X Y , f : X Y , x0 X. f
x0 ( 1.25 ) : f (x0 )
20 1

B(f (x0 ), ), x0 B(x0 , ), f (B(x0 , )) B(f (x0 ), ).

.
(X, d) A B

d(A, B) = inf{d(a, b) | a A, b B}.

, x A d(x, A) = d({x}, A).

A, d(x, A) x . :

|d(x1 , A) d(x2 , A)| d(x1 , x2 ).

, a A,

d(x1 , a) d(x1 , x2 ) + d(x2 , a),

d(x1 , A) = inf d(x1 , a) d(x1 , x2 ) + inf d(x2 , a)

aA aA
= d(x1 , x2 ) + d(x2 , A),

d(x1 , A) d(x2 , A) d(x1 , x2 ).

x1 , x2 .
.

A = {x X | d(x, A) = 0}.

, d(x, A) = 0, > 0, y A, d(x, y) < ,

B(x, ) A = , x A. , d(x, A) = > 0, B(x, 2 ) A = ,
x / A. , F X , x / F , d(x, F ) > 0.

:
1.28 () X , {X | } X

, X = X . , f : X Y ,
, , x X X , f (x) = f (x). f : X Y :
 1.2 21

x X, x X , f (x) = f (x). f
:
1 X X ;
2 , X X .

1 . V Y , f1 (V )
X , 1 , X . ,

f 1 (V ) = f1 (V ).

, f 1 (V ) X . f .
R = A B, A = [0, ), B = (, 0]. f : A R
g : B R f (x) = x g(x) = x . R
h(x) = |x|.

1.2.2

1.29 X Y , f : X Y . f
, f 1 , f (). X
Y , X = Y .
().
f : X Y X () Y ()
() .
. Kuratowski X Y ,
f : X Y , g : Y X, X Y . Hocking
.
f : [0, 1) S 1 f (t) = e2it . f ,
f 1 . , [1, 41 ) f 1 S 1 .
a < b, c < d, [a, b] [c, d] . f : [a, b] [c, d]
dc
f (x) = ba (x a) + c , .
C Rn , C n
Dn = {x Rn |x 1}.
22 1

O C , Dn C. p : Rn R
: { }
x
p(x) = inf > 0 | C .

(1) p
1 p(x) 0, x = 0 , p(x) = 0;
2 t 0, p(tx) = tp(x);
3 p(x + y) p(x) + p(y).
1 2 . 3 . > 0, , > 0,
x
p(x) < p(x) + , C,
2
y
p(y) < p(y) + , C.
2
, p(x) + p(y) + < p(x) + p(y) + . C , x+y
+ =
+ + + C.
x y

p(x + y) + < p(x) + p(y) + .

0,
p(x + y) p(x) + p(y).

(2) C C = {x Rn |p(x) 1}, p .

, x C, x1 C p(x) 1. , p(x) = 0 ,
x = 0 C; 0 < p(x) 1 , > 0, > 0, x C,
p(x) < p(x)+. C , x C p(x) x
C. C ,
0 C p(x) 1 x = p(x) p(x)
x
C. , C = {x Rn | p(x) 1}.
( x )
x = 0, x
x
Dn C, p x 1, p(x) x.

|p(x) p(y)| max{p(x y), p(y x)} x y.

p(x) .
(3) f : Dn C. O x = 0 , f
x x
Dn x C p(x) ,
 1.2 23

f :

x x, x = 0,
f (x) = p(x)
0, x = 0.

1.7

f .

D n = {x Rn | x < 1} n .
Rn+1 S n = {x Rn+1 | x = 1} n .
S n \ {p} Rn , p =
(0, , 0, 1) S n . f : S n \ {p} Rn :
x S n \ {p}, p x Rn =
{x Rn+1 | xn+1 = 0} y.

y = x + (1 )p, R

yn+1 = 0
1
= 1xn+1 .
x xn+1 p
f (x) = ,
1 xn+1
f .

R3 T = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) R3 | ( x21 + x22 a)2 +x23 = 1}(a > 1)
, R3 x1 x3 {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) R3 | (x21 a)2 +
x23 = 1, x2 = 0} x3 . R2 A = {x R2 | 1 x
2} . 1.9 : ;
24 1

1.8

. ,
, .
,
=
. .
, , .
.
.
1.30 X Y , f : X Y , f
X f (X) , f , X Y .
. X Y , , X
Y . Y X .
1.31 X X , f : X Y .
x X, x U , f (U ) Y , f U
f (U ) , f .
. . : p(t) = e2it
p : R S 1.
1.32 X , f : X X X .
x X, f (x ) = x , x f . X
, X .
. , X
, h : X Y . f : Y Y , fe = h1 f h :
X X, , x . y = h(x ) f (y ) = f h(x ) =
 1.2 25

1.9

hfe(x ) = y , y f . Y .
h /
X Y
fe f
 
h /
X Y

.
I = [0, 1] ; S 1
.
, f : I I, f (0) = 0 f (1) = 1, 0
1 . , f (0) 0 > 0, f (1) 1 < 0, ,
x (0, 1), f (x ) x = 0, f (x ) = x . I .
26 1

S 1 S 1 = {z C | |z| = 1}. f : S 1 S 1 f (z) = z,

f . S 1 .
, I S 1 .

1.2.3

.
,
. , R2 R .
, R2 = R R, . , R2
, R ,
{U V | U, V R } . p1 , p2 : R2 R
: p1 (x1 , x2 ) = x1 , p2 (x1 , x2 ) = x2 , R2
{p1
i (U ) | U R , i = 1, 2}. ,
.

1.33 {(X , T ) | } , X

{X | } , p : X X ,

S = {p1
(U ) | U T , },

S X . X S T

{T | } , ( X , T ) {(X , T ) | }

, X .

1.10

S B . 1 , , n
, Ui Xi (i = 1, , n), , B
 1.2 27

n
B= p1
i (Ui ).
i=1
, x = (x ) B xi Ui (i =
1, , n), = 1 , , n x X . B

B= U .

, = 1 , , n , U = X . , =
{1, , n} ,
B = {U1 U2 Un | Ui Ti , i = 1, , n}.
T S 1 S 1 : T = S 1 S 1,
T = S 1 S 1 . , x1 , x2 ((a +
cos x2 ) cos x1 , (a + cos x2 ) sin x1 , sin x2 ) S 1 S 1 (e2ix1 , e2ix2 ).
C \ {0} R1 S 1 .
C \ {0} rei R1 S 1 (ln r, ei ).

1.34 , p : X X
, p .
p . T , X U , p1 (U )
S T , p . p , B B , p (B)
X .

n
B= p1
i (Ui ),
i=1
Ui Xi ,

U , { , , } ,
1 n
p (B) =
X ,
/ {1 , , n } ,

p (B) X .

T X , , p T
. X U , p1
(U ) T , S T . S
T T , p .
28 1

1.35 Y , f : Y X
: , p f : Y X .
f
/

Y X

p
p f
" 
X

. .
. p f , S p1 (U ) f
f 1 (p1 1
(U )) = (p f ) (U ) Y , f .

, f : Rm Rn f (x) = (f1 (x), , fn (x)) , f

: fi . .

{X | } , X ,
, TB , :
{ }

U |U T , ,

. , .
, ( 41, 42).
, .

1.2.4

.
. ,
.
1.36 (X, T ) , X . X/
X , : X X/ .
X/ T = {U X/ | 1 (U ) T } X/ ,
, (X/ , T ) (X, T ) ,
X/ .
 1.2 29

1.37 X/ X ,
(1) : X X/ ;
(2) T ;
(3) Y , f : X/ Y : f :
XY .
f /Y
X =

f

X/

(1) . , T
X , ;
(2) T X/ : X X/ ,
U T , 1 (U ) T , , U T , T T . T
;
(3) . , U Y
, f , f 1 (U )

1 (f 1 (U )) = (f )1 (U )

X . , f 1 (U ) X/ , f .

f : X Y , f X f
: x1 , x2 X, x1 f x2 f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). f : X/ f Y
f ([x]) = f (x), [x] x .
1.38 f : X Y , f
, f () , f .

f . f = f , f
. f () , A X/ f () ,
30 1

f (A) = f ( 1 (A)) Y () , f .
f
X /
<Y

f

X/ f

, .
(2 ) , ,
. .
A X . X : A
, X \ A .
A , X/A.
, I = [0, 1] I = {0, 1} ,
I/I. p : I S 1 p(t) = e2it , p
p : I/I S 1 .

1.11

1.12 S 1 Ui ,
: I I/I I Vi (i = 1, 2).

1.12
 1.2 31

Dn S n1 , Dn /S n1
S n .
I 2 : (x1 , x2 ) (x1 , x2 ), (0, x2 )
(1, x2 ), (1, x2 ) (0, x2 ), I 2 / . I 2
, I 2 / S 1 I .

1.13

1.14

1.15

, Mobius .
I 2 ,
, T = S 1 S 1 . , f :
I 2 S 1 S 1 p(x1 , x2 ) = (e2ix1 , e2ix2 ) , f
f : I 2 / f S 1 S 1 .
32 1

1.16

n P n .
X = Rn+1 \ {0} : x1 , x2 X, x1 x2
= 0, x1 = x2 . X/
n () , P n ( RP n ). P 2 .
x = 0 Rn+1 O x ,
P n Rn+1 .
: X P n , S n p = |S n : S n P n
. P n = S n / p , P n S n
x x . x x ( 1.17).
, Dn .
, P 1 S 1 .

1.17

I 2 ,
, Klein ( 1.18).
, ,
 1.2 33

1.18

.
. ,
, .
, . .
n,
en = {(x, nx) R2 | x R}
Ln = {(x, n) R2 | x R}, L
e n . X Y R2
R2 , X = nZ+ Ln , Y = nZ+ L
. f : X Y : f (x, n) = (x, nx). f
, f : X/ f Y , f . ,
{ }
1
Un = (x, n) R2 | |x| < 2 ,
n
{ }
en = (x, nx) R | |x| <
2 1
U ,
n2

U = nZ+ Un X , (U ) X/ f . f (U ) =
en = Ue Y ( Y \ U e , U e
f (U ) = nZ+ U
). X X/ f X {0} Z+
, Y . .

1.2.5

. ,
, , ,
34 1

1.19

.
1.39 D , D ,
(D1 ) D, ;
(D2 ) , , D, , , ;
(D3 ) , D, D, , , (D, )
, D. D .
, R . X
D = 2X , U V
U V.
1.40 D , X , A U , N :
D A A . D, N () x . N
{x | D}, {x }. D
, {xn | n Z+ }.
1.41 {x | D} X , x X.
x U , D, D, , x U ,
{x } x, x x. {x } x , x
{x } .
, .
.
1.42 A X , x X. x A
: A x .
 1.2 35

. , x N (x)
. x A, U N (x), U A = .
xU U A, {xU |U N (x)} A , xU x.
. A {x | D} x. x U ,
D, , x U . x U A, U A = ,
x A.
1.43 f : X Y x X : X
x {x | D}, Y {f (x ) | D} f (x).
. f x , V N (f (x)), U
N (x), f (U ) V . x x, D, ,
x U , f (x ) V , f (x ) f (x).
. f x , V N (f (x)),
U N (x), f (U ) \ V = . xU U \ f 1 (V ), X {xU }
x, f (xU )
/ V , {f (xU )} f (x), .
f x .
, ,
.
X , TC ,

TC = {, X\C | C X }.

, x0 X, A X, x0 A, A x0
.
, {xn } X x0 X . N ,
n > N , xn = x0 . , C = {xn = x0 | n Z+ } ,
U = X \ C x0 . xn x0 , N , n > N
, xn U , xn
/ C, xn = x0 . , A = X \{x0 }, x0 A.
, x0 U , X \(U A) = (X \U )(X \A) = C {x0 }
, U A = , x0 A. , A
x0 .
, Y X . f : X Y
36 1

f (x) = x. x0 X. x0 {xn },
N , n > N xn = x0 , {f (xn )} f (x0 ).
f x0 , Y {x0 } f f 1 ({x0 }) = {x0 }
X .
X = {0, 1} , {xn = 0 | n
Z+ } 0, 1. .
,
, .

1.3
,
( 1.6).
, ; ()
, .
.
.

1.3.1

1.44 X ,
, X , C1 ; X
, X , C2 .
.
, C2 C1 .
{ ( )
C1 , X x, B n, n1 |n
} { (
Z+ x , Rn C2 , B x, m1 )|x
Qn , m Z+ } ; C2 .
X C1 , {x} x X ;
C2 , X
, .
 1.3 37

(R2 , TF ) C1 . , O R2
{Un }, , Fn = R2 \ Un ,
A = nZ+ Fn . R2 , x R2 \ nZ+ Fn =
nZ+ Un , x = 0. n Z+ , Un R2 \ {x}, R2 \ {x} O
. {Un } O .
C1 C2 ,
. ,
.
1.45 X C1 ,
(1) x X, x {Vn }, n
Z+ , Vn+1 Vn ;
(2) A X , x A : A ,
x;
(3) Y , x X, f : X Y x
: X x {xn }, Y {f (xn )} f (x).
.
C2 . , {Bn } X
, xn Bn , n Z+ , D = {xn | n Z+ }, ,
D = X.
, C2 , C2
.

1.3.2

n , x y,
U V , x U, y V . , A B
, U V , A U, B V .
, .
.
1.46 X . :
38 1

T0 X x y, U ,
, x U, y / U y U, x
/ U;
T1 X x y, U V ,
x U, y
/U x
/ V, y V ;
T2 X x y, U
V , x U, y V ;
A X , x / A, U
V , x U, A V ;
A B X ,
U V , A U, B V ;
T3 T1 ;
T4 T1 .
Ti Ti (i = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4);
, T2 Hausdorff
.
, .
, T2 T1 , T1 T0 .
(R, TT ) T0 ; (R, TR ) T0 T1 . (R, TF )
T1 T2 . , x = y, R \ {y} R \ {x},
, (R, TF ) T1 . , R \ F1 R \ F2
x y , F1 F2 , (R \ F1 ) (R \ F2 ) =
R \ (F1 F2 ) = , x y , (R, TF )
T2
1.47 X T1 :
.

. {x0 } T1 . X \ {x0 }
. , x X \ {x0 }, T1 , x x0
U , x U X \ {x0 }. X \ {x0 } .
. X , x, y X, x = y, X \ {y}
x y , X \ {x} y x ,
 1.3 39

1.20
40 1

T1 .

, T4 T3 , T3 T2 .
1.48 (1) X T2 , A X , A
T2 ;

(2) {X | } , X T2
: X T2 ;
(3) X T2 :

= {(x, x) X X | x X}

X X ;
(4) f, g : X Y , Y T2 ,

A = {x X | f (x) = g(x)}

X .

(1), (2) .
(3) X T2 : (x, y) X X \ , X
U V , (x, y) U V X X \ , X X \
, .
(4) Y T2 , (3),

= {(y, y) Y Y |y Y }

Y Y .

f g :X Y Y

f g(x) = (f (x), g(x)), f g , A = (f g)1 () X

.

, .
:
1.49 T2 .
 1.3 41

. {x | D} T2 X , x
x, x y, x = y. U N (x), D, ,
x U ; V N (y), D, , x V . D
, D, , . x U V , X T2
, x = y.
, . ,
T2 .
.
1.50 T4 .
(X, d) T1 . A B X
,
( ) x A, ( d(x,)B) > 0. U =
d(x,B)
xA B x, 2 ; , V = yB B y, d(y,B) 2 . U V ,
A U, B V . U V = . , z U V ,
x A, y B, d(x, z) < d(x,B)
2 , d(y, z) <
d(y,A)
2 ,
1
d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y) < (d(x, B) + d(y, A))
2
1
(d(x, y) + d(y, x)) = d(x, y),
2
, U V = . (X, d) T1 .

1.3.3 Urysohn Tietze

. ,
1.6 .
A B (X, d) . f :
X I f (x) = d(x, A)/[d(x, A) + d(x, B)] . f , f (A) =
{0}, f (B) = {1}. A B f .
Urysohn ,
.
1.51 (1) X , U , x U , V ,
x V V U ;
42 1

(2) X , F , U , F U , V ,
F V V U .
(2), (1) (2) .
F X \ U , , V W ,
F V, X \ U W, V W = . V X \ W , X \ W
, V X \ W .

F V V U.

1.52 (Urysohn ) X :
X A B, f : X [a, b],
f (A) = {a}, f (B) = {b}.
a = 0, b = 1.
. A B X .
f : X I, f (A) = {0}, f (B) = {1},
([ )) (( ])
1 1 1 1
U =f 0, V =f ,1
2 2
X , A U, B V , U V = , X .

1.21

P = {0, 1, 1/2, 1/3, 2/3, 1/4, 2/4, 3/4, 1/5, 2/5, 3/5, }
 1.3 43

. P I . {rn | n Z+ },
r1 = 0, r2 = 1. r P X
Ur .
, U1 = X \ B. , U0 ,

A U0 U 0 U1 .

, Ur3 ,

U 0 U r3 U r3 U 1 .

, Ur1 , Ur2 , , Urk1 . rk

r = max{rj | j < k, rj < rk },

s = min{rj | j < k, rj > rk },

, Urk ,

U r Urk U rk Us .

, r P , Ur , :
(1) r, s P, r < s , U r Us ;
(2) r P (r = 1), A Ur U r X \ B.
f : X I :

inf{r | x U } x
/ B,
r
f (x) =
1 x B.

:
1 r P, A Ur , f (A) = {0}, f (B) = {1};
2 0 < 1, f (x) < : r P, r < ,

x Ur , f 1 ([0, )) = {x | f (x) < } = r< Ur ; ,
0 < 1, f (x) > : s P, s > , x / U s ,

f 1 ((, 1]) = {x | f (x) > } = s> (X \ U s ) , f ,
.
44 1

1.53 (Tietze ) X :
X A f : A [a, b], fe : X [a, b],
fe, fe|A = f .
. Urysohn , X ,
X F1 F2 , f : X [a, b],
f (F1 ) = {a}, f (F2 ) = {b}. , A = F1 F2 . f0 : A [a, b]
f0 (F1 ) = {a}, f0 (F2 ) = {b}. f0 . ,
f : X [a, b], .
. a = 1, b = 1.
([ ])
1 1
A1 = f 1, ,
3
([ ])
1
A+1 = f 1 ,1 ,
3
A1 A+1 A , X .
Urysohn ,
[ ]
1 1
f1 : X , ,
3 3
{ } { }
f1 (A1 ) = 13 , f1 (A+1 ) = 13 . x A,
2
|f (x) f1 (x)| .
3
[ ]
f f1 : A 23 , 23 ,
([ ])
1 2 2
A2 = (f f1 ) , 2 ,
3 3
([ ])
2 2
A+2 = (f f1 )1 , .
32 3

[ ]
Urysohn , f2 : X 322 , 322 ,
{ } { }
2 2
f2 (A2 ) = 2 , f2 (A+2 ) = .
3 32
 1.3 45

1.22

, x A,
22
|f (x) f1 (x) f2 (x)| .
32
[ n1 n1
]
Urysohn , n Z+ fn : X 2 3n , 2 3n .
x A,   ( )

n  n
  2
f (x) fj (x) .
  3
j=1
n1
x X, |fn (x)| 23n . Weieretrass ,
e
n=1 fn (x) f : X I, x A,
 
 n 
e  
|f (x) f (x)| = lim f (x) fj (x)
n  
j=1
( )n
2
lim = 0,
n 3

fe|A = f . fe f .
Urysohn Tietze .
.
46 1

Urysohn Tietze , .
A = [0, 1), B = (1, 2) R ,
f : R I, f (A) = {0}, f (B) = {1}.

1.4
, .
, . ,
, .
. ,
.

1.4.1

1.54 C = {C | } X , A U ,

A C , C A ; C , C
; , C ; C C , C A
, C C .
1.55 X , X
, X ; A X , X A ,
A X .
, .
, A X
: A X .
; Heine-
Borel , [a, b] . (a, b)
{( ) }
, a, b ba
n | n Z + .
(R, TF ) , (R, TC )
.
, (R, TF ), C = {R \ C | C , } R
. 0 , C0 = {x1 , , xn } .
 1.4 47

n n
xi R \ Ci , i . C0 i=1 (R \ Ci ), R i=0 (R \ Ci ),
{R \ Ci | i = 0, , n} C .
(R, TC ), {(R \ Z) {n} | n Z} ,
.
, .
X ,
.
1.56 X : X
{F | },

F = .

. {F | } :

F = ,


(X \ F ) = X \ F = X, {X \ F | } X
. X , {X \ Fi | i = 1, , n},
n
i=1 Fi = , {F | } .

. C = {U | } X . F = X \ U .
{F | } X ,

F = X \ U = .

, {F | } . 1 , , n
n
, i=1 Fi = .

n
n
Ui = X \ Fi = X,
i=1 i=1

{Ui | i = 1, , n} C . X .
.
.
48 1

1.57 (1) .
(2) Hausdorff .
(1) A X , X \ A . C =
{U | } A X . C = {X \ A} C , C X
. X , C

{X \ A} {Ui | i , i = 1, , n},

{Ui | i , i = 1, , n} C , A X .
(2) A T2 X . X \ A ,
x X \ A, U , x U X \ A.
, T2 , a A, Ua Va
x a. {Va | a A} A . A ,
{Vai | ai A, i = 1, , n}.

n
n
U= Uai , V = Vai ,
i=1 i=1

U x , A V .

n
U AU V = (U Vai ) = ,
i=1

x U X \ A. X \ A .
1.58 Hausdorff :
.

1.59 T2 T4 .
,
1.60 A R , A : A
.
. T2 A . , C =
{(n, n) | n Z+ } A , A , C ,
A .
 1.4 49

1.23

. A R , M , A
[M, M ], A [M, M ] . [M, M ]
= I
, A .

, 1.1 Cantor .
1.61 (1) ;
(2) f : X Y , X , Y T2 , f
. , f , f .

(1) X , f : X Y ,

C = {U | }

f (X) . C = {f 1 (U ) | } X .
X , C {f 1 (Ui ) | i , i = 1, , n},
{Ui | i , i = 1, , n} C , f (X) .
(2) X F , X , F . (1),
f (F ) . Y T2 , f (F ) Y , f
.
1.62 () f : X R X ,
f , X .

, f (X) R , . m =
50 1

inf f (X), M = sup f (X) f (X), f X M

m.

1.61 . p : I S 1
p(t) = e2it , p , S 1 = p(I), S 1 .
.
, .
. .
1.63 (X, T ) (Y, T ) , Y , N
X Y , x0 X, {x0 } Y N , x0 X
U , U Y N .

{U V | U T , V T } X Y ,
N {x0 } Y {x0 } Y . C .
{x0 }Y Y , , C {Ui Vi | i = 1, , n}.
n
{Vi | i = 1, , n} Y . U = i=1 Ui , x0 U, U
,
n
n
U Y U Vi Ui Vi N.
i=1 i=1

1.24

1.64 .
 1.4 51

X Y , C X Y . x X,
{x} Y , C {Ci | i = 1, , m},
m
{x} Y i=1 Ci . , X Ux , x Ux ,
m
Ux Y i=1 Ci . {Ux | x X} X , X ,
n
{Uxj | j = 1, , n}, X Y j=1 Uxj Y . Uxj
, Uxj Y C , X Y C
X Y .
, . ,

I n = I| I
{z I}
n

. Rn : .
Dn T S n
.
1.64 :
Tychonoff .
, .
X/ X .
: X X/ ,
1.65 .
, P 2 Klein .
, f : X Y X T2 Y . f
X f , f f : X/ f Y .
X/ f , f . , p : I S 1
p : I/I S 1 . 1.2 .
:
1.66 (Lebesgue ) C X ,
> 0, x X, C C , B(x, ) C.
C Lebesgue .
X , C {Ci | i = 1, , n}.
52 1

f : X R

f (x) = max {d(x, X \ Ci )}.

1in

x X, Ci , x Ci , x / X \ Ci . X \ Ci ,
d(x, X \ Ci ) > 0, f (x) > 0. X f
m, m > 0. 0 < < m. x X, i,
d(x, X \ Ci ) > , B(x, ) Ci .
.
1.67 (X, d) (Y, d ) , f : X Y .
> 0, > 0, x1 , x2 X, d(x1 , x2 ) < ,
d (f (x1 ), f (x2 )) < , f .
1.68 .
f : X Y X Y .
{ ( ( )) }
> 0, f 1 B y, 2 |y Y X . ,
Lebesgue . , x1 , x2 X, d(x1 , x2 ) < , y0 Y ,
( ( )) ( )
x1 , x2 f 1 B y0 , 2 , f (x1 ), f (x2 ) B y0 , 2 .

d (f (x1 ), f (x2 )) < ,

f .

1.4.2

.
1.69 X ,
, X ; X ,
X Lindelf .
, ; Lindelf .
, ;
; . X
: X ()
{Fn | n Z+ } .
 1.4 53

1.70 X , ,
X , A X, X A ,
A X .
1.71 (1) ;
(2) C1 .
(1) X , {Fn | n Z+ } X
. xn Fn , X , {xn } x X
{xnj }, i, xni , xni+1 , Fni , {xnj | j i} x.

x F ni = Fni Fi , x iZ+ Fi , X .
(2) X C1 . {xn } X .
An = {xi | i Z+ , i n}, {An } . X

, x nZ+ An . X C1 , x
{Un }. U1 U2 . x A1 , xn1 U1 A1 ;
x An1 +1 , xn2 U2 An1 +1 , n2 > n1 . , {xn }
{xni } x, X .
, ;
.
1.72 X , X
(Bolzano-Weierstrass ), X .
1.73 (1) ;
(2) T1 .
(1) X , X ,
A = {xn | n Z+ }.
, . , A , A , X \ A
. , xn A, xn A , xn
Un , Un (A \ {xn }) = , Un A xn .
{X \ A, Un | n Z+ } X , ,
, X .
(2) X T1 , C =
{Un | n Z+ }, C . V1 = U1 , x1 V1 . ,
54 1

n1
n > 1 , V1 , , Vn1 , Vn i=1 Vi
Ui . {V1 , , Vn1 } X, Ui ,
n1
X = nZ+ Vn . xn Vn \ i=1 Vi . {xn | n Z+ }
, X . , x {xn | n Z+ } ,

T1 , x xn . , X = nZ+ Vn
N , x VN . VN {xN +1 , xN +2 , } = , VN
xn , .
1.25.

1.25

, . .
1.74 F = {x1 , , xn } X .
n
X i=1 B(xi , ), F X ( > 0).
> 0, X , X .
1.75 .
(X, d) , > 0, X .
x1 X, {x1 } , x2 X, d(x1 , x2 ) .
{x1 , x2 } , x3 X, d(x3 , xi ) , i = 1, 2.
, {xn }, i = j , d(xi , xj ) . {xn }
, X .
 1.4 55

1.76 .
, ,
: .
Lebesgue .
C X , Lebesgue . X
, {x1 , , xn }. Lebesgue , i, B(xi , )
C , Ci . {Ci | i = 1, , n} C
, X .
C1 T1 ,
. Lindelf , ,
. :
1.77 X, :
(1) X ;
(2) X ;
(3) X ;
(4) X .
1.78 (X, d) , {xn | n Z+ } X .
> 0, N , m, n N ,
d(xm , xn ) < ,
{xn } Cauchy . X Cauchy , X
.
R , Q .
1.79 :
.
. (X, d) .
(1) X , .
(2) X . , {xn } X Cauchy .
> 0, N , m, n N ,

d(xm , xn ) < .
2
56 1

X , {xn } x X {xni },
ni0 N ,

d(xni0 , x) < .
2
, n N ,

d(xn , x) d(xn , xni0 ) + d(xni0 , x) < .

{xn } x, X .
. (X, d) . X
. , X {xn }, Cauchy .
, X , X .
, X , X 1 .
xn , 1 B1
J1 Z+ , {xn | n J1 } B1 . , Jk ,
1
k+1 Bk+1 Jk+1 Jk , {xn |n Jk+1 } Bk+1 .
, n1 J1 . k 1, nk , nk+1 Jk+1
nk+1 > nk . , i, j k, ni , nj Jk , xni , xnj Bk ,
d(xni , xnj ) < k2 . {xnk } Cauchy .

1.4.3

, n
. ,
.
1.80 X , x X. x ,
X x . .
, .
. Rn .
x Rn , B(x, r) x . Qn .
.
{( ) }
S = x, sin x1 R2 | 0 < x 1 {(0, 0)},
. (0, 0) , .
 1.4 57

, (0, 0) N R2 , .

1.26

: ;
;
1.81 T2 .

A T2 X , x A . T2
T4 , U , x U U A. U x A
, X . A .

: x X
B (x) = {Bx }, Bx X , X x
. : T2 .
.
, ,
. , .
1.82 (X, T ) . . X =
X {}, T = T {X \ C | C X }, T X
. (X , T ) (X, T ) .
:
(1) (X, T ) (X , T ) , X , X X ;
(2) (X , T ) ;
(3) (X , T ) T2 : (X, T ) T2
.
58 1

T : X U I , X
C X X \ C II .
T . X I II
, T . T T .
: U1 , U2 I , X \ C1 , X \ C2 II ,
U1 U2 , (X \ C1 ) (X \ C2 ) = X \ C1 C2 , U1 (X \ C1 ) = U1 (X \ C1 )
I, II, I , T . T
T . (X , T ) .
(1) , X X X : U X =
U, (X \ C) X = X \ C. , X X I
X . (X, T ) (X , T ) .
, X , X \ C,

(X \ C) X = X \ C = ,

X = X .
(2) U = {U | } X . U
X \ C, C X . (1), C X , U C
. U , U {X \ C} X , U
, X .
(3) (X , T ) T2 , X X
T2 . , (X, T ) T2 , x, y X, x = y,
; x X , N x X
, X . U X x U N ,
U X \ N x . X T2 .
Rn S n .
. :
1.83 C T2 X , F X ,
C F = , f : X I, f (C) = {0}, f (F ) = {1}.
X X . , X T2 .
A = C, B = F {}, A X , X \ B = X \ F
 1.5 59

X X . A B X .
T2 T4 , Urysohn , f : X I,
f (A) = {0}, f (F ) = {1}. f X f .
1.84 T2 T3 .
. X
.

1.5

, .

1.5.1

, ,
. :
1.85 X .
, X ; X , X =
U V, U = , V = , U V = , U V X .
X .
A X, A , A X .
, .
1.86 X , :
(1) X ;
(2) X ;
(3) X X ;
(4) f : X S 0 . S 0 = {1, 1} R, 0
, .

(1) (4) . .
(1) = (4) f : X S 0 , X
60 1

f 1 (1) f 1 (1) , X .
(4) = (1) X , U V . f : X S 0

1 x U
f (x) =
1 xV

f X S 0 .
, (4) .
R .
, f : R S 0 . a f 1 (1), b f 1 (1).
a < b. A = f 1 (1) [a, b], c = sup{A}. A [a, b]
, c A, c < b. , A [a, b] , > 0,
(c , c + ) [a, b] A. c A . R .
;
; R Q .
1.87 X ,
(1) A X , A B A, B . ,
;
(2) {A, A | } X , , A

A , A ( A ) ;
(3) . , ;
(4) .
(1) f : B S 0 . A , f (A) = {1}
{1}. A f 1 (1). B , (A)B (f 1 (1))B ,
(A)B = A B = B, f 1 (1) B , B f 1 (1), f
. B .

(2) B = A ( A ). f : B S 0 . A ,
f (A) = {1}. A A = , A , f (A ) = {1}.
f (B) = {1}, f , B .
(3) f : X Y, g : f (X) S 0 , gf : X
 1.5 61

S 0 . X , gf , g . f (X)
.
(4) . X Y
. X Y , f : X Y S 0 ,
(x0 , y0 ) f 1 (1), (x1 , y1 ) f 1 (1).

: X S0 : Y S0

(x) = f (x, y1 ) (y) = f (x0 , y). ,

(x1 ) = f (x1 , y1 ) = 1,
(y0 ) = f (x0 , y0 ) = 1,
(x0 ) = f (x0 , y1 ) = (y1 ).

, XY . X Y
.
,
.
R , , R ,

(a, b), [a, b], (a, b], [a, b), (, b), (a, )

R . R . ,
A R , a, b A, a < b. c (a, b), c / A,
(, c) A (c, ) A A . A . A
.
Rn = R R R, I m = I I I, S n
= I n /I n ,
I n I n Rn . . S n (n > 0)
: A, A+ , A .
A = S n1 , A+
= Dn
= A , , A A+ = , A A = ,
S n .
, . ,
. ,
62 1

, . S 1 S 2
.
1.88 () f : X R X
. a, b f (X), a < b, c (a, b), xc X, f (xc ) = c.
X , f (X) R .
a, b f (x) , c (a, b) f (X), xc X, f (xc ) = c.

, , X
, X .
1.89 X , C X , X
, C X .
, C X , C C
D, C = D. .
, x X, x x
.
, .
1.90 X ,
(1) X , X X ;
(2) X ;
(3) X .
(1) C X , C , C , C C.
C = C, C . , .
(2) , X . : C1 C2
X , C1 C2 = , C1 = C2 . , x C1 C2 ,
C1 C2 . : C1 = C1 C2 = C2 .
(3) A X , x A, C x .
A C , A C = C, A C. (2) .

.
 1.5 63

1.91 X , x X. x U ,
x V , V U , X x .
.
. Rn .
1.92 X : X
X .
. X , U X , C U .
x C, U x X , X , x
V , V U . V , C U , U C, C
.
. x X, U x X . C U x
, , C C U . X .

1.27

R2
{ }
1
C = (x1 , x2 ) R2 | x1 = 0, , n Z+ , 0 x2 1
n

{(x1 , x2 ) R2 | 0 x1 1, x2 = 0}
. . ,
{ }
1
U = (x1 , x2 ) R2 | x1 = 0, , n Z+ , 0 < x2 1
n
C , V = {(x1 , x2 ) R2 | x1 = 0, 0 < x2 1} U ,
C .
64 1

, .
: .
, (0, 0) .
1.93 () .
X , f : X Y , U Y
, C U . x f 1 (C), Cx f 1 (U ) x
. f , f (Cx ) U , f (x). C U
f (x) , f (Cx ) C, Cx f 1 (C). , X
, Cx X , f 1 (C) X :
(1) f , C = f f 1 (C) Y ;
(2) f , Y \ C = f (X \ f 1 (C)) Y .
, C . , Y .
1.94 T2 .
, Dn T2 , S n , P 2 , T
.

1.5.2

, .
1.95 X . : I X x0 =
(0) x1 = (1) , x0 x1 .

: (I, 0, 1) (X, x0 , x1 ).

I X , (I).
. Peano .
1.96 X . x1 , x2 X, X
x1 x2 , X . A X, A
, X .
Rn S n .
 1.5 65

{( ) }
1
S= x, sin R | 0 < x 1 {(0, 0)}
2
x

.
{( ) }
, A = x, sin x1 R2 | 0 < x 1 (0, 1]
. A . A S A, S . : S
= (0, 0) : I S, (I) = {}. S
. , {} S , 1 () I .
1 () I , t0 1 (), I
( )
, t0 U , (U ) S B , 12 ,
( )
(U ), S B , 12 {}, (U )
(U ) {}, U 1 (), 1 () I . 1 ()
, I 1 () = I, (I) = {}.
1.97 (1) ;
(2) .

(1) X , f : X S 0 .
x0 , x1 X, f (x0 ) = 1, f (x1 ) = 1, X ,
: I X x0 x1 . f : I S 0 , I
. X .
(2) .

, .
.
1.98 X , C X .
X , C X .
1.99 X , x X, x U ,
x V , V U , X x .
.
, .
, :
66 1

1.100 X : X
X .
:
1.101 .

X , C X
. X , C . X \ C ,
. X C = , X = C, X
.

, , ,
. ,
.

1.6
1.6.1

.
1.102 (X, T ) . X d,
d T , (X, T ) .
. C1
T4 , .
1.103
[ 1]
H= 0, , x = {xn }, y = {yn } H.
n
nZ+

d : H H R
21

d(x, y) = (xn yn )2 ,
nZ+

(H, d) , Hilbert .
 1.6 67

d , Hilbert
.
Urysohn , ,
.
1.104 C2 T3 T4 .
T3 X B , A B X
. x A, , W , x W W X\B.
B Ux , x Ux W . Ux
, {Un | n Z+ }

A Un , U n B = .
nZ+

{Vn | n Z+ }, B nZ+ Vn , V n A = .
n Z+ ,

n
n
en = Un \
U V i , Ven = Vn \ U i.
i=1 i=1

U= en ,
U V = Ven ,
nZ+ nZ+

U V . x A, n, x Un , i, x
V i , x Uen U , A U . , B V .
ej Vek .
U V = . , x U V , j, k Z+ , x U
j k, Uej , x Uj ; Vek , j k,
x/ U j . . j k , U V = , X T4 .

1.105 (Urysohn ) X C2 T3 ,
X .
Urysohn , X
Hilbert , , .
B = {Bn | n Z+ } T . T3 , B
B i Bj Bi Bj (Bi , Bj ) .
68 1

1.28

. (Bi , Bj ) n . B i X \ Bj
[ ]
, Urysohn , fn : X 0, n1 , fn (B i ) =
{ }
{0}, fn (X \ Bj ) = n1 . ( (Bi , Bj ) N , n > N
fn (x) = 0.) f : X H

f (x) = (f1 (x), f2 (x), ).

f .
(1) f . x, y X, x = y. X T1 ,
Bj B , x Bi , y X \ Bj . , Bi B ,
x Bi B i Bj . fn (y) = 0, fn (x) = n1 . f (x) = f (y). f .

(2) f . x0 X, > 0, N , n=N +1 n12 <
2
2 . n = 1, 2 , N , fn , Bn B , x0 Bn ,
x Bn ,

|fn (x) fn (x0 )| < .
2N
 1.6 69

n=1 Bn , B x0 , x B , x Bn .
B = N
( ) 21

d(f (x0 ), f (x)) = (fn (x0 ) fn (x))2
n=1
(N
) 12
1
(fn (x0 ) fn (x))2 +
n=1
n2
n=N +1
,

f .
(3) f . X U , f (U ) f (X)
. y0 f (U ). x0 U , y0 = f (x0 ). X B
, n (Bi , Bj ),

x0 Bi B i Bj U.
{1}
fn (x0 ) = 0, fn (X \ U ) = n . , x X \ U ,

1
d(f (x), f (x0 )) |fn (x) fn (x0 )| = > 0.
n
( )
1
f (X \ U ) B f (x0 ), = .
n
( )
1
B f (x0 ), H \ f (X \ U ).
n
f , f (U ) = f (X) \ f (X \ U ), f (X)
( )
B y0 , n1 f (X)
( )
1
y0 B y0 , f (X) f (U ),
n
f (U ) f (X) .
, f , X H .

, :
70 1

1.106 F X , x X,
x U , F , F ;
F , F .
.
R , {(n, n + 2) | n Z}, {(n, 2n)|n Z}
{( ) } {( 1 1 ) }
, 0, n1 | n Z+ ,
n+1 n | n Z +
.
Nagata-Smirnov X :
X T4 .
.

1.6.2

, C2 T3
. : .
.
X , f : X R , X f (x) = 0
f 1 (R \ {0}) f , supp f . ,
x0
/ supp f , x0 U , x U, f (x) = 0.
1.107 U = {U | } X , {f :
X I | } . :
(1) {supp f | } ;
(2) , supp f U ;

(3) x X, f (x) = 1 ( x,
),
{f | } U .
1.108 U = {Ui | i = 1, 2, , n} X
, U .
, U
V = {Vi | i = 1, , n},
 1.6 71

i, V i Ui .
n
A1 = X \ i=2 Ui , A1 . U X, A1 U1 .
, V1 , A1 V1 V 1 U1 . {V1 , U2 , , Un }
X.
, V1 , , Vk1 , {V1 , , Vk1 , Uk , , Un }
X, 1 i k 1, V i Ui .

k1
n
Ak = X \ Vi \ Ui .
i=1 i=k+1

X , Vk , Ak Vk V k Uk .
{V1 , , Vk , Uk+1 , , Un } X, V k Uk . n
V = {Vi | i = 1, , n}.
V W = {Wi |i = 1, , n}, i, W i
Vi .
Urysohn , i gi : X I, gi (W i ) =
{1}, gi (X \ Vi ) = {0}, gi1 (R \ {0}) Vi ,

supp gi V i Ui .
n
W X, x X, i=1 gi (x) > 0. gi ,
fi : X I
gi (x)
fi (x) = n .
j=1 gj (x)

{fi | i = 1, , n} U .

1.6.3

.
1.109 X Hausdorff , n , x X,
Rn , X n .
72 1

Rn n . 1 ;
Klein 2 . 2 ,
D.
. . ,
. , .
, , X Hausdorff
, .
S 1 , p S 1 . S 1 {0, 1}
: , x S 1 , x = p, (x, 0) (x, 1), (x, 1)
(x, 0). S 1 {0, 1}/ R,
Hausdorff .
1.110 .
X n , {Ui | i = 1, , m},
Ui Rn . gi : Ui Rn .
X T2 , T4 . ,
{Ui | i = 1, , m} {fi | i = 1, , m}.
i, Ai = supp fi . hi : X Rn

f (x)g (x) x U
i i i
hi (x) =
0 xX \A. i

Ai = supp fi Ui , Ui (X \ Ai ) , fi (x) = 0. Ui
X \ Ai , hi , X .
F : X Rm(n+1) :

F (x) = (f1 (x), , fm (x), h1 (x), , hm (x)).

F . F , x, y X, F (x) = F (y).
m
, i, fi (x) = fi (y), hi (x) = hi (y). i=1 fi (x) = 1,
i, fi (x) > 0. fi (y) > 0, x, y Ui ,

fi (x)gi (x) = hi (x) = hi (y) = fi (y)gi (y).

fi (x) = fi (y) gi (x) = gi (y). gi x = y.

 1.6 73

X F .

n 2n + 1 .

1.6.4

, .
:
1.111 U V X , V V ,
U U , V U , V U , V < U .
1.112 X Hausdorff ,
, X .
, Hausdorff .
:
;
T4 ;
;
, .

1.6.5

X Y , F (X, Y ) X Y .
F (X, Y ) , .
X Y () .
F (X, Y ) . x X, Yx x X
Y .

Yx = {f : X Yx | f (x) Yx = Y } = F (X, Y ).
xX xX

Y X .
px : Y X Y px (f ) = f (x), .
74 1

1.113 X , Y , Y X
. .
{p1 x (U ) | x X, U Y }.
p1 (U ) = {f Y X | px (f ) = f (x) U }, Y X {fn }, X
Y , , fn f ,
x X, fn (x) f (x).
:
1.114 X Y , C (X, Y ) X Y
. C (X, Y ) {C(K, U ) | KX, U Y }
,

C(K, U ) = {f C (X, Y ) | f (K) U }.

ri=1 C(Ki , Ui ) .
X , Y , ,
.

1
1. 1.1 2 3 .
2. X , p X. T1 = {U X | U = p U }, T2 = {U X | U =
X p / U }. : T1 T2 X .
3. X , A X, T (A) = {, X, U X | A U }. :
(1) T (A) X ;
(2) A B X : T (B) T (A);
(3) A1 , , An X, T X , i = 1, , n, T (Ai ) T ,
T (ni=1 Ai ) T .
4. (1) {T | } X . : T = T = {U | , U
T } X , T ; : T = {U | , U T }
X ? : T T ;
(2) X = {a, b, c}, T1 = {, {a}, {a, b}, X}, T2 = {, X, {a}, {b, c}}. T T .
5. (1) .
(2) : .
6. X , x X, N (x), 1.6 N1 N4 .
: X T , (X, T ) x N (x).
7. R , x R, N (x) = {U R | y R, y > x, [x, y) U }. :
N (x) x . , TH .
8. A X , : A B A B. : A , .
9. X A, B, A , . :
(1) A A ;
 1 75

(2) A \ B A \ B;
(3) (A B) = A B ;
(4) (A B) A B .
: (1),(2) (4) .
10. : Kuratowski , A, B X, :

A A B = A B \ .

11.* X . : A X, 14
. R A, 14 .
12. X . X .
13. A, B X . :
(1) A = A Bd A = Int A Bd A;
(2) Bd (A B) Bd A Bd B;
(3) Int (A B) Int A Int B.
14. A, B X . :
(1) Bd A A : A ;
(2) Bd A A = : A ;
(3) Bd A = : A ;
(4) Int A = A : A .
15. :
(1) x ;
(2) A = {(x, y) R2 | x > 0, y = 0};
(3) B = {(x, y) R2 | x Q};
(4) C = {(x,
{ y) R 2 | 0 < x + y 1}; 1 }
2 2 2

(5) D = (x, y) R | 0 < x 1, y = sin x .

16. 1.10, . :
.
17. B B X T T . : T T :
x X, x B B B, B B , x B B.
18. d, d X , T , T . : T T
: x X > 0, > 0,

Bd (x, ) Bd (x, ).

19. R

B1 = {(a, b) | a, b R, a < b},

B2 = {[a, b) | a, b R, a < b},
{ }
1
B3 = B1 {B \ K | B B1 }, K = | n Z+ ,
n
B4 = {(a, +) | a R},
B5 = {B R | R \ B },
B6 = {[a, b) | a, b Q, a < b}.

(1) ;
(2) .
20. X = {a, b, c, d, e}. S = {{a, b, c}, {b, c, d}, {d, e}}. S T ,
{b, d, e}, {b, c, d, e} .
76 1

21. (X, <) , x, y X, x < y.

(x, y) = {z X | x < z < y},

(x, +) = {z X | x < z},
(, x) = {z X | z < x}.

: X B = {(x, +), (, x), (x, y) X | x, y X, x < y} .

X ().
22. (1) (Y, TY ) (X, TX ) , (Z, TZ ) (Y, TY ) . : (Z, TZ )
(X, TX ) .
(2) (X, d) , A X, dA d A . : dA TdA
d Td .
(3) S (X, T ) , A X. : SA = {A S | S S } (A, TA ) .
23. (A, TA ) (X, T ) , B A . (B)A Int A B B
(A, TA ) . :

(B)A = B A; Int B = Int A B Int A.

24. T T R R , B = {[a, b) (c, d)} B = {[a, b) [c, d)}

, a, b, c, d R, a < b, c < d. L R R , TL TL R
?
25. X = {a, b, c, d}, T = {, X, {a}, {b}, {a, b}, {b, c, d}}. f : X X f (a) =
f (c) = b, f (b) = d, f (d) = c. : f c d .
26. :
(1) f : X Y ;
(2) B Y , f 1 (Int B) Int f 1 (B).
27. 1X : (X, T1 ) (X, T2 ) X . : 1X : T2 T1 .
28. (1) X , Y , f : X Y , : X
.
(2) Y , X, f : X Y , : Y
.
29. f : X Y , x X, Vx , f |Vx : Vx V ,
f .
30. A X . A A : X {0, 1}({0, 1} )
: {
1 xA
A (x) =
0 x
/ A.
: (1) A x X : x
/ BdA;
(2) A : A .
31. {X | } X . x X, x
X , {X | } . : , (
1.28) .
32. (1) x, y D n = {x Rn | x < 1}. : h : Dn Dn ,
h(x) = y, h|S n1 = 1S n1 ().
(2) h : D2 D2
{
i 0 r=0
h(re ) = 2r
rei(+ 1r ) r = 0
: h , D2 D2 .
: Dn Dn .
(3) h : S n1 S n1 . : h h
 1 77

33. :
(1) X1 = R2 \ {0};
(2) X2 = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) R3 | x21 + x22 = 1};
(3) X3 = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) R3 | x21 + x22 x23 = 1}.
34. : R3 :
(1) ;
(2) .

35. :
(1) p : R1 R1 ;
(2) f : R2 R2 f (x, y) = (x, |y|);
(3) g : C C g(z) = z 3 .
36. f : X Y . : f :
(1) ;
(2) ;
(3) ;
(4) .
37. : (1) ;
(2) f : X Y : A X, f (Int A) Int f (A).
38. {X | } . A X . :

(1) A = A ;

(2) Int ( A ) Int A . : ;
(3) Int A1 Int A2 = Int (A1 A2 );
(4) (A1 A2 ) = (Bd A1 A1 (A1 ) Bd A2 );
Bd
(5) A {X | } X .
39. X Y , V X Y . V [x] = {y Y | (x, y) V }, V [y] = {x
X | (x, y) V }. : V [x] V [y] . , V X Y , x X, y Y, V [x]
V [y] , V X Y ?
40. : .

41. R = nZ+ Rn , Rn = R, R R .
(1) R T TB , R ;
(2) f, g, h : R R

f (t) = (t, 2t, 3t, ),

g(t) = (t, t, t, ),
( )
t t
h(t) = t, , , .
2 3
78 1

T TB ;
(3) R {wn }, {xn }, {yn }, {zn }

w1 = (1, 1, 1, 1, ), w2 = (0, 2, 2, 2, ), w3 = (0, 0, 3, 3, ), ;

( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1
x1 = (1, 1, 1, 1, ), x2 = 0, , , , , x3 = 0, 0, , , , ;
2 2 2 3 3
( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1
y1 = (1, 0, 0, 0, ), y2 = , , 0, 0, , y3 = , , , 0, , ;
2 2 3 3 3
( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1 1
z1 = (1, 1, 1, 0, ), z2 = , , , 0, , z3 = , , , 0, , .
2 2 2 3 3 3

T TB .
42. R2 1 2 :

(x1 , y1 ) 1 (x2 , y2 ) x1 + y12 = x2 + y22 ,

(x1 , y1 ) 2 (x2 , y2 ) x21 + y12 = x22 + y22 .

R2 / 1 R2 / 2 ?
43.
{ ( )2 }
1 1
Cn = (x, y) R2 | x + y2 = 2 ,
n n
Y = nZ+ Cn , X = C1 Z+ .
(x )
f : X Y f (x, y, n) = y
n, n . : X/ f Y .
44. f : X Y , X Y X Y , : x1 X x2
f (x1 ) Y f (x2 ). f f : X/ X Y / Y ,
:
f
X /Y

 
X/ X / Y / Y
f

45. X Y , f : X Y . V Y , V Y
f 1 (V ) X , f , :
(1) : X X/ ;
(2) .
46. p1 : R R R
(1) X = R {0} {0} R R2 , g = p1 |X . : g ;
(2) Y = R {0} [0, +) R R2 , f = p1 |Y . : f
.

47. {x } X . : {x } x :
, X {p (x )} p (x). ?
48. X , , : X Hausdorff
.
49. T T X ,
(1) T T , {x } (X, T ) , (X, T ) ?
 1 79

(2) (X, T ) {x } (X, T ) , T T

?
50. : C2 .
51. : (1) ;
(2) : .
52. X C2 , :
(1) X ;
(2) X ;
(3) X A , A , .
53. C(I, R) I = [0, 1] , C(I, R) d : d(f, g) =
max{| f (x) g(x) |}. : , C2 .
xI

54. : (1) f : X Y . X C1 ( C2 ) , Y C1 (
C2 ) ;
(2) C1 ( C2 ) C1 ( C2 ) ;
(3) .
55. P . P ,
P , P . : C1 , C2 , .
56. (Lindelf ) X C2 , : X .
57. : (1) Ti (i = 0, 1, 2, 3);
(2) Ti Ti (i = 0, 1, 2, 3).
58. X T1 , A X. :
(1) x A : x A ;
(2) X ;
(3) A .
59. : X , T , X T1 .
60. (X, T ) , T2 , C1 C2 :
(1) X , T = {, A X | X \ A , p / A}, p X ;
(2) X = [1, 1], T B = {[1, b) | b > 0} {(a, 1] | a < 0} .
61. (1) X T3 , x1 , x2 X, x1 = x2 , : U1 , U2 , U 1 U 2 =
;
(2) X T4 , F1 , F2 X . : U1 , U2 ,
F1 U1 , F2 U2 , U 1 U 2 = .
62. (X, T ) X . : (X, T ) T3 .
63. f : X Y , X . : Y .
64. (Urysohn ) A B T4 X , :
f : X I, f 1 ({0}) = A, f (B) = {1} : A .
65. X C2 T4 , U X . :
(1) U X ;
(2) f : X I,
{
=0 x /U
f (x)
> 0 x U.

66. A X , f : A (1, 1) . : f

f : X (1, 1).
67. A X . : f : A S n A
.
80 1

68. (1) : R ;
(2) [0, 1] ?
69. (1) X T T Hausdorff . : T = T , T
T ;
(2) T T X , T T . (X, T ) Hausdorff ,
: (X, T ) ; (X, T ) Hausdorff , : (X, T ) Hausdorff .
70. : X : ,
.
71. : (1) ;
(2) Hausdorff . ?
(3) . ?
72. (X, d) , f : X X .
(1) x1 , x2 X, d(f (x1 ), f (x2 )) d(x1 , x2 ), 0 < < 1, f
. : , x X, f (X ) = x ;
(2) x1 , x2 X d(f (x1 ), f (x2 )) = d(x1 , x2 ), f . :
;
(3) : X , .
73. X, Y . f : X Y , Gf :

Gf = {(x, f (x) X Y ) | x X)}.

: (1) f , X Gf ;
(2) f , Y Hausdorff , Gf X Y ;
(3) Y Hausdorff , Gf X Y , f .
74. : .
75. X C1 . : X Hausdorff :
.
76. T = {, Z+ , {1, 2, , n} | n Z+ }. : (Z+ , T ) .
77. () A X, B Y . N X Y , A B N , B
. : X U , A B U B N . A ,
?
78. {Kn | n Z+ } Hausdorff X ( Kn+1 Kn ) , U
X , nZ+ Kn U . : n0 Z+ , n > n0 , Kn U .
79. X Hausdorff , X , : X X/ .
: X/ Haudorff .
80. (X, T ) . :
(1) T , X ;
(2) : X R ;
(3) X .
: , (2) (3).
81. : P 2 R4

([(x1 , x2 , x3 )]) = (x21 x22 , x1 x2 , x3 x1 , x2 x3 ), (x1 , x2 , x3 ) S 2 .

: R4 .
82. (1) (X, d) , f : X X . > 0, x X,
d(x , f (x )) < , : f .
[ ]
(2) : Hilbert nZ+ 0, n1 .
83. X = {a, b}, , Z+ . : X Z+ .
 1 81

84. X ,
(1) f : X Y , Y ?
(2) A X , A ?
(3) X Z , X Z ?
(4) Hausdorff , ?
85. : (1) [0, 1] ;
(2) [0, 1] .
86. (1) A X, X T = {, U X | A U }. (X, T ) ?
(2) X = [1, 1], X T = {, X, [1, b), (a, b), (a, 1] | a < 0 < b}. : (X, T )
, X (a, b) .

87. : X : X ,
.
88. X Hausdorff . : X :
.
89. f : X Y , X . Y ? f
?
90. C (X, d) . : > 0, V = {v X | d(v, C)
} .
91. R1 :
(1) (0, 1]; (2) Z+ ;
(3) (0, 1) (1, 2) (2, 3) (9, 10); (4) Q.
Q Hausdorff ?
92. A B X , A B = A B = , A B .
: X A : A X .
93. (X, T ) , T1 T . : (X, T1 ) .
94. (1) A X , : BdA = .
(2) A X , C , A C = = (X \ A) C, :Bd A C = .
95. Y X, X Y . A B X \ Y ,
X \ Y = A B. : Y A Y B .
96. (1) : T1 , ;
(2) X , T X T1 , : (X, T ) .
97. X Hausdorff . A X ,
. : AA A .
98. X T4 , . : X .
99. : (1) , ;
(2) C X , C ;
(3) f : X Y , C Y , f 1 (C) X .
100. X , Y Hausdorff , f : X Y . :
(1) y Y, f 1 (y) ;
(2) Y , f .
101. : (1) Rn ;
(2) Rn .
102. : .
103. S R . S , : S .
82 1

104. R :


X= {(3n, 3n + 1) {3n + 2}},
n=0


Y = (0, 1] {(3n, 3n + 1) {3n + 2}},
n=1

f : X Y g : Y X. : X Y .
{1 }
105. : X = (I {0}) (K I) R2 , K = n | n Z+ .
106. X . f : X R , : X .
107. X Y , A X, B Y . : X Y \ A B .
108. (1) A R2 , : R2 \ A ;
(2) f : R2 R , {1, 1} f (R2 ). : f 1 (0) .

109. {X | } , (a ) X . {1 , , n } ,
{ }

X(1 , , n ) = (x ) X | x = a , a = i .

:
(1) X(1 , , n ) ;
(2) Y = {1 , ,n } X(1 , , n ) ;

(3) X .
110. {X | } . :
(1) X : X , ;

(2) X : X .
111. : X : .
, . (G, T ) , (G, )
,

: G G G, (a, b) = a b, a, b G
: G G, (a) = a1 , a G,

, (G, T , ) , G.
112. (1) : (G, T , ) : : G G G, (a, b) = a1 b, a, b
G, .
(2) Z, R C , R+ S 1 = {z C | |z| = 1} .
113. G , a G, La , Ra : G G :

La (x) = a x, Ra (x) = x a, x G

. :
(1) La Ra G .
(2) , x, y G, G f , f (x) = y.
.
114. H G , x G, xH = {x h | h H} H G ,
G/H , G , G/H .
(1) p : G G/H .
(2) H G , G/H T1 .
 1 83

(3) H G , G/H .
(4) Z R , R/Z S 1 .
115. e G . A, B G, A B = {a b | a A, b B}, A1 =
1
{a | a A},
(1) U e , e V, V V 1 U .
(2) A G , e
/ A, e V , V (A V ) = .
(3) G T1 , G T3 .
116. C G e , C G .
117. G , e U G .
118. X , Z2 2 , . 0 (X) : X Z2
. , 0 (X), +

( + )(x) = (x) + (x) (mod 2) x X.

:
(1) + 0 (X);
(2) 0 (X) Abel ;
(3) f : X Y , f : 0 (Y ) 0 (X), :
(a) (1X ) = 10 (X) ;
(b) g : Y Z , (gf ) = f g : 0 (Z) 0 (X);
(c) f f .
(4) X k : 0 (X) = Z2 Z2 .
| {z }
k
84 1
 2

.
X Y , ,
, 1.2.2 . , X Y ,
. , X Y .
, Rn S n . ,

, S 2 T . ,
. . :
, ;
, ,
. , G(X) X ,
S 1 , G(S 1 ) ;
8 S 1 S 1 , G(S 1 S 1 ) .
S 1 S 1 S 1 .
,
. , ,
,
. , ,
1 .
( , 1.5.2)
. D2 A = {y R2 |
1 y 2}( 2.1). x0 D2 , y0 A, D2 x0
A ; A y0 ,
86 2

A ( 1 ), ( 2 ). ,
. D2 A
. .
, ,
.

2.1

Poincar
.

2.1
.

2.1.1

X Y , f, g : X Y ,
Y f g. 2.2(a) f g ,
(b) f g .
2.1 f, g : X Y , I = [0, 1].
H : X I Y , x X, H(x, 0) = f (x), H(x, 1) = g(x),
f g , f g : X Y . H f g
( 2.3). , H : f g.
t I, ht (x) = H(x, t), {ht : X Y | t I}
t , t 0 1 , f = h0 g = h1 .
, ht (x) t x , x t.
 2.1 87

2.2

2.3

H ht .
, X :
() X ; D
: f : S 1 D .
.
X Y C(X, Y )
.
2.2 f, g, h C(X, Y ),
1 f f ;
2 f g, g f ;
3 f g, g h, f h.
1 H : X I Y H(x, t) = f (x), (x, t) X I.
H , x X, H(x, 0) = H(x, 1) = f (x), H : f f .
2 H : f g, H : X I Y H(x, t) = H(x, 1
t), (x, t) X I. H , x X, H(x, 0) = H(x, 1) =
g(x), H(x, 1) = H(x, 0) = f (x), H : g f .
88 2

3 H1 : f g, H2 : g h, H : X I Y

H (x, 2t) t [0, 1/2]
1
H(x, t) = x X.
H (x, 2t 1) t [1/2, 1]
2

H , H : f h.

2.4

, C(X, Y ) ,
, [X, Y ].
. , [S n , S n ] Z .
.
2.3 Y Rn , f, g : X Y .
x X, f (x) g(x) Y , f g : X Y .

2.5

H : X I Y

H(x, t) = (1 t)f (x) + tg(x), x X, t I.

 2.1 89

Rn , H
. H f g .

H .
, Y Rn , f : X Y , [X, Y ]
.
, .
2.4 XY Z , f f : X Y , g g :
Y Z, gf g f : X Z.

2.1.2

,
.
2.5 X Y , f : X Y ,
g : Y X, gf 1X : X X f g 1Y : Y Y ,
1X 1Y X Y , f , g
f . X Y ,
, X Y .
Rn Dn .

2.6

, , .
X R2 S 1 , L = {(t, 0) R2 | 1 t 2} ,
Y = S 1 L, X Y . Y (1,0) ,
90 2

X . X Y . ,
f : X Y g : Y X :

f (x) = x xX

y y S1
g(y) =
(1, 0) y L.

f g , gf = 1X . 2.3, f g 1Y . f
, X Y .
2.6 ,
.
. . X Y ,
Y Z, f : X Y , g : Y Z,
f : Y X, g : Z Y . = gf : X Z, = f g : Z X,
2.4
= f g gf f f 1X : X X.
1Z : Z Z, X Z.
,
. ,

0123456789

1 , :

{0}{12357}{4}{69} {8},

{0469}{12357} {8}.

.
. . , Rn Dn
, .
.
 2.1 91

.
, , 3.8
.
,
.
2.7 .
2.8 X 1X : X
X .
P , P .
. X , f : X P g : P X.
gf : X X . 1X gf : X X 1X .
. 1X c : X X, c . x
X, c(x) = x0 X. f : X P, g : P X

f (x) = P, x X
g(P ) = x0 ,

gf = c 1X : X X, f g = 1P : P P , f , X P ,
X .
, Rn . , S n .
. .
.
.
2.9 X , A X, r : X A,
r|A = 1A : A A, A X , r .
r : X A, ir 1X : X X, i : A X
, A X , ir 1X
. A X , H : X I X ,
x A t I H(x, t) = x, A X .
, , A X X
A, A , A X .
92 2

2.7

A = {x R2 | 1 x 2} , S 1 ,
S 1 A . , r : A S 1
H : A I A
x
r(x) = , x A,
x
x
H(x, t) = tx + (1 t) , x A, t I.
x

Dn Rn , S n Rn+1 {0}
.
p = (1, 0), q = (1, 0) R2 , C1 = {x R2 | x p =
1}, C1 = {x R2 | x q = 1}, R2 C1 C1 8 ,
S 1 S 1 , 8. 2.8 8 R2 {p, q}
.

.
I 2 = {(t1 , t2 ) R2 | 0 t1 , t2 1}, I 2 I 2 ,
I = {(t1 , t2 ) I 2 | t2 = 0}, O . .
{O} I I 2 , I I 2 , {O} I
I 2 , , I 2 I 2 .
.
r : X A , ri = 1A : A A. , A
X , ir 1X : X X, A X ,
r i , .
 2.1 93

2.8

, Mbius ;
8 ( 1.2.2).
, M. Fuchs :
X Y : Z, X
X Z .
, .

2.9

2.10 X Y , A X, f, g : X Y ,
f |A = g|A . H : f g, x A t I ,

H(x, t) = f (x) = g(x),

f g A , f g : X Y rel A, H : f
94 2

g rel A.
, A , A 2.1 .
2.10 .

2.10

, A X r :
X A, ir 1X : X X rel A. .

2.2
2.2.1

X . A X, (X, A) . (Y, B)
, f : (X, A) (Y, B) f : X Y ,
f (A) B. f : (X, A1 , A2 ) (Y, B1 , B2 ) .
X . :
(I, 0, 1) (X, x0 , x1 ), x0 , x1 . ,
, t I ,
x0 x1 .
2.11 , : I X X .
I = {0, 1} , , ,
. X
, , [].
, X ,
. .
X = R2 {0}, x0 = (1, 0), x1 = (1, 0), :
 2.2 95

2.11

2.12

(I, 0, 1) (X, x0 , x1 ) :

(s) = (cos s, sin s),

(s) = (cos s, 2 sin s),
(s) = (cos s, sin s),

H(s, t) = (1 t)(s) + t (s).

, O
, .
,
. ,
. .
2.12 , : I X X ,
, ,
96 2

2.13

:
(2s) s [0, 1/2],
(s) =
(2s 1) s [1/2, 1].

, .
, . ,
, 2 , 2
.
,
, :
2.13 , : (I, 0, 1) (X, x0 , x1 ) , : (I, 0, 1)
(X, x0 , x1 ) X , , , .
H1 : (I I, {0} I, {1} I) (X, x0 , x1 ) H2 : (I
I, {0} I, {1} I) (X, x0 , x2 ) ,
. H : (I I, {0} I, {1} I) (X, x0 , x2 ) :

H (2s, t) s [0, 1/2],
1
H(s, t) =
H (2s 1, t) s [1/2, 1].
2

H .
, , , (1) = (0), [ ] = [ ],
[ ] [][ ] ,

[] [ ] = [ ].
.
, (1) = (0) , [] [ ]
, [] [ ] .
 2.2 97

2.14

. : x X,
x x . cx : (I, I)
(X, x) x . : (I, 0, 1) (X, x0 , x1 ), :
(I, 0, 1) (X, x1 , x0 ) (s) = (1 s) , .
2.14 :
1 , ([][ ])[] , ([][ ])[] =
[] ([ ] []);
2 : (I, 0, 1) (X, x0 , x1 ),
[cx0 ] [] = [] = [] [cx1 ];
3 : (I, 0, 1) (X, x0 , x1 ),
[] [] = [cx0 ], [] [] = [cx1 ].
1 ,
([] [ ]) [] = [ ] [] = [( ) ],
[] ([ ] []) = [] [ ] = [ ( )],

s [0, 1/4],


(4s)
( ) (s) = (4s 1) s [1/4, 1/2],



(2s 1) s [1/2, 1],
98 2

s [0, 1/2],


(2s)
( )(s) = (4s 2) s [1/2, 3/4],



(4s 3) s [3/4, 1].

: p I I

2.15

I, p AB C (
2.15), ( ) . H : (I I, {0}
I, {1} I) (X, x0 , x2 ) . , H
( ) [ t+1 ]

s
s 0, 4 ,

( 4 t+1 )
t+1
[ ]
H(s, t) = s1 4 s t+1 , t+2
,

( ) 4 4

s t+2
4
[ t+2 ]
1
4
t+2 s 4 ,1 .
4

( 2.16 ). H
, H(s, 0) = ( ) (s), H(s, 1) = ( )(s), H(0, t) =
x0 , H(1, t) = x3 .
2 [] = [] [cx1 ], cx1 .
H : p I I I,
p 2.17 A , B ,
, H : (I I, {0} I, {1} I) (X, x0 , x1 )
. , H
( ) [ 2t ]
2s s 0, 2 ,
2t
H(s, t) =
x [ ]
s 2t , 1 .
1 2
 2.2 99

2.16

2.17
100 2

3 [] [] = [cx0 ], cx0 .
: t I, ht x0
(t), x0 , h0 x0 cx0 , h1 .
H : (I I, I I) (X, x0 )

(2ts) s [0, 1/2],
H(s, t) =
(2t(1 s)) s [1/2, 1].

2.18

2.2.2

X ,
. x0 X, X x0 (X, x0 ),
, x0 1 (X, x0 ).
x0 , 1 (X, x0 )
.
2.15 1 (X, x0 ) , (1 (X, x0 ), ) X
x0 , 1 (X, x0 ).

2.14 .

1 (X, x0 ) [cx0 ], [] []1 = [].

, f : (X, x0 ) (Y, y0 ) , (X, x0 )
(Y, y0 ) , (X, x0 )
 2.2 101

. (X, x0 ) , X .
(X, x0 ) . 1 (X, x0 )
, , .
1 (Rn , O) = 1( 1 ).
(Rn , O) , H : (I I, I I)
(Rn , O)
H(s, t) = (1 t)(s)
. H c0 , [] = [c0 ],

1 (Rn , O) = 1.

, Rn .
, S 1 Z. I S 1
, .
.
, .
Abel , .
.
, ,
. :
2.16 f : (X, x0 ) (Y, y0 ) , f :
1 (X, x0 ) 1 (Y, y0 ), :
1 1X : (X, x0 ) (X, x0 ),

(1X ) : 1 (X, x0 ) 1 (X, x0 )

;
2 g : (Y, y0 ) (Z, z0 ) ,

(gf ) = g f : 1 (X, x0 ) 1 (Z, z0 ),

f f .
102 2

X x0 : (I, I) (X, x0 ),
f : (I, I) (Y, y0 ) Y y0 .
(X, x0 ), , f f . f : 1 (X, x0 )
1 (Y, y0 ), f ([]) = [f ] .
f , [], [ ] 1 (X, x0 ),
f ( ) = (f ) (f ),

f ([] [ ]) = [f ( )] = [f ] [f ]
= f ([]) f ([ ]).

2.19

1 2 , .

.
, f : (X, x0 ) (Y, y0 ) , 2.16,

(f 1 ) f = (f 1 f ) = (1X ) = 11 (X,x0 ) ,

,
f (f 1 ) = (f f 1 ) = (1Y ) = 11 (Y,y0 ) .
 2.2 103

f : 1 (X, x0 ) 1 (Y, y0 ) . .
, , .
X x0 1 (X, x0 ) ,
x1 X , 1 (X, x0 ) 1 (X, x1 ) ? 2. 20
X , x0 x1
, 1 (X, x0 )
= Z, 1 (X, x1 ) = 1.

2.20

, X0 X x0 , 1 (X, x0 )
1 (X0 , x0 ) . ,
.
2.17 X , x0 , x1 X, : (I, 0, 1) (X, x0 , x1 )
X x0 x1 ,

# : 1 (X, x0 ) 1 (X, x1 ),

:
1 , # = # ;
2 : (I, 0, 1) (X, x1 , x2 ) x1 .
( )# = # # .
, x0 = x1 , [] 1 (X, x0 ) 1 (X, x0 )
# ([]) = []1 [] [].

# ([]) = [] [] []
104 2

2.21

(, ).

# ([] [ ]) = [] [] [ ] [] = ([] [] []) ([] [ ] [])

= # ([]) # ([ ]),

# . # ,

# : 1 (X, x1 ) 1 (X, x0 ).

# # ([]) = # ([] [] []) = [] [] [] [] [] = [],

# # = 11 (X,x0 ) . # # = 11 (X,x1 ) , # .
, .
, X,
1 (X) , , .
, .
f g : X Y , f (x0 ) g(x0 ) , ,
. .
2.18 f g : X Y , H . x0 X, y0 =
f (x0 ), y0 = g(x1 ), : (I, 0, 1) (Y, y0 , y1 ) (t) = H(x0 , t),

# f = g : 1 (X, x0 ) 1 (Y, y1 ),

, f g : X Y rel{x0 } , f = g .
 2.2 105

, (X, x0 ), ( (f )) g,

(cy0 (f )) cy0 ( (g)) .

: t t t : I Y

t (s) = (ts),
t (s) = H((s), t),
t (s) = (t t ) t (s),
s, t I.

(s, t) = t (s) .
f g : X Y rel{x0 } , , f = g .

2.22

2.19 .
2.18 , :
2.20 f : X Y , x0 X, f : 1 (X, x0 )
1 (Y, f (x0 )) .

g f , y0 = f (x0 ), x1 = g(y0 ), y1 = f (x1 ).

106 2

1X gf 2.18 x0 x1 ,

g (fx0 ) = (gf ) = # (1X ) = #

(fx0 )
1 (X, x0 ) / ( Y, y0 )

# #
g
 y 
1 (X, x1 ) / 1 (Y, y1 )
(fx1 )

( (fx0 ) ) x0 ), # , g .
1Y f g 2.18 g . g .

(fx0 ) = g1 # : 1 (X, x0 ) 1 (Y, y0 )

.
, ,
.
2.21 .
2.22 .
2.21 , , .
n 2, 1 (S n ) = 1, S n .
, :
.

2.3

.

2.3.1

C , , S 1 = {z C | |z| = 1},
1 C S 1 . p : R S 1 , t R, p(t) =
 2.3 107

e2it . p R S 1 ( 2 ).
p , S 1 1 R 0
, 1 (S 1 , 1).

2.23

: I S 1 S 1 ,
: I R R ,
= ,
p . H : I I S 1 S 1 ,
e : I I R R , pH
H e = H, H
e H
. H e H .

i : I S 1 (i = 1, 2, 3)

1 (t) = eit , 2 (t) = eit , 3 (t) = e4it ,

i : I R(i = 1, 2, 3),
t t

1 (t) = , 2 (t) = , 3 (t) = 2t.
2 2
2.23 () : (I, 0) (S 1 , 1) S 1 1
, 0 : (I, 0) (R, 0).
, S 1 1 R 0
. , :
2.24 () S 1 1 ,
,

H : rel{0, 1},
108 2

2.24
 2.3 109

e : I I R,
H H

e :
H rel{0, 1},

0 .

2.23 2.24 . Y = I I I,
f : Y S 1 H, 0 Y 0 (0,0).
f f, f(0) = 0. p|( 1 , 1 ) :
( ) ( 2 2)
21 , 12 S 1 {1} , q : S 1 {1} 12 , 12 .
Y , f , > 0, y y < ,
|f (y) f (y )| < 1. , y y f (y) = f (y ),
q(f (y)/f (y )) . N , y Y, y < N .
f : Y R :
( )
N
f ( i
)y
f(y) = q N
i1
,
i=1
f ( N )y

f . f(0) = 0, pf = f , f f ,
.
. f : Y R f , pf =
f, f(0) = 0, f f : Y R

pf(y)
p(f f)(y) = e2i(f (y)f (y)) = = 1,
pf(y)

(f f)(Y ) p1 (1) = Z. Y , (f f)(Y ) Z

, f(y) f(y) , f(0) f(0) = 0, f = f.
2.23, H
e
H, e 0) = 0. H
(0) = (0) = H(0, e :
rel{0, 1}.
, t I, pH(0, e t) = H(0, t) = 1, H({0}
e I) Z.
{0}I H(0, e 0) = 0 H(0,
e t) 0, H(1,
e t) . ,
He , H(s, e 0) = e 1) =
(s), H(s,
e :
(s), s I. H rel{0, 1}.
110 2

2.24 , , ,
(1) = (1).
2.25 () : I S 1 S 1 ,
a R, p(a) = (0), a .
, 1, : (I, 0) (S 1 , 1)
(t) = (t)/(0). 0 ,
:IR

(t) = a + (t),
(0) = a,

(t) = (0) (t)/(0) = (t),

(t) = p(a) p
p

. .

, (S 1 , 1),
0 , (1) I S 1 ,
(1) 1 (S 1 , 1) Z .
2.26 (S 1 , 1), 0 ,
(1) , deg

, deg ,
[]. p
(1) = (1) = 1, deg ,

deg# : 1 (S 1 , 1) Z
deg# ([]) = deg .
2.27 1 (S 1 , 1)
= Z.
deg# .
deg# . , (S 1 , 1),
0
,
(1) , 0
. (s) = (s) +
(1).
0 ,

(1)
deg# ([] [ ]) = deg( ) =
= (1) = (1) +
(1)
= deg# ([]) + deg# ([ ]).
 2.3 111

deg# . n Z, (S 1 , 1) (s) = e2nis ,

(s) = ns, deg# ([]) = n.

deg# . , deg# ([]) = 0, 0
R , c0 , c1 , [] = [c1 ]
1 (S 1 , 1) .
deg , 1 (S 1 , 1)
# = Z.
1 (S 1 )
, .
, .
2.28 ()
.
n
. P (z) = j=0 aj z j (n 1, aj C, an =
0) C . G : I [0, +) S 1 :
/
P (re2is ) P (r)
G(s, r) = .
|P (re2is )| |P (r)|
H : I I S 1
(
G s, t ) s I, t [0, 1)
1t
H(s, t) =
e2nis s I, t = 1.

lim H(s, t) = lim G(s, r) = e2nis .

t1 r

H , 0 1 . 0 , 1 : (I, I)
(S 1 , 1)

0 (s) = H(s, 0) = 1,
1 (s) = H(s, 1) = e2nis ,

0 , 1 (S 1 , 1), 0 1 , deg 0 = 0, deg 1 = n, .

S 1 2 D2 .
112 2

. r : D2 S 1 , ri = 1S 1 :
S 1 S 1 , i : S 1 D2 .
, r i = 11 (S 1 ,1) . 1 (D2 ) = 1, i
, r i . , 1 (S 1 ) = Z, 11 (S 1 )
, .
i /
1 (S 1 , 1) 1 (D2 , 1)

r
1 1
1 (S ,1)
% 
1 (S 1 , 1)

2.25

(2 Brouwer ) f : D2 D2 ,
x D2 , f (x ) = x , x f .
. , x D2 , f (x) = x.
r : D2 S 1 : x D2 , r(x) f (x)
x S 1 . r , r|S 1 = 1S 1 , r
D2 S 1 , . f .
1 Brouwer ,
.
:
,
 2.3 113

, .

2.3.2

: (1) ;
(2) ; (3) Van Kampen .
,
; (4) .
, X ,
X . X
.
R2 {0} A = {x R2 | 1 x 2}
S 1 ,

1 (R2 {0})
= 1 (A)
= Z.
D2 S 1 Mbius S 1 ,
Z.
2.29 X Y , x0 X, y0 Y ,

1 (X Y, (x0 , y0 ))
= 1 (X, x0 ) 1 (Y, y0 ).
p : X Y X, q : X Y Y ,

p : 1 (X Y, (x0 , y0 )) 1 (X, x0 ),
q : 1 (X Y, (x0 , y0 )) 1 (Y, y0 ).

: 1 (X Y, (x0 , y0 )) 1 (X, x0 ) 1 (Y, y0 )

([]) = (p ([]), q ([])), [] 1 (X Y, (x0 , y0 )).

, , :

: 1 (X, x0 ) 1 (Y, y0 ) 1 (X Y, (x0 , y0 ))

([], []) = [] , (X, x0 ), (Y, y0 ), (X

Y, (x0 , y0 )), (t) = ((t), (t)).
114 2

T = S 1 S 1 1 (T )
= ZZ. C
= S 1 I
1 (C)
= Z.
X X1
X2 , X = X1 X2 . , X1 X2 X1 X2
X1 X2 X1 X1 X2 X2 , X
. Van Kampen . Van Kampen
B . Van Kampen .
S n (n 2) .
2.30 X1 X2 X , X = X1 X2 ,
X1 X2 , x0 X1 X2 . i : Xi X(i = 1, 2)
. 1 2 , 1 (X, x0 ) = 1.

(X, x0 ), cx0 .
{ 1 (Xi )|i = 1, 2} I , Lebesgue ,
I n + 1 0 = t0 < t1 < < tn = 1, ([ti1 , ti ])
X1 X2 . (ti ) X1 X2 ().
i = 1, 2, , n, i : I X

i (s) = ((1 s)ti1 + sti ), i = 1, , n,

, i : I X, i i , i X1 . ,
i (I) = ([ti1 , ti ]) X1 X2 . i (I) X1 , i = i .
, X1 X2 , X1 X2 ,
x0 i (0) i (1). ( i ) X2 .
, X ( i ) cx0 . i = ( cx0 ) , i i ,
i (I) X1 .
( )
sti1
: I X (s) = i ti ti1 , s [ti1 , ti ]. , (I)
X1 . cx0 . cx0 .
1 (S n ) = 1(n 2), S 2 .

S n , S n = X1 X2 , X1
= Rn
= X2 , 1 (X1 ) =
1 (X2 ) = 1. 1 (S n ) = 1.
 2.3 115

2.26

2.27
116 2

2.4
1 (S 1 ) = Z , p : R S 1
. ,
. , ;
, .

2.4.1

p : R S 1 ,
: (1) 1 S 1 S 1 {1},
( 1 1)
2 , 2 p S 1 {1}; (2) R S 1
. S 1
, .
2.31 E , B ,
p : E B , b B, U ,
p1 (U ) V , p|V : V U , (E, p)
B , p , B , U b .
, X, (X, 1X ) X .
p : R S 1 , (R, p) S 1 .
z S 1 , S 1 z () .
1 S 1 , U ,
( )
1 1 1
p (U ) = nZ n , n + ,
4 4
( )
p|(n 1 ,n+ 1 ) : n 14 , n + 14 U .
4 4

p p : R2 S 1 S 1 p p(t1 , t2 ) = (e2it1 , e2it2 ), (t1 , t2 ) R2 ,

(R2 , p p) T = S 1 S 1 , (R, p) .
n, qn : S 1 S 1 , z S 1 ,
qn (z) = z n , (S 1 , qn ) S 1 . , z S 1 , U
S 1 z (0 < < 2) , qn1 (U ) n
/n , z n , qn
 2.4 117

2.28

2.29
118 2

U , U .

2.30

p : S 2 P 2 , x S 2 , [x] = {x, x}
P 2 , p(x) = [x], (S 2 , p) P 2 . , [x] P 2 ,
U S 2 x , ,
P (U ) P 2 [x] , p1 (p(U )) U
U = {y | y U } , p|U : U p(U ) p|U : U p(U ) ,
p(U ) .
2.31 S . S
. , S M C1 C2 C2 C2
. hi : Ci Ci (i = 1, 2) , x Ci
hi (x) Ci .

2.31

D = {1, 2, , n}, , q : M D M .
M D S, e , q p : Se S,
 2.4 119

:
M D e
/S

q p

 
M /S

Se : Ci {j} Ci {k} hi , i = 1, 2,
1 j, k n. M D ,
S. e , n = 3, :

C1 {1} C1 {2}, C2 {1} C2 {2},

C1 {2} C1 {3}, C2 {2} C2 {1},
C1 {3} C1 {1}, C2 {3} C2 {3}.

e p) S , ,
(S,
.
.

zn
exp(z) =
n=0
n!

, exp : C C {0}, (C, exp) C {0}

. , z C {0},

Uz = {w C | |w z| < |z|}

. exp1 (Uz ) V , f : Uz V
Uz , expf = 1Uz , f exp = 1V .
, ( 51), ,
. z = x + iy, exp(z) = ex (cos y + i sin y).
, C = R R, C {0} = R+ S 1 , exp
p q : R R R+ S 1 , p(x) = ex , q(y) = (cos y, sin y), p q
. (R R, p q) R+ S 1 .
.
120 2

X 2.32(a) ,
f : X S 1 , (X, f ) S 1 , y
.

2.32

X S 2 ( 2.32(b)), f : X S 2
, (X, f ) S 2 , y .
, E B
. ,
, .
, .
, :
1 b B, E p1 (b) , b .
2 p , e E, e p(e) V
U , p|V : V U . , E B
.
3 p , 2 , B E p
.
 2.4 121

2.4.2

p : R S 1 .
.
.
2.32 (E, p) B , f : X B ,
f : X E pf = f , f f , f
. : I B H : X I B
:I E
He : X I E .

>E
f
p

f 
X / B

2.33 (E, p) B , X , f :
X B . f, f : X E f ,
x0 X, f(x0 ) = f(x0 ), f = f.

A = {x X | f(x) = f(x)}, D = X A.

A D . x X, f (x) U ,
V1 V2 p1 (U ) f(x) f(x) . E
, V1 V2 , W = f1 (V1 ) f1 (V2 ), x W
W .
1 x A , f(x) = f(x) V1 = V2 . y W , f(y)
f(y) V1 . p|V1 : V1 U , pf(y) = f (y) = pf(y).
f(y) = f(y), y A, W A, A .
2 x D , f(x) = f(x) V1 V2 = . y W, f(y) =
f(y), y D, W D, D .
A X , A = . X A = X,
f = f.
122 2

2.33

2.34
 2.4 123

2.34 () (E, p) B , b0 B, e0
p1 (b0 ), : (I, 0) (B, b0 ) B , b0 ,
: (I, 0) (E, e0 ), e0 .
(I) B U , V p1 (U )
e0 , (t) = (p|V )1 (t) .

2.35

, { 1 (U ) | U } I ,
Lebesgue . 0 = t0 < t1 < < tn1 < tn = 1 I
n + 1 , |ti ti1 | < . ([ti1 , ti ]) .
: i = 0, 1, , n, i : [0, ti ] E,
p i (0) = e0 .
i = |[0,ti ] , 0 (0) = e0 . 0 i < n
0
i . i+1 : [0, ti+1 ] E i
: [ti , ti+1 ] E , : ([ti , ti+1 ]) U , U
, V p1 (U ) i (ti ) , p|V : V U ,
(t) = (p|V )1 (t). i+1 , p i+1 (0) = e0 .
i+1 = |[0,ti+1 ] ,
= n : (I, 0) (E, e0 ) .
.
2.35 () (E, p) B , b0 B, e0
p1 (b0 ). X , x0 X, f : (X, x0 )
(B, b0 ) f : (X, x0 ) (E, e0 ). H : X I B f
124 2

, x X, H(x, 0) = f (x). H
e : X I E, x X, H(x,
H e 0) = f(x).

H(X I) B U , V
e = (p|V )1 (H).
p1 (U ) e0 , H
. x X , {H 1 (U ) | U }
{x} I . {x} I
= I X , x
Nx I n + 1 0 = t0 < t1 < < tn1 < tn = 1(
x), H(Nx [ti1 , ti ]) .
Nx , H e x : Nx I E,
pH e x = H|Nx I , H
e x (x , 0) = f(x ), x Nx . ,
x, x X, H ex H e x (Nx Nx ) I . Nx I
X I , H e : X I E,
pH e = H, H(x,
e 0) = f(x), x X. H e H .
x1 Nx Nx , : I B, :IE
,
(t) = H(x1 , t), e x (x1 , t),
(t) = H e x (x1 , t),
(t) = H

, (0) = f(x1 ) = (0). (

) (t), H
(t) = e x (x1 , t) = He x (x1 , t).

2.33 .
, .
2.36 (E, p) B , b0 B, e0 p1 (b0 ), , :
(I, 0) (B, b0 ) B b0 ,
, : (I, 0) (E, e0 )
, e0 . .
, , (1) = (1).
. , H : I I B
. , H e : I I E H
e 0) =
, H(s, e t), i = 0, 1.
(s). i : I E i (t) = H(i,
t I, pi (t) = H(i, t) = (i) = (i), pi .
i (i) , H(i, e t) e
(i), H
. , H(s, e 1) = (s), s I,
.

 2.4 125

, B E ,
. , .
2.37 (E, p) B , b0 B, e0 p1 (b0 ),

p : 1 (E, e0 ) 1 (B, b0 )
.
[ ] 1 (E, e0 ), p ([
], [ p
]), p
]) = p ([ .
, [
], p .
] = [
2.38 (E, p) B , b B, p1 (b)
.
, b0 , b1 B, p1 (b0 ) p1 (b1 )
. b0 b1 : (I, 0, 1) (B, b0 , b1 ).
x p1 (b0 ),
x : (I, 0) (E, x) x
. : p1 (b0 ) p1 (b1 ) (x) = x (1). (
) , , p x (1) = (1) = b1 ,
(p1 (b0 )) p1 (b1 ). , : (I, 0, 1) (B, b1 , b0 ),
: p1 (b1 ) p1 (b0 ). = 1p1 (b0 ) , = 1p1 (b1 ) ,
, p1 (b0 ) p1 (b1 ) .
2.39 p1 (b) (E, p) .
p : R S 1 S 1 (R, p); n
qn : S 1 S 1 S 1 n (S 1 , qn );
p : S 2 P 2 P 2 2 .
, : 1 (B, b0 )
p1 (b0 ) ([]) =
(1).
2.40 , 1 (E, e0 ) = 1 .
.
p : S 2 P 2 , 2 . 1 (S 2 ) = 1,
1 (P 2 ) , Z2 .
8 B (E, p). E
, B
126 2

2.36

E , p E B, ()
() , p . , b0 B
, e0
e1 e2 , ] ]
. ,
[][ ] = [ ][], 1 (B) Abel .

2.5
, .
, ,
; ? ,
, .
2.41 (E, p) B , W B , b W ,
b U , U W . ,
B .

U0 b , U U0 W b ,
 2.5 127

2.37

U . V p1 (U ) , p1 (U0 )
V0 , p|V = (p|V0 )|V : V U , p|V0
p|V , U , U W .
2.42 () (E, p) B , b0 B, e0
p1 (b0 ), X , f : (X, x0 ) (B, b0 )
f : (X, x0 ) (E, e0 )
f 1 (X, x0 ) p 1 (E, e0 ),
f , .
19 (E, e0 )

p
f

1 (X, x0 ) / 1 (B, b0 )
f

. f, pf = f ,
p f = f ,
f 1 (X, x0 ) = p f 1 (X, x0 ) p 1 (E, e0 ).
128 2

. , f , f f
, f . x X,
x0 x , f b0 f (x) . f
ff, e0 . f f , fe pf = f ,
f(0) = f(x0 ) = e0 , ff
= f,
f(x) = f(1) = ff
(1).

2.38

1 f . f(x) = ff (1) f : X E,
f(x) . , , : (I, 0, 1)
(X, x0 , x) x0 x, (X, x0 ). f ([ ])
f 1 (X, x0 ) p 1 (E, e0 ), [] 1 (E, e0 ), f ([ ]) =
p ([]), p f f . p f (f f ) f f . ff
p f e0 ,

ff
fg
,

ff
(1) = fg
(1) = ff (1).
, f(x) x0 x .
pf = f .
2 f . x X, U e f(x) , x
e . , f (x) = pf(x) U ,
V , f(V ) U
 2.5 129

2.39

2.40
130 2

e ). W
U p(U f p1 (U )U
e f(x) . W = p(W
f ),
Wf W E B , p| f : W f W . f
W
X , x V , f (V ) W .
f(V ) W f . x1 W , , x0 x
x x1 , (I) V , x0 x1 , f (0) = f (1) = f (x).
1
p|W f , f f (x) (p|W f ) f ,
f ( ) = f f e0 ff (p|W 1
f) f . f

, f(x1 ) = f ^ fU
( )(1) = (p| )1 f (1) W
W
e , f(V ) W f , f
.
f 2.33 .

, f X .
f X .
, X , f .

2.41

X = A B C R2 ,

A = {(u, v) R2 | u2 + v 2 = 1, v 0},
B = {(u, v) R2 | 1 u 0, v = 0},
{ ( )}
1
C = (u, v) R | 0 < u 1, v = sin
2
.
2 u

X Polish . X .
B C , X .
 2.6 131

p : R S 1 . f : X S 1

(u, v), (u, v) A,
(u, 1 u2 ) (u, v) B C.
f (u, v) =

f . x0 = (1, 0), e0 = 0 R,

f 1 (X, x0 ) p 1 (R, 0)

. f : X R


cos1 u
(u, v) A,

2
,
1
f(u, v) = 1 cos2 u , (u, v) B,



cos1 u ,
2 (u, v) C.

pf = f, f(1, 0) = 0, f (0,0) .
2.43 X ,
f : X B f : X E.

2.6
, . ,
, , .
,
. . ,
.

2.6.1

2.4 , B (E, p), p : 1 (E, e0 )

1 (B, b0 ) . 1 (B, b0 ) p 1 (E, e0 ) p,
e0 , p . : p1 (b0 ) e,
1 (B, b0 ) p 1 (E, e) .
132 2

G , G1 G2 G , g G,
G1 = g 1 G2 g, G1 G2 . G
. .
Abel , G1 G2 G1 = G2 . Z
0, Z, 2Z, , nZ, . Z
{0}, {Z}, {2Z}, , {nZ}, . Z2 {0} {Z2 }.
, .
, :
2.44 p : E B , b0 B, {p 1 (E, e) | e
p1 (b0 )} 1 (B, b0 ) , (E, p) .
: 1 e0 , e1 p1 (b0 ), p 1 (E, e0 )
p 1 (E, e1 ) ; 2 H p 1 (E, e0 ) , e1
p1 (b0 ), H = p 1 (E, e1 ).
1 : (I, 0, 1) (E, e0 , e1 ) E e0 e1 ,
# : 1 (E, e0 ) 1 (E, e1 ). = p (B, b0 ). :
#
1 (E, e0 ) / 1 (E, e1 )
p p
 # 
1 (B, b0 ) / 1 (B, b0 )
[] 1 (E, e0 ),
) ]) = [(p
p # ([]) = p ([( p) p]
= [( p) ] = # p ([]),
. # .
p 1 (E, e1 ) = p # 1 (E, e0 ) = # p 1 (E, e0 )
= []1 p 1 (E, e0 )[],
p 1 (E, e0 ) p 1 (E, e1 ) .
2 H = []1 p 1 (E, e0 )[], [] 1 (B, b0 ). e0
. e1 = (1), 1 , p 1 (E, e1 ) =
[p]1 p 1 (E, e0 )[p] = H.
 2.6 133

, 1 (B, b0 ) Abel , B
.
p : R S 1 , (R, p)
. qn : S 1 S 1 n ,
Z 1 (S 1 , 1) , (S 1 , qn ) {nZ}. ,
qn = deg# qn deg1
# : Z Z. m Z, [] 1 (S , 1),
1

(t) = e2mit , deg# ([]) = m, qn (t) = e2mnit ,

qn (m) = deg# qn deg1

# ([]) = nm,

qn (Z) = nZ.
qn
1 (S 1 , 1) / 1 (S 1 , 1)
deg# deg#
 qn 
Z / Z

2.6.2

,
. .
, , ,
. ,
2.45 (E1 , p1 ) (E2 , p2 ) B
, h : E1 E2 , p2 h = p1 , h (E1 , p1 )
(E2 , p2 ) ; h , ; (E1 , p1 )
(E2 , p2 ) , .
h /
E1 E2
p2
p1

B

2.42(a) E1 = E2 , (E1 , p1 ) (E2 , p2 ) , (b)

E1
= E2 , , , (E1 , p1 ) (E2 , p2 )
.
134 2

2.42
 2.6 135

.
. ,
.
2.46 () (E1 , p1 ) (E2 , p2 ) B ,
(E1 , p1 ) (E2 , p2 ) .
. h : E1 E2 . e2 p1 1
2 (b0 ), e1 = h (e2 ),
, h .
h /
1 (E1 , e1 ) 1 (E2 , e2 )
p2
p1
& 
1 (B, b0 )

p1 1 (E1 , e1 ) = p2 h 1 (E1 , e1 ) = p2 1 (E2 , e2 ),

1 (B, b0 )

{p1 1 (E1 , e) | e p1
1 (b0 )}

{p2 1 (E2 , e) | e p1
2 (b0 )}

p1 1 (E1 , e1 ) = p2 1 (E2 , e2 ), , (E1 , p1 )

(E2 , p2 ) .
. (E1 , p1 ) (E2 , p2 ) , e1
p1 1
1 (b0 ), e2 p2 (b0 ), p1 1 (E1 , e1 ) = p2 1 (E2 , e2 ). ,
f g, .
f g
(E1 , e1 ) / (E2 , e2 ) / (E1 , e1 )
p2
p1 p1
%  y
(B, b0 )

p1 gf = p2 f = p1 1E1 , gf (e1 ) = 1E1 (e1 ), gf =

1E1 . f g = 1E2 , f , p2 f = p1 , f .
136 2

, 1 (B, b1 ) Abel , B (E1 , p1 )

(E2 , p2 ) : e1 p1 1
1 (b0 ), e2 p2 (b0 )

p1 1 (E1 , e1 ) = p2 1 (E2 , e2 ).
1 (S 1 )
= Z, {0}, {Z}, {2Z}, ,
p : R S 1 , 1S 1 : S 1 S 1 , q2 : S 1 S 1 , , . S 1
.
1 (P 2 )
= Z2 , {0}, {Z2 },
p : S 2 P 2 1P 2 : P 2 P 2 . P 2
().

2.6.3

, p : E B (
). , 1 (B, b0 ) , ,
? ,
. .
p : E B , b0 B, e0 p1 (b0 ), (E, p)
1 (B, b0 ) , 1 (E, e0 )
, E . b B, e p1 (b), U b
, V p1 (U ) e , :
V / E 1 (V, e) / 1 (E, e)
p|V p (p|V ) p
   
i /B i /
U 1 (U, b) 1 (B, b)

p|V , (p|V ) , 1 (E, e) .

i . , [] 1 (U, b), i ([]) 1 (B, b)
. b U, U b B
.
2.47 X , x X, U ,
i : U X i : 1 (U, x) 1 (X, x), ,
X .
 2.6 137

.
.
(1 )
X = n=1 Cn R2
, C n n, 0 ,
n1 , (0,0) 2.47 ,
.

2.43

, B, b0 B, 1 (B, b0 )
, B .
.
2.48 () B
, b0 B, 1 (B, b0 ) H,
E p : E B, e0 p1 (b0 ),

p (1 (E, e0 )) = H

, (E, p) H .

1 E . Riemann , P
B b0 , P H
: , P , H (1) = (1) [ ] H.
# . , # = {h [] | h H, P }.
E = { # | P }, p : E B p( # ) = (1), # E. B
p . E , p .
138 2

2.44

:
(1) , H , # = # ;
(2) # = # , B (1) , ( )# =
( )# .
2 E . P (1) U (
),

B(U, ) = {( )# | U (1) }.

, # B(U, ). (1) (2) , # B(U, ),

B(U, ) = B(U, ).
E B(U, ) B E
T . : B(U1 , 1 ), B(U2 , 2 ) B , # B(U1 , 1 )
B(U2 , 2 ), B(V, ) B , B(V, ) B(U1 , 1 ) B(U2 , 2 ).
, (1) U1 U2 . B , (1)
V U1 U2 ,

B(V, ) B(U1 , ) B(U2 , ) = B(U1 , 1 ) B(U2 , 2 ).

 2.6 139

3 p . B B(U, ) p U
B , p . p , E # ,
p( # ) W . U p( # ) = (1)
W , B(U, ) # p(B(U, )) = U W , p # .
4 p . , b1 B,
b1 U , U B

1 (U, b1 ) 1 (B, b0 ). p1 (U ) = P B(U, ). ,
(1)=b
1
B(U, ) p(B(U, )) = U , P B(U, )
(1)=b1
1 1
p (U ). , p (U ). (1) U , U
#

(1) b1 . = , b0 b1 , , # =

( )# B(U, ), p1 (U ) = P B(U, ).
(1)=b1
, , B(U, ) , #
B(U, 1 ) B(U, 2 ), B(U, 1 ) = B(U, ) = B(U, 2 ).
p , p ,
B(U, ), p|B(U,) : B(U, ) U . p(B(U, )) = U .
1 , 2 U (1) , p(( 1 )# ) = p(( 2 )# ).
1 (1) = 2 (1). 1 (U, b1 ) 1 (B, b1 ) , 1 2 B
cb0 , 1 2 , ( 1 )# = ( 2 )# , p|B(U,)
.
5 E e0 p1 (b0 ), H = p (1 (E, e0 )).
B b0 p . t [0, 1],
t : I B t (s) = (ts), s [0, 1], t b0 (t)
(). : I E (t) = (t )# , t [0, 1].
. , (0) B b0
cb0 H , e0 = (cb0 )# , (1) # .
p( (t)) = p((t )# ) = t (1) = (t), t [0, 1], p = .
. t0
(t0 ) = (t0 )# E B(U, t0 ).
> 0 , |t1 t0 | < (t1 ) U . (t0 )
140 2

(t1 ) ,

(s) = ((1 s)t0 + st1 ), s [0, 1],

t0 t1

(2[t (1 t) + t t]s/[1 + t]), s [0, (1 + t)/2],
0 1
H(s, t) =
(t (1 (2s 1)) + t (2s 1)), s [(1 + t)/2, 1],
0 1

(t1 ) = (t1 )# B(U, t0 ),

t0 .

2.45

# E, B b0 ,
e0 , # , E .

[] H,
. [ cb0 ] = [] H, H
cb0 , # = (cb0 )# = e0 , E e0 . p ([ ]) =
[], [] p (1 (E, e0 )), H p (1 (E, e0 )). ,
[ ] 1 (E, e0 ), = p
. e0
, # . E , (1) = e0 ,
# = e0 = (cb0 )# , H cb0 , [] H, p (1 (E, e0 )) H.
, (E, p) B .

2.7
B ,
1 (B, b0 ) B .
 2.7 141

: 1 (B, b0 ) (B, 1B )
1 (B, b0 ) .
.
2.49 (U, q) B , U , (U, q)
B .
p : R S 1 p : S 2 P 2
, qn : S 1 S 1 .
,
.
.
, .
, .
2.50 (E1 , p1 ) (E2 , p2 ) B , h : E1 E2
, (E1 , h) E2 .
E2 h . x E2 , U1
U2 p2 (x) p1 p2 . V U1 U2
p2 (x) , , p1 p2 .
p1
2 (V ) x W x h .

2.46

W . p1 1 1 1 1
1 (V ) = h p2 (V ), h (W ) p1 (V )
142 2

. S h1 (W ) , S p1
1 (V )
, p2 h|S = p1 |S : S V . h|S = (p2 |W )1 p1 |S : S W
. .
2.51 (U, q) B , (E, p) B
, h : U E, (U, h) E .

, b0 B, e0 p1 (b0 ), u0
q 1 (b0 ).

h / h /
(U, u0 ) (E, e0 ) 1 (U, u0 ) 1 (E, e0 )

p p
q q
#  % 
(B, b0 ) 1 (B, b0 )

1 (U, u0 ) ,

q 1 (U, u0 ) p 1 (E, e0 )

. , h : U E, , (U, h)
E .

, .
2.53.
2.52 (E, p) B , (E, p)
().
(), A(E, p).
2.33 :
f, g A(E, p), x E f (x) = g(x), f = g;
,
f A(E, p), x E f (x) = x, f = 1E .
B (E, p), : 1 (B, b0 )
, A(E, p).
? .
 2.7 143

2.53 (U, q) B , b0 B, 1 (B, b0 )

A(U, q) , (U, q) 1 (B, b0 ) .

u0 q 1 (b0 ), T : A(U, q) 1 (B, b0 ) :

f A(U, q), U u0 f (u0 ) . qf (u0 ) = q(u0 ) =
b0 , f (u0 ) q 1 (b0 ), q (B, b0 ). T (f ) = [q] 1 (B, b0 ).
U , u0 f (u0 ) , T (f )
. T , f1 , f2 A(U, q), 1 , 2 U

2.47

u0 f1 (u0 ) u0 f2 (u0 ) , T (f1 ) = [q1 ], T (f2 ) = [q2 ].

1 f1 2 u0 f1 f2 (u0 ),

T (f1 f2 ) = [q(1 f 2 )] = [q1 ] [q2 ] = T (f1 ) T (f2 ).

T , f1 , f2 A(U, q), T (f1 ) = T (f2 ). 1

2 U u0 f1 (u0 ) u0 f2 (u0 ) , q1 q2 ,
1 2 , 1 (1) = 2 (1), f1 (u0 ) = f2 (u0 ). 2.33, f1 = f2 .
T , [] 1 (B, b0 ), u0
, (1) q 1 (b0 ). , U
, h : (U, u0 ) (U, (1)). u0
(1)
(1) (U, u0 ). kh = 1U = hk, h
k : (U,
144 2

2.48

, T (h) = [q
] = [].
h /
(U, u0 ) o (U,
(1))
k

q
q
$ 
(B, b0 )

, T : A(U, q) 1 (B, b0 ) .
2.40, 1 (B, b0 ) q 1 (b0 ) , (U, q)
.
p : R S 1 , (R, p) S 1 .
: A(R, p) Z : f A(R, p), pf (t) = p(t), e2if (t) =
e2it , f (t) t Z. R , (f 1R )(R) , n Z,
f (t) t + n, (f ) = n. , A(R, p) = Z.
1 (S 1 ) = Z. .
, p p : R2 T = S 1 S 1 p p(t1 , t2 ) = (e2it1 , e2it2 ),
(R2 , p p) T , f A(R2 , p p)
f (t1 , t2 ) = (t1 + n1 , t2 + n2 ), A(R2 , p p) = Z Z,
1 (T ) = Z Z.
 2.7 145

p : S 2 P 2 , (S 2 , p) P 2
, f A(S 2 , p), f ,
, 1 (P 2 ) = A(S 2 , p)
= Z2 .
, 2.53 ?
, .
2.54 (E, p) B , b0 B, e0 p1 (b0 ),
p 1 (E, e0 ) 1 (B, b0 ) , (E, p) .
, .
2.55 (E, p) B , b0 B, e0 p1 (b0 ),
A(E, p) = 1 (B, b0 )/p 1 (E, e0 ), (E, p) p 1 (E, e0 )
1 (B, b0 ) .
,
.
B 8 , E =
n=1 An R , An
2

2.49 , An An+1 .

2.49

p : E B, 2.50 E B
, p () E
, B , E
B , (E, p) 8 B
.
K Klein , T K 2 2.51
, p1 : T K . , p2 (t1 , t2 ) =
146 2

2.50

(e2it1 , e2it2 ) p2 : R2 T , p = p1 p2 : R2
K , (R2 , p) K .

2.51

B 8 , E =
n=1 An R , An
2

2.52 , An An+1 .
, p : E B, (E, p) B
, .
, , n = 2 Borsuk-
Ulam , n > 2 .
 2.7 147

2.52

2.56 (2 Borsuk-Ulam ) f : S 2
S 1 , x S 2 , f (x) = f (x).

. f ,
h : P 2 P 1 , , p q
, (S 2 , p) (S 1 , q) P 2 P 1 ( = S 1 ) 2
.
f / (S 1 , y )
(S 2 , x0 ) 0

p q
 
2 h / 1
(P , a0 ) (P , b0 )

x0 S 2 , y0 = f (x0 ), a0 = p(x0 ), b0 = q(y0 ), S 2 x0

x0 , qf (P 1 , b0 ). f

f (1) = f (x0 ) = f (x0 ) = f (0),

f . qf b0 . [qf ] = 1.
, [qf ] = [hp], p (P 2 , a0 ).
h ([p]) = [qf ] = 1.
1 (P 1 ) = Z, 1 (P 2 )
= Z2 . Z2 Z
, h ([p]) = 1, . .
148 2

1. f, g : X S n , f (x) g(x) , x X,
f (x) = g(x). : f g .
2. f : X S n , : f .
3. f : S n X(n 1) , : :
1 f ;
2 f f : Dn+1 X;
3 f 1 S n ,
1 = (1, 0, , 0).
4. P 1 P 2 S 1 S 2 ,
[x1 , x2 ] [x1 , x2 , x3 ], f, g : P 1 P 2 f ([x1 , x2 ]) = [x1 , x2 , 0] g([x1 , x2 ]) = [x1 , x2 , 0]
, f g .
5. X I X {1} CX = X I/X {1} X
. f : X Y f f : CX Y .
6.* X Y , C(X, Y ) X Y , . :
1 f, g C(X, Y ), f g, C(X, Y ) f g ;
2 X Hausdorff , f, g C(X, Y ), f g , f g.
7. 1 r : S 2n+1 S 2n+1 r(x) = x, x S 2n+1 , : r 1S 2n+1 ;
2 f, g : X S 2n+1 , : x X, f (x ) = g(x ).
8. : 1 ;
2 .
9. [X, Y ] X Y , :
1 [X, I] ; Y , [X, Y ] ;
2 X , Y , [X, Y ] .
10. A , f : X Y , : f f : [A, X] [A, Y ],

(a) f g : X Y , f = g ;
(b) (1X ) : [A, X] [A, X] ;
(c) g : Z Y , (gf ) = g f .
X Y , [A, X] [A, Y ] . [X, A] ?
11. , R3 2 , : .

12. D2 , h : D2 D2 h(r, ) = (r, + 2r),

(a) h 1D2 H, H|D2 {t} : D2 {t} D2 , t I.
(b) h S 1 .
13. Lt R2 (t, 0) (0, 1) . X = (nZ+ L1/n ) L0 R2 .
: X , f (x) = (0, 0) f : X X (0, 0) .
 2 149

( )
14. X = nZ+ n1 I ({0} I) (I {0}). : (0, 1) H,
(0, 1) .
15. 1 xN xS S n . : {xN , xS } S n ;
2 x0 S 1 . S 1 {x0 } S 1 S 1 , .
16. A X , Y = . : A Y X Y A X
.
17. X Y , X I Y . Z = (X I) Y :
U Z U (X I) U Y X I Y . f : X Y
, Z (x, 1) f (x). Mf = Z/ f
. : Y Mf .
18. : Hausdorff .
19. 0 (X) X , f : X Y . C 0 (X),
f (C) Y , Y D , f (C) = D, f : 0 (X)
0 (Y ). : f
(a) f g : X Y , f = g ;
(b) g : Y Z , (gf ) = g f : 0 (X) 0 (Z);
(c) (1X ) : 0 (X) 0 (X) ;
(d) f , f . .
20. , , , (X, x0 ), :

( ) ( ) (( ) ).

21. , : (I, 0, 1) (X, x0 , x1 ) . : cx0 .

22. a (0, 1), , : I X (1) = (0), : I X
{ t
( a ) t [0, a]
(t) = ta
( 1a ) t [a, 1],

: .
23. : I X , 0 = t0 < t1 < < tn = 1, i : I X

i (s) = ((1 s)ti1 + sti ), i = 1, , n.

: [] = [1 ] [n ].
24. h : (I, 0, 1) (I, 0, 1) , : I X . : h. :
(a) (0) = x0 , cx0 ;
(b) ( ) ( ).
25. x0 X, X0 X x0 . : 1 (X, x0 ) 1 (X0 , x0 ) .
26. : :
.
27. : X : f : S 1 X .
150 2

28. 1 x0 = x1 , : # : 1 (X, x0 ) 1 (X, x0 ) []

1 (X, x0 ) ; # 1 (X, x0 ) Abel ( G
C = {c G|g G, gc = cg});
2 1 , 2 : (I, 0, 1) (X, x0 , x1 ) . : (1 )# = (2 )# : 1 (X, x0 )
1 (X, x1 ) [1 2 ] 1 (X, x0 ) .
29. G , e . , (G, e), (G, e)
(t) = (t) (t). :
(a) (G, e) 1 (G, e) ,

[] [ ] = [ ];

(b) [] [ ] = [] [ ], ;
(c) 1 (G, e) Abel .

30. f : X Y , f : 1 (X, x0 ) 1 (Y, y0 ) . :

(a) f , f ;
(b) f , f .
31. h : S 1 X , h : 1 (S 1 , 1) 1 (X, x0 ) . f .
32. [] 1 (S 1 , 1), = (I) C.

1 dz
w() = .
2i z

: (a) w() ; (b) w() [] ; (c) w() = deg .

33. : x D2 , D2 {x} x S 1 . : h : D2 D2
, h(S 1 ) = S 1 , h(D2 S 1 ) = D2 S 1 .
34. A = {(r, ) | 1 r 2, 0 2}, h : A A
h(r, ) = (r, + 2(r 1)). : h , .
35. 1 A 3 . : A ;
2 A 3 , : A .
36. f : S 1 S 1 . : x1 , x2 S 1 , f (x1 ) = x1 , f (x2 ) = x2 .
37. T R2 , T . : f : T T ,
f T .
38, 39 40 B Van Kampen .
38. :
T {t0 }, t T ; R3 { x, y, z };
S 2 S 2 ; T T ; P 2 P 2 ( );
S n1 { R  k  n ; }
X = z C | z k + 21  = 12 , k = 1, , n .
39. X = R2 Z {0}. : 1 (X) .
40. X , 1 (X).
41. C S , x0 , 1 (C, x0 ) 1 (S, x0 )
, i : C S .
(a) S Mbius , C ;
(b) S , C {(u, v) S 1 S 1 |u = v};
(c) S = S 1 I, C S 1 {0}.
42, 43 44 8 , 2.4.2 .
42. x0 S 1 ,
X = (S 1 I) ({x0 } I), Y = S 1 I,
 2 151

f : X Y g : Y X, gf = 1X .
43. : (a) () 8 ;
(b) .

44. :
1 T D 2 S 1 = D2 ;
2 P D 2 S 1 = D2 .
45. D12 D22 2 , S11 S21 , X D12 D22 S11 exp(2it)
S21 exp(2nit) . : X .
46. T R3 R3 . : h : R3 R3 , T T ,
T .
47. , .

48. p+ : R+ S 1 p+ (t) = e2it . : p+ .

49. q1 = (1, 0), q1 = (1, 0), C1 = {x R2 | x q1 = 1}, C1 = {x R2 | x q1 =
1}, B = C1 C1 , E1 = {(u, v) R2 | u Z v Z}. p1 : E1 B
{
(1 + cos( 2u), sin 2u) v Z
p1 (u, v) =
(1 + cos 2v, sin 2v) u Z.

Dn = {(u, v) R2 | (u 1)2 + (v 3n)2 = 1}, L = {(u, v) | u = 0}, E2 = L ( nZ Dn ).
p2 : E2 B Dn C1 , L
( )
2 2
p2 (0, v) = 1 + cos v, sin v .
3 3
152 2

: (E1 , p1 ) (E2 , p2 ) B .
50. (E, p) B , B0 B , E0 p1 (B0 )
. : p|E0 : E0 B0 .
51. (E1 , p1 ) B1 , (E2 , p2 ) B2 ,
1 : p1 p2 (x1 , x2 ) = (p1 (x1 ), p2 (x2 )) p1 p2 : E1 E2 B1 B2
, p1 , p2 .
2 B1 = B2 , E {(x1 , x2 ) E1 E2 | p1 (x1 ) = p2 (x2 )} , p : E B1
p(x1 , x2 ) = p1 (x1 ). : p ;
3 p1 = p2 : R S 1 , E, p ?
52. E T2 , B T2 . :
p : E B .
53. (E, p) B , , B , (1) = (0),
, (1) = (0). : .
54. p : E B . : p .
55. p : R R+ C {0}

p(x, y) = ye2ix ,

, , : I C {0} , :

(t) = 2 t, (t) = (1 + t)e2it , = .

56. p : R R S 1 S 1 p(t1 , t2 ) = (e2it1 , e2it2 ), : I S 1 S 1

(0,0) , (t) = (e2it , e4it ). S 1 S 1 R3 , , .
57. (E, p) B . b0 B, , b0 , e0 p1 (b0 )
. : [] [ ] 1 (B, b0 )/p 1 (E, e0 ) . :
p1 (b0 ) 1 (B, b0 )/p 1 (E, e0 ) .
58. J P 2 , p : S 2 P 2 . : p1 (J)
S 2 , S 2 .
59. p : E B
1 1 (B)
= Z, 1 (E) ?
2 1 (B) , p k , 1 (E) ?
60. , p A1 B1 A, B , A0 B0 A, B . : p
, p 8 .
 2 153

61. p : E B , s : B E ps = 1B , s p .
p p 1 (E, e0 ) = 1 (B, p(e0 )).
62. X , f : X S 1 . : g : X R,
f (x) = eig(x) .
63. p : X X , 1 (X) . : p . 1 (X) ,
?
64. : f : S n S 1 , g : P 2 P 1 .
65. .
66. 1 (S 1 S 1 )
= Z Z, G1 , G2 G3 Z Z , (1, 0), (1, 1)
{(2, 0), (0, 2)} . S 1 S 1 .
67. qn , qm : S 1 S 1 n m , E {(z1 , z2 ) S 1 S 1 |qn (z1 ) = qm (z2 )}
, p : E S 1 p(z1 , z2 ) = qn (z1 ), (E, p) S 1 ( 51).
(E, p) .
68. Mbius .
69. 8 .
70. 1 (R2 , q);
2 : mT (m 1)T (m 3) . : R2 mT (mT
m , D).
71. 1 : nP 2 (n .
D).
2 : nP 2 mT p : mT nP 2 , (mT, p) nP 2 .
3 : R2 nP 2 (n 2) .

72. . :
p
E1 / E2
p2
p1
! 
B

1 p1 , p2 , p .
2 p, p1 , p2 .
3 p, p2 , 1 (E1 ) = 1, p1 .
4 p, p2 , B , p1 .
73. : B (E, p) : b0 B ,
e0 p1 (b0 ), , e0 p1 (b0 ), .
74. 2.54.
e G . : G
75. G , , p : G e , G
e
e
, p . G ?
e , p : G
76. G G e G , : p
A(G, e p).
154 2

77. h : S 1 S 1 , z S 1 , h(z) = h(z). :

(a) p : S 1 S 1 p(z) = z 2 , h g : S 1 S 1 , ph = gp;
(b) S 1 z z , p S 1 , ;
(c) p g ;
(d) h ;
(e) (Borsuk-Ulam ) f : S 2 S 1 , x S 2 , f (x) = f (x).

S1
h / S1
p p
 g

S1 / S1

78. h : S 1 S 1 , z0 S 1 , h(z0 ) = z1 . : h 1 (S 1 , z0 ) 1 (S 1 , z1 )
. Borsuk-Ulam .
 3

, .
. ,
, . ,
, S 2 S 3 .
, . .
, , .
. .
,
. , .
, , ,
.
Poincar
. , Brouwer , Alexander
. Noether ,
, .

3.1

. .
, , .
156 3

3.1.1

,
.
3.1 a0 , a1 , , ap Rn p + 1 , {a1
a0 , , ap a0 } , .
, a0 = a1 , a0 , a1 ; a0 , a1 a2 ,
; a0 , a1 , a2 a3 , ,
.

3.1

, p + 1 , ;
p + 1 p ,

p
x = a0 + i (ai a0 ) i R
i=1

p
= i ai ,
i=0
p p
0 = 1 i=1 i , i=0 i = 1.
3.2 a0 , a1 , , ap Rn p+1 , Rn
p p
{x Rn | x = i=0 i ai , i 0, i=0 i = 1} a0 , a1 , , ap
p , (a0 , , ap ). 0 (a) a; 0 , , p
 3.1 157

x a0 , , ap , p p , p
, dim .
, p = (a0 , , ap ) a0 , , ap .
{a0 , , ap } , ; Rn
, , . , Rn
, .

3.2

p = (a0 , , ap ), {i0 , i1 , ip } {0, 1, , p}, ai1 , , aiq

, q q = (ai0 , , aiq ) p q , q < p ;
q < p , q p .
2 = (a0 , a1 , a2 ) 0 a0 , a1 a2 ; 1 (a0 , a1 )(a1 , a2 )
(a0 , a2 ); 2 (a0 , a1 , a2 ), (a0 , a1 , a2 ) .
?
3.3 K Rn ,
1 K , K;
2 1 2 K , 1 2 , 1 2
;
K , .
K K , dimK = max{dim};
K
; L K, L , L
158 3

K .

3.3

K ={a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , (a0 , a1 ), (a1 , a2 ), (a0 , a2 ), (a1 , a3 ), (a2 , a3 ),

(a3 , a4 ), (a1 , a2 , a3 )}

2 .
p p , Cl p = { | <
p } Bd p = { | < p , = p } p
p 1 , p , Bd p Cl p .
K , r K r =
{ K | dim r} K r , K r , K 0
K .
{a0 , (a0 , a1 )} , 3.3 1 , 3.4
{a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 , (a0 , a1 ), (a2 , a3 )} , 3.3
2 .

3.4

3.1.2

,
.
 3.1 159

3.4 K Rn , K
K Rn , K , , |K|,
K |K| () .
, K , |K|
Rn , . . Rn
p p , Cl p , p = |Cl p |, p
, Cl p .

3.5

, ,
,
3.5 X , K : |K| X,
X , (K, ) K X , X = (K, ).
.
S 2
= |Bd 3 |, S 2 , Bd 3 S 2 .
3.6 S 2 , . , n
S n .
Mbius , 3.7 .
, 3.8 K, K 9
, 27 18 .
Klein ( 1.2.4).
P 2 .
, .
160 3

3.6

3.7 Mbius
 3.1 161

3.8

3.9 Klein

3.10
162 3

. R X =
{ }
{0} n1 | n Z+ R2
{ }
1
Y = (u, v) R | 0 < u 1, v = sin
2
{(0, v) | v 1},
u

3.11

, .
12 3 .

3.1.3

(a0 , a1 ) , , (a0 , a1 , a2 )
, , 3.12: a0 , a1 , a2 ;
a1 , a2 , a0 ; a2 , a0 , a1 , a1 , a0 , a2 ; a0 , a2 , a1 ; a2 , a1 , a0
.

3.12

3.6 p = (a0 , a1 , , ap ) p , p > 0, p

(p+1)! . ai0 , , aip aj0 , , ajp ,
 3.1 163

, ,
. , .
, a0 , , ap a0 , , ap
. p ,
p . a0 , , ap a1 , a0 , , ap
.
a, , ,
a a.
3.7 K . K
, , .
K p p , Sp+ = {ip | i = 1, 2, , p } p
, K p , Sp = { p | p Sp+ }
p .
, .
3.13 , .
, K ( 3.13(b)),
K () , K
( 3.13(c) a0 , a1 , a2 , a3
).

3.13
164 3

3.1.4

K, K
. ,
. (Cech )
.
3.8 A = {a0 , , aN } , K A
, :
1 i = 0, , N, {ai } K ;
2 , A , K , , K ;
K , . A () ,
K () ; p + 1 , p ,
dim = p; K dim K = max{dim }.
K
, .
K , K 0 ,

KK = {{a0 , , ap } K 0 | (a0 , , ap ) K},

KK K 0 .
K , A , K () ,
: A K 0 , {a0 , , ap } K ,
((a0 ), , (ap )) K, K K , K K .
KK K . ,
() . :
3.9 n K R2n+1 .
K A = {a0 , , aN }, R2n+1

K 0 = {bt = {t, t2 , , t2n+1 | t = 0, 1, , N },

bi0 , bi1 , , bi2n+1 K 0 2n+2 , bi1 bi0 , , bi2n+1 bi0

2n + 1 Vandermonde , 0, 2n + 2
. K : K , {ai0 , , aip }
K , (bi0 , , bip ) K. K 1 . 2,
 3.1 165

p q K , p, q n, p q r ,
p q p + q r + 2 2n + 2 ,
, R2n+1 p + q + r 1 . p q
, , , 2 ,
K K .

n R2n+1 n
. 3.9 .
n , R2n . Cl 2n+2
n R2n .
3.10 1 () .
3.9, R3 . Cl 4 1
(),
R2 . R2 .
. :
, , GW E ,
3.15.

3.14 3.15

, . X , A
, C = {Ca | a A} X ,

K = {{a0 , , ap } A | Ca0 Cap = },

K A , C .
166 3

3.2
()
,
. T ( 3.16), ,
1 ,
, . , T ,
T
. , T
, T 1 .
, ,
.

3.16

,
.

3.2.1

3.11 K , cp : Sp Z , p
Sp , cp ( p ) = cp ( p ), cp p . cp dp p ,
p , cp + dp ,

(cp + dp )( p ) = cp ( p ) + dp ( p )

. , p Abel , K p ,
Cp (K).
Cp (K) 0 : Sp Z, p Sp 0( p ) = 0; cp
p cp : Sp Z, p Sp (cp )( p ) = cp ( p ).
 3.2 167

, , p < 0 p >dim K
, Cp (K) = 0.
p Sp , p cp : Sp Z,

0, p = p
cp ( p ) =
1, p = p

. cp p , p cp . p p
cp , p , p , .
Sp+ = {ip | i = 1, , p } K p , cp Cp (K)
p
p
p . gi = cp (i ), cp = gi ip , ip Sp+
i=1
cp (ip ) = gi = cp (ip ),
cp = cp , Cp (K)
p
p p
cp = gi i . , gi ip = 0,
( p ) i=1 i=1

gi = gi ip (jp ) = 0, ,
i=1

Cp (K) Z1p Zp p ,

Cp (K) p Abel , Sp+ . ,

. (
) , .

, cp = fi ip , dp = gi ip , cp +dp = (fi +gi )ip , cp =

(fi )ip .
, .
(a0 , a1 ) {a0 , a1 }, (a0 , a1 , a2 ) (a0 , a1 ) (a1 , a2 )
(a2 , a0 ), , a1 , a2
a1 a0 , a0 , a1 , a2 a1 , a2 + a2 , a0 + a0 , a1 . ,
:
3.12

p : Cp (K) Cp1 (K)

168 3

p : 0 < p dim K ,
1 p = a0 , , ap Sp+ ,

p
p
p = (1)i a0 , , a
i , , ap ;
i=0

2 cp = gj jp Cp (K),

p c p = gj p jp ;

p 0 p >dim K , p ;
1 a
i ai , a0 , , a
i , , ap

a0 , , ai1 , ai+1 , , ap .

p . p cp cp .
2 1 , .
,
p = a0 , , ap Sp Sp+ ,

p
p
p = (1)i a0 , , a
i , , ap
i=0

.
3.17 3 ,
.
,
:
3.13 K , p,

p1 p : Cp (K) Cp2 (K)

, 2 = 0.
 3.2 169

3.17

p 1 p >dim K . 1 < p dim K,

: p = a0 , , ap Sp+ , p1 p p = 0.

p
p
p1 p =p1 (1)i a0 , , a
i , , ap
i=0
(

p
i1
= (1) i
(1)j a0 , , a
j , , a
i , , ap
i=0 j=0
)

p
+ (1)j1 a0 , , a
i , , a
j , , ap
j=i+1

= (1)i+j a0 , , a
j , , a
i , , ap
0j<ip

+ (1)i+j1 a0 , , a
i , , a
j , , ap
0i<jp

=0.

3.13 : .
170 3

3.2.2

,
3.14 p Ker p = {cp Cp (K) | p cp = 0}
K p , Zp (K); p+1 Im p+1 =
{p+1 cp+1 | cp+1 Cp+1 (K)} p , Bp (K).
.
, 0 = 0 Z0 (K) = C0 (K); n =dimK , Cn+1 (K) =
0 Bn (K) = 0.
p : Cp (K) Cp1 (K), ,
p : Cp (K) Bp1 (K), Zp (K),

Cp (K)/Zp (K)
= Bp1 (K).

, ,
, : cp
dp , cp dp Bp (K), , cp dp .
0 . Zp (K)
, Zp (K) , z Zp (K)
[z]. 3.18 z1 z2 , z1 0.

3.18

2 = 0 Bp (K) Zp (K). , b Bp (K),

 3.2 171

c Cp+1 (K), b = c. b = 2 c = 0, b Zp (K).

3.15 K , Zp (K)/Bp (K) K p ,
Hp (K).
, Abel . p < 0 p >dim K ,Hp (K) = 0.
, Hp (K) Zp (K) , z Zp (K), [z] =
z + Bp (K).
, , .
, .
K = {a} .

Za, p = 0,
Cp (K) =
0, p = 0.
p, Bp (K) = 0,

Za
= Z, p = 0,
Hp (K) = Zp (K) =
0, p= 0.

2 = (a0 , a1 , a2 ), K =Bd 2 .
p = 0 1 , Hp (K) = 0.
p = 1, C1 (K) = Za0 , a1 Za1 , a2 Za2 , a0 . z0 =
a0 , a1 + a1 , a2 + a2 , a0 , gz0 = 0, gz0 Z1 (K). ,
z = g0 a1 , a2 + g1 a2 , a0 + g2 a0 , a1 Z1 (K),

z = (g1 g2 )a0 + (g2 g0 )a1 + (g0 g1 )a2 = 0,

g0 = g1 = g2 , Z1 (K) = Zz0
= Z. B1 (K) = 0,

H1 (K) = Z1 (K)
= Z.

p = 0, C0 (K) = Za0 Za1 Za2 = Z0 (K). a0 , a1 = a1

a0 , a1 , a2 = a2 a1 , a0 a1 a2 , [a0 ] = [a1 ] = [a2 ]. ,
[g0 a0 + g1 a1 + g2 a2 ] = (g0 + g1 + g2 )[a0 ], H0 (K) = Z[a0 ]
. , ga0 0, c = g0 a1 , a2 + g1 a2 , a0 +
172 3

g2 a0 , a1 , ga0 = c = (g1 g2 )a0 + (g2 g0 )a1 + (g0 g1 )a2 ,

, g0 = g1 = g2 , g = 0, H0 (K) , H0 (K) = Z.

3.19

3.2.3

,
. , ,
, .
3.16 K , a, b K 0 , a = b, a = b ,
a1 , a2 , , ak K 0 , (a, a1 ), (a1 , a2 ), , (ak , b) K 1 ,
a b , .
: 1 K 0 , K 0
; 2 {a0 , , ak } K 0 ,
K K , K ,
K ; 3 K q K1 , K2 , , Kq ,
K = K1 Kq , Ki Kj = (i = j); 4 K
|K| , K |K| .
3.17 K1 , , Kq K ,

Hp (K)
= Hp (K1 ) Hp (Kq )

Cp (K) = Cp (K1 ) Cp (Kq ) ,

 3.2 173

, :

Zp (K) = Zp (K1 ) Zp (Kq ),

Bp (K) = Bp (K1 ) Bp (Kq ).

z Zp (K), z = c1 + + cq , ci Cp (Ki )(i = 1, , q).

z = c1 + cq = 0,

ci Cp1 (Ki ), Cp1 (K) = Cp1 (K1 ) Cp1 (Kq ), ci = 0,

ci Zp (Ki ). z , Zp (K)
.
Bp (K) .
3.18 K , H0 (K)
= Z.

a1 K . ai K , K ci

C1 (K), ai = a1 + ci , [ai ] = [a1 ]. z = gi ai

Z0 (K), [z] = ( gi )[ai ], H0 (K) = Z[a1 ] . H0 (K)
, g[a1 ] = 0, c C1 (K), ga1 = c. 1
ai , aj , ai , aj = aj ai , ai aj 0, ,

c c = gi ai , gi = 0. ga1 = gi ai

0
, g = g1 , g2 = = g0 = 0. g = g1 = gi = 0, H0 (K)
i=2
, H0 (K)
= Z.
3.19 K q , H0 (K)
= |Z {z
Z}.
q

K K |K| ,
H0 (K) .

3.2.4

A = {x R2 | 1 x 2} . (
A . ,
. .)
174 3

3.20

3.20 K, , dim K = 2,
K : 1 ,
; 2 K , K
, ; 3 K
, .

z1 = a0 , a1 + a1 , a2 + a2 , a0 ,
z2 = a3 , a4 + a4 , a5 + a5 , a3 ,

c= i ,
i S2+

z1 = z2 = 0, c = z1 z2 .
p < 0 p > 2, Hp (K) = 0.
p = 0, H0 (K)
= Z.
 3.2 175

p = 2, 1 = a1 , a2 , a5 , 2 = a1 , a5 , a4 . z Z2 (K)
, z = g1 1 + g2 2 + . 1 (a1 , a5 )
2 , z = g1 a1 , a2 + g1 a2 , a5 + g1 a5 , a1 + g2 a1 , a5 + g2 a5 , a4 +
g2 a4 , a1 + = 0, g1 = g2 , z = g1 1 + g1 2 + .
K 2 3 , z ,
z = g1 c. c = 0, g1 = 0, Z2 (K) = 0, H2 (K) = 0.
p = 1, z Z1 (K) . g,
z gz1 . , z a4 , a5 0,
(a4 , a5 ) 2 , g , z z = z + g 2 ,
z a4 , a5 . , z a1 , a5 0,
(a1 , a5 ) 1 , g ,
z z = z + g 1 , z a4 , a5 a1 , a5 .
, z z. , z ,
z = ha0 , a3 + , z = ha3 ha0 + = 0,
a3 , h = 0, z = g0 a1 , a2 + g1 a2 , a0 + g2 a0 , a1 .
z = 0 g0 = g1 = g2 = g, z = gz1 , 1
gz1 , H1 (K) = Z[z1 ] . , g[z1 ] = 0,
c C2 (K), gz1 = c , H2 (K) c = g c,
gz1 = c = g z1 g z2 , g = 0, g = g = 0, H1 (K)
, H1 (K) = Z.
P 2 .
P 2 K 3.21.

z0 = a0 , a1 + a1 , a2 + a2 , a0 ,

c0 = i ,
i S2+

z0 = 0, c0 = 2z0 .
p < 0 p > 2, Hp (K) = 0; H0 (K)
= Z.
p = 2, H2 (K) = 0.
p = 1, , 1 gz0 , H1 (K) = Z[z0 ]
. 2[z0 ] = [c0 ] = 0 H1 (K) 2 , H1 (K)
=
176 3

Z2 .

3.21

3.22

2 K,


Z


p = 0,
Hp (K) = Zq p = 1,



0 p = 0, 1,

Zq q .
T .
 3.2 177

T K 3.22.
z0 = a0 , a1 + a1 , a2 + a2 , a0 ,
z1 = a0 , a3 + a3 , a4 + a4 , a0 ,

z2 = i ,
i S2+

z0 , z1 Z1 (K), z2 Z2 (K).


0, p < 0 p > 2,

Hp (K) =
Z, p = 0 2.

p = 1, , 1 [z] =
g0 [z0 ] + g1 [z1 ], g1 , g2 Z, g0 [z0 ] + g1 [z1 ] = 0, g0 = g1 = 0,
H1 (K) = Z Z.
n n , n > 1, K =Cl n L =Bd n
.
K.

0, p < 0 p > n,
Hp (K)
=
Z, p = 0.

3.23

0 < p < n. a0 K ,
, z Zp (K), z Zp (K), z z , z
178 3

a0 . z = ga0 , , ap + , z =
ga1 , , ap + = 0, a1 , , ap , g = 0,
z 0, Zp (K) = Bp (K), Hp (K) = 0.
p = n, Cn (K) = Z n , n = 0, Zn (K) = 0, Hn (K) =
0.
L. Hn1 (L). L n 1 z,
K n 1 , Zn1 (K) = Bn1 (K), c = g n Cn (K),
z = c = g n . z0 = n K n 1 , L n 1
, Zn1 (L) = Zz0 . Bn1 (L) = 0, Hn1 (L) = Z.
L K n 1 , p < n 1, Hp (L) = Hp (K),

Z, p = 0, n 1,

Hp (L) =
0, p = 0, n 1.

|Cl n |
= Dn , |Bd n |
= S n1 , .
3.20 K , v , K, v
. = (a0 , , ap ) , v (v, a0 , , ap )
.

vK = K {v} {v| K}

K v . c = gi ip Cp (K), vK p + 1

vc = gi vip c .
3.21 (vc) = c v(c).

= a0 , , ap . ,

p
v, a0 , , ap = a0 , , ap + (1)i+1 v, a0 , , a
i , , ap
i=0
p
= a0 , , ap v (1)i a0 , , a
i , , ap
i=0

= a0 , , ap va0 , , ap .
 3.3 Euler-Poincar 179

vK K ,

Z, p = 0,
Hp (vK)
=
0, p = 0.

p 0 p >dim vK , .
0 < p dim vK, z Zp (vK) z = c1 + vc2 ,
c1 Cp (K), c2 Cp1 (K).

0 = z = c1 + c2 vc2 ,

c2 = 0, c2 = c1 ,

z = c1 vc1 = (vc1 ),

z Bp (vK), Zp (vK) = Bp (vK), Hp (vK) = 0.

,
, , , .
, Abel . ,
,
, .
, .

3.3 Euler-Poincar
Abel , ,
. , ,
. , T , H1 (T )
= Z Z, T
1 , . ,
p, Hp (K) , ,
.
180 3

3.3.1

K , Sp+ = {ip | i = 1, , p } K p ,
Cp (K) p Abel , Zp (K) Bp (K)
Abel , Hp (K) = Zp (K)/Bp (K) Abel .
Abel ( A),
3.22 K , K p
:
Hp (K)
=Z| {z
Z} Z1p Zpp ,
p

p 0; p > 0 ip > 1, ip i+1

p
.
p {ip | i = 1, , p } Hp (K) , p Hp (K)
.
3.23 3.22 p K p Betti , {ip | i =
1, , p } p .
z1 , , zk p , 0 g1 , , gk ,

k
gi zi 0, , . ,
i=1
z1 , , zk [z1 ], , [zk ] ,
K p Betti p
, |K| p . p |K|
p + 1 . ,
.

H1 () 1 {i } H2 () 2
S1 Z 1 0 0
S2 0 0 Z 1
T ZZ 2 Z 1
P2 Z2 0 {2} 0 0
Klein Z Z2 1 {2} 0 0

, n , 0 n .
 3.3 Euler-Poincar 181

3.3.2 Euler-Poincar

Euler V E + F = 2,
Euler .
3.24 K n , p p , (K) =

n
(1)p p K Euler .
p=0
3.25 (Euler-Poincar ) K n , p p
Betti ,

n
(K) = (1)p p .
p=0

Cp Zp Bp Hp Cp (K)Zp (K)Bp (K) Hp (K),

Cp Bp1
= Cp /Zp Hp = Zp /Bp . (
A),

p = rank Cp = rank Zp + rank Bp1 (p > 0),

0 = rank Z0 ,
rank Zp = p + rank Bp ,

, rankZn = n .

n
n
p
(1) p = (1)p p .
p=0 p=0

.

n
(K) = (1)p p Euler-Poincar , K
p=0
Betti Euler . ( Betti
) , Euler , Euler-Poincar
p (K).
Euler :

S 2 T P 2 Klein Sn Dn
() 2 0 1 0 1 + (1)n 1 1
182 3

Euler ,
S 2 T , (S 2 ) = 2, (T ) = 0.
.
Euler-Poincar Euler .
R3 ,
S 2 .
.
3.26 (Euler) S , V , E
F , V E + F = 2.

(S) = 2, S ( 2
), V E + F = 2 Euler-Poincar
. , S n .
v, , S
V , E F ,

V = V + 1, E = E + n, F = F + n 1, V E + F = V E + F

, ,
+ , , S
, , V E + F = 2.

V , E F , m
, n (m, n 3). mV = 2E = nF
V E + F = 2
1 1 1 1
+ = + ,
m n 2 E

m > 3, n > 3. n = 3, m1 = E1 + 16 , m 3
45. , m = 3, n 345, .
.
 3.3 Euler-Poincar 183

3.24

3.25
184 3

F m n V E
4 3 3 4 6
6 3 4 8 12
8 4 3 6 12
12 3 5 20 30
20 5 3 12 30

3.3.3 Abel

, Cp (K)
p : Cp (K) Cp1 (K) 2 = 0 .
Z, Abel . , 3.233.24
3.25 , Abel G Z ,
G ().
, Cp (K; G) = {cp : Sp G | cp () = cp (), Sp },

Cp (K; G) cp = gi ip , gi G,

0 = ip
p
gi i ( ) =
g , = p .
i i

p : Cp (K; G) Cp1 (K; G)

p
p (ga0 , , ap ) = (1)i ga0 , , a
i , , ap
i=0

, p1 p = 0.

Zp (K; G) = Ker p , Bp (K; G) = Im p+1 ,

Hp (K; G) = Zp (K; G)/Bp (K; G).

G , Cp (K; G) , p
, p , Zp (K; G) Bp (K; G) Cp (K; G)
, Bp (K; G) Zp (K; G), Hp (K; G) ,
 3.3 Euler-Poincar 185

Hp (K; G)
=G| {z
G} .
rp

,
rp .
2 Z2 , Hp (K; Z2 ) ,
(2)
K p 2 , p 2 Betti , p ,
.

n
, G (K) = (1)p rp . ,
p=0

n
(K) = (1)p p(2) .
p=0

2 . Z2 Z ,
. Z2 1 = +1, cp
Cp (K; Z2 ), cp ( p ) = cp ( p ) = cp ( p ), , 2
. 2 cp = i1 + + ik ,
K , .
, 2 . 2 p (a0 , , ap ) =
p
(a0 , , a
i , , ap ) (). |cp |
i=0
cp , |c1 + c2 | =Cl (|c1 | |c2 |
|c1 | |c2 |), || =Bd ( Bd
).
2 :

Mbius S 2 P 2 T Klein D2
H0 (; Z2 ) Z2 Z2 Z2 Z2 Z2 Z2 Z2
H1 (; Z2 ) Z2 Z2 0 Z2 Z2 Z2 Z2 Z2 0
H2 (; Z2 ) 0 0 Z2 Z2 Z2 Z2 0

, .
186 3

2 ,
:
Klein 2 ,
2 ,
.
, Klein ,
Mbius . 2 2
(), 2 ,
.

P 2 Klein Mbius S 2 T
H2 (; Z) 0 0 0 0 Z Z
H2 (; Z2 ) Z2 Z2 0 0 Z2 Z2

Q, Hp (K; Q) .
Hp (K; Q) K p Betti .
, Hp (K; Q) Hp1 (K)Hp (K) G
, , , Z .
, ,
, . , 3.66, 3.79
2 .

3.4
. : K
L , |K|
= |L|, p, Hp (K)
= Hp (L). ,
, K Betti Euler
|K| X = (K, ) Betti
Euler . ,
, 3.26 . ,
. , ,
( D).
 3.4 187

3.26

,
. : ,
, ?
, f :
|K| |L| K L (),
, ,
, , .
, , K L
. , :
1 ,
.
2 ,
, .
3 , ,
, , ,
.
,

. , E.
188 3

3.4.1

3.27 K L , f : |K| |L| , :

1 a K , f (a) L ;
2 (a0 , , ap ) K, {f (a0 ), , f (ap )} L
();
p
3 (a0 , , ap ) K, x = i ai |K|,
i=0

p
f (x) = i f (ai ),
i=0

f , f : K L.
, f f = f |K : K L
. , f : K L , f K
L ,

p
p
f : K L : x = i ai |K|, f (x) = i f (ai ),
i=0 i=0
f (x) |L|.
f : K L , K , f | : |L|
f .
K L 3.27, f g :

3.27

a0 a1 a2 a3
f b0 b1 b1 b2
g b0 b1 b2 b3
 3.4 189

f , g . g , {g (a0 ), g (a1 ), g (a2 )}

L .
, .
, , .
3.28 f : |K| |L|, g : |L| |M | , gf :
|K| |M | .
.
,
, .
3.29 K L , = {p : Cp (K) Cp (L) | p Z}
. p Z,

p1 p = p p : Cp (K) Cp1 (L),

, .
p
Cp (K) / Cp (L)

p p

 
Cp1 (K) / Cp1 (L)
p1

, z Zp (K), p (z) = p1 z = 0, p (z)

Zp (L). b Bp (K), b = c, c Cp+1 (K), p (b) = p c =
p+1 (c) Bp (L). p (Zp (K)) Zp (L), p (Bp (K)) Bp (L), p

p : Hp (K) Hp (L).

p ([z]) = [p (z)] , z Zp (K), [z] z .

3.30 = {p : Cp (K) Cp (L)}
= {p : Hp (K) Hp (L)} .
3.31 = {p : Cp (K) Cp (L)} = {p : Cp (L)
Cp (M )} ,
190 3

1 = {p p : Cp (K) Cp (M )} ,

()p = p p : Hp (K) Hp (M );
p
Hp (K) / Hp (L)

p
()p
# 
Hp (M )

2 K = L , 1 = {1Cp (K) : Cp (K) Cp (K)}

1 = {1Hp (K) : Hp (K) Hp (K)}.
1 c Cp (K), p (c) Cp (L). ,

p p (c) = p1 p (c) = p1 p1 c,

.
[z] Hp (K),

()p ([z]) = [p p (z)] = p ([p (z)]) = p p ([z]).

2 [z] Hp (K), 1p ([z]) = [1Cp (K) (z)] = [z].

,
. f : K L Sp+ = {ip | i = 1, , p } K
p ,

fp : Cp (K) Cp (L)

: 0 p dimK ,
1 a0 , , ap Sp+ ,

f (a ), , f (a ), f (a ) ;
0 p i
fp (a0 , , ap ) =
0, i = j, f (ai ) = f (aj ) .

2 c = gi ip Cp (K), fp (c) = gi fp (ip );
p < 0 p >dim K , fp = 0 : Cp (K) Cp (L).
 3.4 191

3.32 f = {fp : Cp (K) Cp (L)}

( f f ).

0 p dim K a0 , , ap ,
fp (a0 , , ap ) = fp1 (a0 , , ap ). bi = f (ai ), :
(1) bi ,

p
fp (a0 , , ap ) = (b0 , , bp ) = (1)i b0 , , bi , , bp
( p i=0
)

= fp1 (1)i a0 , , a
i , , ap
i=0

= fp1 (a0 , , ap ).

(2) bi bi ,

fp (a0 , , ap ) = 0,

fp (a0 , , ap ) = 0. ,

p
(a0 , , ap ) = (1)i a0 , , a
i , , ap
i=0

f , fp1 (a0 , , ap ) =
0, .
(3) bi , b0 = b1 , fp (a0 , , ap ) = 0.
,

fp1 (a0 , , ap ) = fp1 (a1 , a2 , , ap ) fp1 (a0 , a2 , , ap )

= b0 , b2 , , bp b0 , b2 , , bp = 0,

.
3.33 f : K L , f = {fp : Cp (K)
Cp (L)} f = {fp : Hp (K) Hp (L)} f
.
192 3

3.34 f : K L f = {fp : Hp (K)

Hp (L)} :
1 g : L M ,

(gf )p = gp fp ;

fp
Hp (K) / Hp (L)

gp
(gf )p
# 
Hp (M )

2 K = L, (1|K| )p = 1Hp (K) : Hp (K) Hp (K).

1 fp , gp (gf )p , (gf )p = gp fp . ,
[z] Hp (K),
(gf )p ([z]) = [gp fp (z)] = gp fp ([z]).

2 .
2 = (a0 , a1 , a2 ), K =Bd 2 , f : K K
f (a0 ) = a0 , f (a1 ) = a2 , f (a2 ) = a1 . , p < 0 p >
1, fp = 0. p = 0, [a0 ] H0 (K) , f0 ([a0 ]) = [f (a0 )] = [a0 ],
f0 . p = 1, z = a0 , a1 +a1 , a2 +a2 , a0 Z1 (K),
[z] H1 (K) , f1 ([z]) = [f1 (z)] = [z], f1 = 1H1 (K) .

3.4.2

.
, . ,
.
.
3.35 = (a0 , , ap ) Rn p ,
{ }
p
p
x Rn | x = i ai , i > 0, i = 1
i=0 i=0
 3.4 193

a0 , , ap , . , a,
a=
{a}. K , a K , K a aK
a , st a.
, , Rn . K ,
; 2 1 , 2 K,
: 1 |K| = K

, = ,
1 2
1
2 =
, = ,1 1 2

, |K| . K,
|K| , K st a |K| , a
. {st a | a K } |K| .

3.28

3.36 a0 , , ap K , {a0 , , ap } K
p
st ai = .
i=0

. {a0 , , ap } K ,
p
i = 0, , p,
st ai , st ai
= .
i=0
p
. x st ai . x |K| = K
,
i=0
K x . st ai , i = 0, , p, ai ,
{a0 , , ap } K .
2 3
3.29 K, st ai = , (a0 , a1 , a2 ) K. st ai =
i=0 i=0
, K (a1 , a2 , a3 ).
194 3

3.29

3.36
.
, f : |K| |L| :
K L , x |K|, f (x) (x) L
.
3.37 f : |K| |L| , : K L ,
x |K|, f (x) , L , (x) , f
.
a0 = 0, a1 = 2 , a2 = , K = {a0 , a1 , a2 , (a0 , a1 ), (a1 , a2 )} R
( ) ( )
. b0 = (0, 0), b1 = 2 , 0 , b2 = (, 0), b3 = 2 , 2 ,

L = {b0 , b1 , b2 , b3 , (b0 , b1 ), (b1 , b2 ), (b0 , b3 ), (b1 , b3 ), (b2 , b3 ),

(b0 , b1 , b3 ), (b1 , b2 , b3 )}

R2 , f : |K| |L| f (x) = (x, sin x) ,

1 , 2 : K L , 1 2 f
.

a0 a1 a2
1 b0 b1 b2
2 b0 b3 b2

3.31 f (|K|), pi = f (ai ). 1 , 2 :

K L , 1 2 f .
 3.4 195

3.30

a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6
1 b1 b1 b1 b2 b2 b2
2 b1 b1 b1 b3 b2 b2

3.31

, f (|K|) .
L .
3.38 f : |K| |L| , : K L f
,
1 f : |K| |L|;
2 f , f = .
1 , x |K|, f (x) (x) L
, , f .
196 3

2 f , a K , f (a) = b L .
, (a) 0 b , (a) = f (a) = b.
, f = .

.
a0 = 0, a1 = 1, a2 = 2, K = {a0 , a2 , (a0 , a2 )},

L = {a0 , a1 , a2 , (a0 , a1 ), (a1 , a2 )}

R . f : |K| |L| f (x) = x .

a0 = f (a0 ) a2 = f (a2 ) L , f
.

3.32

,
.
3.39 f : |K| |L| , a K ,
b L , f (st a) st b, f .
2 3 f , 4 f .
, K L .
3.40 1 f : |K| |L| f
; 2 : K L f :
a K , f (st a) st (a).

1 2 .
. : K L L . a
K , f (st a) st (a). , x st a, st a , K
x. f , x L,
f (x) , (x) . , L
 3.4 197

1 = (). 1 (a) , (x)

1 . (x) ,
1 , (a) . , f (x) st (a),
f (st a) st (a).
. f , : K L :
a K , (a) f (st a) st (a)(, ).
, ( : K ) L. p , (a 0 , , ap ) K,
p p p
st ai = = f st ai = f (st ai ) st (ai ),
i=0 i=0 i=0 i=0

{ (a0 ),
, (ap )} L ,
. , f . , x , = (a0 , , ap ) K,
x st ai . f (x) f (st ai ) st (ai ). L, f (x) .
st(ai ) , (ai ) . ,
L (ai ) 1 = (), 1 < . ,
(x) () , f .

3.33

3.40 :
3.41 f : |K| |L|, g : |L| |M |
: K L, : L M , gf : |K| |M | : K M .
f : |K| |L| ,
f , f
, E .
198 3

3.5
. 3.40 ,
f : |K| |L| , K ,
K f L , ,
K ,
, . .

3.5.1

p
= (a0 , , ap ) p ,
= 1
p+1 ai . 0
i=0
; 1 ; 2
.
3.42 K , K ()
, Sd K:
1 (Sd K) = {
| K};
2 i , 0 < 1 < < p (),
0 , ,
( p ) Sd K.
, K m Sdm K =Sd(Sdm1 K).

3.34

3.42 Sd K , |Sd K| = |K|,

dim Sd K =dim K.
 3.5 199

3.35 Cl 2 3.36

Sdm K K (m) , Sd K K .
3.43 K mesh K, :

mesh K = max{diam },
K

diam = sup {x y} .
x,y

, a K ,st a B(a, mesh K).

.
, ,
3.44 K n , mesh K n
n+1 mesh K,
lim mesh K (m) = 0.
m

= (a0 , , ap ), diam = max{ai

i,j

p
p
aj }. , x, y , y y = i ai , i = 1, i 0,
i=0 i=0

p
p

x y = i (x ai ) i x ai max{x ai }.
i
i=0 i=0

x, y ai x max{ai aj }. , x y max{ai
j i,j
aj }.

diam = sup {x y} = max{ai aj }.

x,y i,y

K 1 .
200 3

, ( ) K , , K, < . = (a0 , , ap ),
,
, i0 ai0 ,

1 1

p

ai ai0 = (ai ai0 )

p + 1 p + 1
i=0 i=i0
p
mesh K,
p+1
p n p
p+1 n
n+1 ,
n
mesh K = max {
} mesh K,
( )K
, n+1
( )m
n
mesh K (m) mesh K,
n+1
lim mesh K (m) = 0.
m

, , ,
.
3.45 () f : |K| |L| ,
m, K (m) L , f : |K (m) | |L|
: K (m) L.
{st b|b L0 } |L| , f , {f 1 (st b)|b
L } |K| . |K| , Lebesgue ,
> 0, x |K|, b L0 , B(x, ) f 1 (st b).
3.44, m, =mesh K (m) < . , K (m)
a, L b, a K (m) st a
B(a, ) B(a, ) f 1 (st b), f (st a) st b. f : |K (m) | |L|
, 3.40, : K (m) L.
{ } { }
|K| = |L| = [0, 1], K 0 = 0, 13 , 1 , L0 = 0, 23 , 1 , f : |K|
|L| f (x) = x, f . , : K L f
( )
, (0) = f (0) = 0, (1) = f (1) = 1, 31 = 23 ,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0, 31 0, 23 , 13 , 1 23 , 1 . 0 < f 12 < 23
( ) ( )
21 0, 23 , . f : |K | |L|
. 3.37 : K (2) L f : |K (2) | |L| .
 3.5 201

3.37

, p : Hp (K (m) ) Hp (L).
f Hp (K) Hp (L) , Hp (K) Hp (K (m) )
.

3.5.2

3.46 sd= {sdp : Cp (K) Cp (K )}

:
1 p < 0 p >dim K, sdp = 0;
2 a K , sd0 (a) = a, sd0 : C0 (K)
C0 (K );
3 0 < p dim K, sdp1 : Cp1 (K) Cp1 (K ).
p Sp+ , sdp p = p sdp1 p , sdp :
Cp (K) Cp (K ),
p sdp1 p p sdp1 p
( 3.20).
3.38 sd1 a0 , a1 sd2 a0 , a1 , a2 .
sdm = {sdmp : Cp (K) Cp (K
(m)
)}, sdm m1
p =sdp sdp .
3.47 3.46 sd= {sdp : Cp (K) Cp (K )}
.

p Sp+ , p sdp p =sdp1 p p .

p 0 p >dim K , .
0 < p dim K , p 1 ,
202 3

3.38

p sdp1 p p ) = sdp1 p p
p sdp p = ( p p1 sdp1 p p
= sdp1 p p
p sdp2 p1 p p ()
= sdp1 p p , ( 2 = 0)

sd .

sdp : Hp (K) Hp (K ),

p : Hp (K) Hp (K
sdm (m)
),

m
sdm m
p = (sd )p = (sdp ) .

,
. f : |K| |L| , m , : K (m) L
f .

p : Hp (K) Hp (L)
p sdm
 3.5 203

m f .
f
Hp (K) / Hp (L)
O

p
sdm
p
$
Hp (K (m) )

3.48 f, m, , fp = p sdm
p , f = {fp :
Hp (K) Hp (L)} f .
,
, .
3.49 f : |K| |L| , f f
:
1 g : |L| |M | ,
,
(gf )p = gp fp : Hp (K) Hp (M ).
(gf )p
Hp (K) / Hp (M )
O

gp
fp
#
Hp (L)

2 1|K| : |K| |K| ,

(1|K| )p = 1Hp (K) : Hp (K) Hp (K).

3 f g : |K| |L|, fp = gp : Hp (K) Hp (L),

.
3.48 3.49 E.
3.50 f : |K| |L| ,
1 K L , f0 : H0 (K) H0 (L) ;
2 f , p = 0, fp : Hp (K) Hp (L) .
204 3

3.5.3

3.49, .
3.51 f : |K| |L| , p

fp : Hp (K) Hp (L)

g : |L| |K| f , gf 1|K| , f g 1|L| .

gp fp = (gf )p = 1Hp (K) : Hp (K) Hp (K),

fp gp = (f g)p = 1Hp (L) : Hp (L) Hp (L),

f .
3.52 Betti Euler
. , .
, .
C , ,
,
Z, p = 0,
Hp (C) =
0, p = 0.

A Mbius M S 1 ,

Z, p = 0, 1,
1
Hp (A) = Hp (M ) = Hp (S ) =
0, p = 0, 1.

3.6
, .
1.6.3 , ,
. .
 3.6 205

, ,
S 2 P 2 T .
3.53 K n , :
1 K K n ;
2 K n 1 n1 , K n ,
n1 ;
3 K n n n , K n
1n , 2n , , kn , n = 1n , n = kn , i = 1, , k 1, in i+1
n

n 1 , K n .

3.39

1 2 3 ,
3.39 .
, S 2 P 2 T Klein 2 ,
Cl 2 Mbius .
.
, K L , |K|
= |L|, K n , L
n . , 1 3 K ,
|K| .
n , (K, ), K 3.53
.
, n , n .
206 3

, n n . ,
.
Klein 2 , 2
. 3.40 , 2 S2+ , 1
() ( )
, , . Klein
2 .

3.40

3.41

n , n1 K . n n1 ,
n ( n1 ), [ n , n1 ], . 0
+11: n1 n , [ n , n1 ] = 0; n1 n ,
n = a0 , , ap , n1 = a0 , , a
i , , ap , [ n , n1 ] = (1)i .
 3.6 207

3.54 K n , K n Sn+ ,
n1 Sn1 , 1n , 2n Sn+ , n1 1n 2n ,
[1n , n1 ] = [2n , n1 ], K , .
S 2 T . , P 2
Klein .
2 , .
3.55 K n ,

Z, K ,

Hn (K) =
0, K .

K , Sn+ K n
n
. z0 = , n . , n1 Sn1 ,
n Sn+
z0 ( n1 ). , 1n , 2n Sn+ , n1

, z0 ( n1 ) = n ( n1 ) = [1n , n1 ] + [2n , n1 ].
n Sn+
[1n , n1 ] = [2n , n1 ]
z0 ( n1 ) = 0, z0 Zn (K).

, n . z = gi in Zn (K), z
i Sn
n

n1
Sn1 z( ) =
n1
gi [in , n1 ] = 0.
, in1 in2 n1 , z
. z = gz0 , Zn (K) = Zz0 , Bn (K) = 0,
Hn (K)
= Z.
, Hn (K) = 0, K n Sn+ = {in | i =

1, , n }. z = gi in Zn (K) 0 . in1 in2
in Sn+
n1 , 0 = z( n1 ) = gi1 [in1 , n1 ] + gi2 [in2 , n1 ],
1, |gi1 | = |gi2 |. , 0
g i = 1, i = 1, , n gi = i g. K n
Sen+ = { in = i in | i = 1, , n , in Sn+ }, n1 <
in1 , n1 <
in2
, [in1 , n1 ] = [in2 , n1 ]. Sep+ , K .
208 3

, . K L
, |K|
= |L| K n , L n
.
3.55 .
, ,
, .
1 3 .
3.55, P 2 Klein .
1.6.3 2 . S 2 , T P 2
. Rado 1922 .
. , .
. ,
,
, .
D . ,
.
3.56 K 2 , K
0 1 2 ,

1 = 3(0 (K)),
32 = 21 ,
1
0 (7 + 49 24(K)).
2
, 32 = 21 . Euler-
Poincar (K) = 0 1 + 32 1 ,

1 = 3(0 (K)).
0 (0 1)
, K 2 ,
, 1 0 (20 1) .

02 0 21 60 6(K),

02 70 + 6(K) 0,
 3.7 209

0 , 0 > 0
1
0 (7 + 49 24(K)).
2

3.56 , ,
Euler . .
,
.
S 2 Euler (S 2 ) = 2, 0 4, 1 6, 2 4.
.
P 2 Euler (P 2 ) = 1, 0 6, 1 15, 2 10.
P 2 .
T Euler (T ) = 0, 0 7, 1 21, 2 14.
T , .

3.7
.

3.7.1

n S n [S n , S n ]
.
. :
f : S n S n , [S n , S n ] Z.
, f : S 1 S 1 , x S 1 , f (x)
S 1 , ,
f S 1 S 1 , f ,
.
3.57 f : S n S n (n 1) , (K, ) S n
, [z] Hn (K) . f = 1 f : |K| |K|,
, fn ([z]) = [z], f (Brouwer ),
210 3

deg f .
f
SO n / SO n

f
|K| / |K|
deg f S n (K, ) Hn (K) [z]
.

3.58 f, g : S n S n ,
1 f g : S n S n , deg f =deg g;
2 deg (f g) =deg f deg g;
3 deg 1S n = 1, deg c = 0, deg h = 1, c, h : S n S n
.
2 , .
(K, ) S n , g = 1 g, f = 1 f , ffg =
1 (f g) = (1 f )(1 g) = fg,
g f
SO n / SO n / SO n

g f
|K| / |K| / |K|

ffg n ([z]) = (fg)n ([z]) = fn gn ([z])

= fn (deg g[z]) deg g fn ([z])
= (deg gdeg f )[z],

deg (f g) = deg g deg f.

3.58,

deg # : [S n , S n ] Z,
 3.7 211

deg# ([f ]) =deg f, [f ] [S n , S n ]. Hopf ,

S n , .
Hopf deg# : [S n , S n ] Z .
Brouwer , f : S n S n
, (K, ) (L, ) S n , f = 1 f : |K| |L|
g : K L. K L , Hn (K) =Z = Hn (L).
K L n Sn+ (K) Sn+ (L),

z= , w =
Sn+ (K) Sn+ (L)

[z] [w] Hn (K) Hn (L) ,

( 1 )n ([z]) = [w].

gn : Cn (K) Cn (L) g , L n
. p( ) q( ) gn () = gn () = K n
.
3.59 deg f = p( ) q( ).
g , gn , , gn (z) = w,
p( ) q( ) = , fn ([z]) = gn ([z]) = [w]. ,

fn ([z]) = (1 f )n ([z]) = (1 )n fn ([z])

= (1 )n ([w]) = [z],

deg f = = p( ) q( ).
, .
, f : [1, 1] R, f (1) f (1) < 0,
x (1, 1), f (x ) = 0. D1 = [1, 1], S 0 =
{1, 1}, f : S 0 S 0 , (x) = f (x)/|f (x)|.
,


= 1S 0 ,


1,
deg = 0, = ,



1, = 1 0 .
S
212 3

: deg = 0 , x D1 S 0 ,
f (x ) = 0.
3.60 () f : Dn Rn , 0 /
f (S n1 ). : S n1 S n1 (x) = f (x)/f (x), x S n1 .
deg = 0 , x Dn S n1 , f (x ) = 0.

x Dn , f (x) = 0, H : S n1
I S n1 , H(x, t) = f (tx)/f (tx) , H(x, 0) = f (0)/f (0)
; H(x, 1) = f (x)/f (x) = (x). ,
deg = 0, .

3.42

3.58 , S n , S n .
, .
3.61 r, ri : S n S n : x = (x1 , , xn+1 )
S n,
r(x) = x

ri (x) = (x1 , , xi , , xn+1 ),

ri i , r , x x
.
 3.7 213

3.43

r, ri : Rn+1 Rn+1 ,
.
, r = r1 rn+1 .

3.44

deg ri , S n :
ei = (0, , 0, 1, 0 , 0) Rn+1 i , ei = ei .
|i0 | < |i1 | < < |ip | , ei0 , , eip , Rn+1 .
214 3

,
{ }

n+1
|| = (x1 , , xn+1 ) Rn+1 | |xi | = 1 .
i=1

: || S n S n . Sn+
n , e1 , e2 , , en+1 Sn+ , e1 , e2 , , en+1
e2 , , en+1 ,

e1 , e2 , , en+1 Sn+ .

z = e1 , e2 , , en+1 + e1 , e2 , , en+1 + ,

[z] Hn (K) . r1 = 1 r1 : || || 1
, , r1 ( r1 )n

r1 )n (e1 , e2 , , en+1 ) = e1 , e2 , , en+1 ,

(

r1 )n (e1 , e2 , , en+1 ) = e1 , e2 , , en+1 ,
(
,

r1 )n (z) = z, (
( r1 )n ([z]) = [z], deg r1 = 1. :
3.62 deg ri = 1, deg r = (1)n+1 .
f : S n S n , deg f .
, f : S 1 S 1 f () = (x(), y()) , [0, 2],
x(0) = x(2), y(0) = y(2), x2 () + y 2 () = 1. f S 1
S 1 , :
2
1
deg f = ()d,
2 0

() =tg1 x()
y()
, () = xy x y.
2
1
deg f = (xy x y)d.
2 0
 3.7 215

.
qn : S 1 S 1 n , qn

x() = cos n, y() = sin n,

deg qn = n. deg qn , [4].

3.7.2

.
3.63 X Rn+1 , v : X Rn+1
X Rn+1 -. x X, v(x) = 0, v
Rn+1 . v : S n Rn+1 S n Rn+1 ,
x S n , x v(x) = 0, x v(x) , v S n . S n
S n .
v(x) x, Rn+1 X
; S n ,
.
3.64 (Brouwer-Poincar) S n : n
.

. n , n = 2k 1,

v(x1 , x2 , , x2k1 , x2k ) = (x2 , x1 , , x2k , x2k1 )

v : S 2k1 R2k

v(x) 1 = 0, x v(x) = 0. v S 2k1 .

. S n v : S n Rn+1 , x S n ,
v(x) = 0 xv(x) = 0. v(x) 1, v : S n S n .
H : Sn I Sn

H(x, t) = x cos t + v(x) sin t,

216 3

3.45

H , H(x, 0) = x = 1S n (x), H(x, 1) = x = r(x),

1S n r : S n S n , r . deg r = (1)n+1 = 1, n
.

3.46

v : S 2 R3 S 2 R3 , x S 2 ,
v(x ) S 2 x .

v(x) S 2 x u(x)( 3.47),

u(x) = v(x) (x v(x))x.

x u(x) = 0. u : S 2 R3 S 2 , 3.64,
x S 2 , u(x ) = 0, v(x ) = (x v(x ))x . . v(x )
S 2 x .
 3.7 217

3.47

3.64 , ,
, ( 3.64),
, ,
().
.
v1 , , vk S n , x S n , v1 (x), , vk (x)
, k .
n, n n = (2a + 1)2b , b b = c + 4d,
a, b, c, d , 0 c 3. (n) = 2c + 8d.
(Hurwitz-Radon-Eckman-Adams) S n1 (n) 1
, (n) .

3.7.3 Borsuk-Ulam

Borsuk-Ulam . n = 2
, 2.7 , 2
n .
X Y , x X, x X.
f : X Y , x X,

f (x) = f (x),
218 3

f . r : Rn Rn , r(x) = x. f

r|X f = f r|X .

f : S n S n , S n
(, ). , f = 1 f : || ||
st r(a) = r(st a), a igma0 . Brouwer
. (m) , ,
f : |(m) | || , f
.
3.65 f, f, (, ) , m f
g : (m) , g .

, m f g1 :
(m) . (m) a,

f(st a) st g1 (a).

rf = fr : (m) , (m) ,
st r(a) = r(st a),

f(st r(a)) = fr(st a) = rf(st a) r(st g1 (a)) = st rg1 (a).

g1 g, .
(m) () (
) , ((m) )0 = V r(V ),
V r(V ) = . g 0 : ((m) )0 0

g (a) aV
0 1
g (a) =
rg (r(a)) a r(V ).
1

g 0 . a V ,

f(st a) st g1 (a) = st g 0 (a);

 3.7 219

a r(V ), b = r(a),

f(st a) = f(st r(b)) st rg1 r(a) = st g 0 (a), a r(V )

, g 0 f g : (m) ,
.

f : S n S n .
3.66 (Borsuk ) f : S n S n , f
.

, f deg f =

3.48

p( ) q( )( 3.59). p( ) q( ) p( ) + q( )
, deg f , f g : (m)
( g ), (m) n () K
n () . 2 , : (
Z2 ) wn zn (m) n
, Zn ((m) ; Z2 ) = Z2 Zn (; Z2 ) = Z2
, deg f gn (wn ) = zn . sdm n (zn ) = wn ,
gn sdm n (zn ) = zn . :

1 p = 0, 1, , n, cp = (e1 , , ep , ep+1 ), rp (cp ) =
i =i
220 3

(e1 , , ep , e(p+1) ). zp = cp + rp (cp ), cp = rp (cp ) =
i =i
zp1 , zp = 0.
2 p bp Cp (; Z2 ), bp = rp (bp ), bp

bp = dp + rp (dp ), dp Cp (; Z2 ).

n (zn ) = zn , gn sdn (zn ) = 0. 1 , zn = cn + rn (cn ),
gn sdm m

gn sdm m m
n (cn ) = gn sdn rn (cn ) = rn gn sdn (cn ).

( (m) g ).

2 , gn sdm
n (cn ) = dn + rn (dn ), dn Cn (; Z2 ).

gn1 sdm m
n1 (zn1 ) = gn1 sdn1 (cn )

= gn sdm
n (cn ) (gn sdm
n )

= dn + rn (dn )
= dn + rn1 dn . (rn )

1 zn1 = cn1 + rn1 (cn1 ) ,

gn1 sdm m
n1 (cn1 ) + dn = rn1 (gn1 sdn1 (cn1 ) + dn ),

gn1 sdm
n1 (cn1 ) + dn = dn1 + rn1 (dn1 ).

gn2 sdm
n2 (zn2 ) = (dn1 + rn1 (dn1 )).

g0 sdm
0 (z0 ) = (d1 + r1 (d1 )).

g(e1 ) g(e1 ) ,
, , .
:
 3.7 221

3.67 (Borsuk-Ulam ) f : S n S n1 .

f , i : S n1 S n (S n1
S n ), if : S n S n , deg(if ) .
if (S n ) = S n1 = S n , if , deg(if ) = 0, ,
S n S n1 .
3.68 g : S n Rn , x0 S n ,
g(x0 ) = 0.

, f : S n S n1 f (x) = g(x)/g(x), f
, , .
3.69 h : S n Rn , x0
x0 , h(x0 ) = h(x0 ).

g : S n Rn g(x) = h(x) h(x), g ,

x S n , g(x) = g(x), , x0 S n , g(x0 ) = 0,
h(x0 ) = h(x0 ).

Borsuk-Ulam , Borsuk-Ulam
. 3.69
3.70 S n Rn .
3.69 : x ()
, p(x) t(x) , f : S 2 R2
f (x) = (p(x), t(x)). , f .
3.69 , , .
3.69 :
, , .
3.71 () A1 , , An Rn n ,
Rn , Ai .

Rn Rn+1 Rn = {x = (x1 , , xn+1 ) Rn+1 |

xn+1 = 0}, S n Rn+1 , p = (0, , 0, 1) .
fi : S n R : x S n , x = p, p x
x , x / x , x Rn , Rn , Ai ,
222 3

3.49

x x fi (x). fi (p) 0,
fi (p) Ai . fi , fi (x) Ai x
x . f : S n Rn f (x) = (f1 (x), , fn (x)),
f . 3.69, x0 S n , f (x0 ) = f (x0 ). x0 p
p, x0 Rn Rn Ai , .

3.7.4 Brouwer

2.3 2 Brouwer ,
, Lefschetz .
, .
3.72 K L , |L| |K| , p,
Hp (K) Hp (L) . ,

rank Hp (K) rank Hp (L).

i : |L| |K| r : |K| |L|

, ri = 1|L| : |L| |L|. ip : Hp (L) Hp (K)
rp : Hp (K) Hp (L)

rp ip = 1Hp (L) : Hp (L) Hp (L),

 3.7 223

|L| i / |K|

r
1|L|

|L|
1p , ip (Hp (L)) Hp (K) Hp (L) .
rank Hp (K) rank ip (Hp (L)) =rank Hp (L).
.
3.73 (Brouwer ) S n1 Dn .
Dn = |Cl n | S n1
= |Bd n |, S n1 Dn
, |Bd n | |Cl n | .
0 = rank Hn1 (Cl n ) rank Hn1 (Bd n ) = 1,
.
3.72 3.73 :
, ()
, Hp (K) Hp (L) (
). , Hp (K) Hp (L)
. .
,
, .
3.73 2.3.1 2 Brouwer

3.74 (Brouwer ) f : Dn Dn ,
x Dn , x f (x ) = x .
3.73 .

3.7.5 Lefschetz

, ,
. Lefschetz ,
. Brouwer .
224 3

.
3.75 () V n , : V V
, W , : V /W
V /W , W = |W : W W , tr =tr +tr
|W , tr ()
. W = V , V /W , tr = 0.
{1 , , r } W , r+1 , , n , V
, {r+1 , , n } V /W , i = i + W V /W .
W , AW , A A
( )
AW
A= ,
0 A
tr =tr +tr
|W .
3.76 V V n , : V V : V V
, : V V , = , tr =tr .
/
V V

 

V / V
V {1 , , n }, V {(1 ), , (n )},
.
Q, Lefschetz
.
K , f : |K| |K| , Hp (K; Q) Q
,

fp : Hp (K; Q) Hp (K; Q)

.
3.77 f : |K| |K| ,

dimK
(f ) = (1)p tr fp .
p=0
 3.7 225

f Lefschetz .
Lefschetz , (f ) = 0 , f .
, f : K K . f
, K , f () = ( ),
f fp : Cp (K; Q) Cp (K; Q) ,
K
dim
(f ) = (1)p tr fp , Lefschetz
p=0
. , .

3.78 (Hopf ) fp : Cp (K; Q) Cp (K; Q) ,

fp : Hp (K; Q) Hp (K; Q),
K
dim
(f ) = (1)p tr fp .
p=0

Cp , Zp , Bp Hp Cp (K; Q), Zp (K; Q), Bp (K; Q)

Hp (K; Q), fp = fp |Zp , fp = fp |Bp . fp : Cp /Zp Cp /Zp fp
. p : Cp /Zp Bp1 p (cp + Zp ) =
p cp .
Hp = Zp /Bp , tr fp =tr fp +tr fp .
tr fp =tr fp +tr fp . p fp = fp1

p , p , 3.76
tr fp =tr fp1 ,

tr fp = tr fp + tr fp + tr fp1

, p>0

tr f0 = tr f0 = tr f0 + tr f0 ,

n =dim K, tr fn = 0,

tr fn = tr n fn + tr fn1
fp
Cp /Zp / Cp /Zp

p
=
= p

 
Bp1 / Bp1

fp1
226 3

K
dim
(f ) = (1)p tr fp .
p=0

, 1|K| : |K| |K|, K p

Sp+ = {ip |i = 1, , p }, (1|K| )p (ip ) = ip , tr(1|K| )p = p ,

K
dim
(1|K| ) = (1)p p = (K),
p=0

, Lefschetz Euler .
3.79 (Lefschetz ) f : |K| |K|
Lefschetz (f ) = 0, f .

f . : |K| R (x) = x f (x)

, |K| . f (x) = x, min (x) =
x|K|

> 0, mesh K < m , f
2.
g : K (m) K. , x |K|, f (x) g(x) mesh K < 2 ,
x g(x) x f (x) f (x) g(x) > 2 = 2 . ,

3.50

p, fp = gp sdm
p : Cp (K; Q) Cp (K; Q) trfp = 0.
, p K, gp sdm p () K p
. tr fp = 0, p , gp sdm p
, sdm p g
, x, g(x) , , x .
/2 < x g(x) diam mesh K < /2, . p,
 3.7 227

trfp = 0,
K
dim
(f ) = (1)p tr fp = 0
p=0

. f .

3.51

Lefschetz .
3.80 K

Q p = 0

Hp (K; Q) =
0 p = 0,

|K| . |K|
= Dn , Brouwer
.
f : |K| |K| , a K 0 , f0 ([a]) = [a]
tr f0 = 1, Hp (K; Q) = 0, tr fp = 0(p > 0). (f ) =
1 = 0, f .
3.81 K Euler (K) = 0, 1|K|
f : |K| |K| .
fp = (1|K| )p (f ) = (1|K| ) = (K) = 0, f
.
, Hp (K; Q) K p Betti . P 2
.
, f : |K| |K| Lefschetz (f ) = 0, f
.
228 3

.
,

dy = f (x, y)
dx
x [0, 1]
y(0) = 0

.
x
y(x) = f (t, y(t))dt
0

. C 1 (I) I = [0, 1] .
x
T : C 1 (I) C 1 (I) T y(x) = 0 f (t, y(t))dt, y C 1 (I).
T .

3.8
() ,
. ,
. .
.

3.8.1

,
, , .
3.82 K . x |K|, x N (x) K
x :

N (x) = { | K, x , < };

x Lk (x) N (x) x :

Lk (x) = { N (x)| | x
/ }.

N (x) Lk (x) K .
 3.8 229

3.52

, :
1 |N (x)| x |K| ();
2 (0, 1),

|N (x)| = {z = (1 )x + y | y |N (x)|},

|N (x)| |N (x)| . |Lk (x)|, .

3.53

3 |N (x)| x |Lk (x)| . y |N (x)|

{x}, z |Lk (x)|, y = (1 t)x + tz, t (0, 1].
p : |N (x)| {x} |Lk (x)|

p (y) = (1 )x + z.
230 3

3 , .

Z p = 0

Hp (N (x)) =
0 p = 0.

Lk (x) . Lk (x) |K| x

, Hp (Lk (x)) .
3.83 K L , f : |K| |L| ,
x |K|, |Lk (x)| |Lk (f (x))| .

|N (x)| 1 f , , ,
(0, 1],

f (|N (x)|) |N (f (x))| f (|N (x)|) |N (f (x))|.

B1 = |Lk (f (x))|, B2 = |Lk (f (x))|, B1 = f (|Lk (x)|), B2 = f (|Lk (x)|),

p : |N (x)| {x} |Lk (x)|, q : |N (f (x))| {f (x)} |Lk (f (x))|

3.54
 3.8 231

, ,
. f |N (x)| f (|N (x)|) f .
1.

= f p (f 1 )|B2 : B2 B2 , = q |B2 : B2 B2 ,
1B2 , 1B2 .
, , p 1 : |N (x)| {x}
|N (x)| {x}.

= q f p (f 1 )|B2 q f (f 1 )|B2 = q |B2 = 1B2 : B2 B2 .

, q 1 : |N (f (x))| {f (x)} |N (f (x))| {f (x)}

= f p f 1 q |B2 f p (f 1 )|B2 = 1B2 : B2 B2 .

, |Lk (f (x))| f (|Lk (x)|).

|Lk (f (x))|
= |Lk (f (x))|, f (|Lk (x))|
= |Lk (x)|
= |Lk (x)|.

|Lk (x)| |Lk (f (x))|.

3.83, (K, ) (L, ) X ,
x X, Hp (Lk (1 (x)))
= Hp (Lk ( 1 (x))), :
3.84 X , (K, ) X , x
X, Hp (Lk (1 (x))) X x p , LHp (x; X).
, f : X Y , x X ,

LHp (x; X)
= LHp (f (x); Y ).

x S n (n > 0). n = 1 ,

Z Z, p = 0,
1
LHp (x; S ) =
0, ;

n > 1 ,
Z p = 0, n 1,
LHp (x; S n )
=
0, .
232 3

|K| 3.55 2 , x, y, z, w |K|,

Z,


p = 0,
LHp (x; |K|)
= Z Z, p = 1,



0, ,

Z, p = 0,

LHp (y; |K|) = LHp (w; |K|) =
0, ,

Z, p = 0, 1,

LHp (z; |K|) =
0, .

3.55

, 3.83 f : |K| |L| ,

( K =Cl n , L = {a}). .
, f ,
f , . ,
.
3.56 X Y . X ,
:
Z, p = 0, 1,
LHp (x1 ; X) =
0, ,
 3.8 233

Z, p = 0,

LHp (x2 ; X) =
0, .

Y , :

Z, p = 0, 1,

LHp (y1 ; Y ) =
0, .

Z, p = 0,
LHp (y2 ; Y )
=
0, .

Z Z, p = 0,
LHp (y3 ; Y )
=
0, ;

Z, p = 0,
LHp (y4 ; Y )
=
0, .

X Y .

3.56

, S 1 S 2 S 1 ,
S 1 S 2 S 1 T ,
.
234 3

3.57

3.8.2

.
. X = (K, ),
K X , X (K, ) (L, )
, dim K dim L .
3.85 () |K| |L| ,
dim K =dim L.
dim K = m, dim L = n. m = n, m > n.
|K| x, K m , Lk (x) =Bd ,

Z m>1

LHm1 (x; |K|) =
Z Z m = 1.

, L y, Lk (y) n 1 ,

LHm1 (y; |L|) = 0.

|K| |L| , , m = n.
dimK = n , |K| (K, ) n .
:

dim K = min{k | t k, x |K|, LHt (x; |K|) = 0},

, .
 3.9 . 1 (|K|) H1 (K) 235

3.86 1 S n
= S m , n = m; 2 Rn
= Rm ,
n = m.

S n = |Bd n+1 |, , 1 . 2 ,
S n Rn . f : Rn Rm ,
f : S n S m , 1 n = m.

.
. Peano 1 I = [0, 1] 2
I 2 .

3.9 . 1(|K|) H1(K)

1 () .
, 1 .
. . ,
, .
3.87 K , = a0 a1 an K
, {ai , ai+1 } K (0 1 ),
K a0 an . a0 = an , , a0 .
= an a1 a0 . {ai , ai+1 , ai+2 } K

, (n < 2 ).
3.58 , :
, ,
. K ,
, []. K a0
:

[a0 a1 ak a0 ][a0 a1 al a0 ] = [a0 a1 ak a0 a1 al a0 ].

K a0 , K
a0 , E(K, a0 ), a0 [a0 ], []
[].
236 3

3.58

K a0 |K| a0
: = a0 a1 ak1 a0 , I = [0, 1] k ,
: I |K|
( )
i
(0) = (1) = a0 , = ai , i = 1, , k 1
k
, [] 1 (|K|, a0 ). ,
,

: E(K, a0 ) 1 (|K|, a0 )

([]) = []. .
3.88 : E(K, a0 ) 1 (|K|, a0 ) .
1 . L = {0, 1, (0, 1)} I = [0, 1] .
[] 1 (|K|, a0 ), , m
g : L(m) K, |K| g . L(m)
i/2m (i = 0, 1, , 2m ), ai = g(i/2m ) K , = a0 a1 a2m 1 a0 ,
K , ([]) = [g] = [].
2 . = a0 a1 ak1 a0 ([]) = 1,
ca0 . H : I I |K|,
H(s, 0) = (s), I I a0 . L 3.59
I I , x, y, z, w , x1 , x2 , , xk1
k , H(xi ) = ai .
 3.9 . 1 (|K|) H1 (K) 237

3.59

L xx1 xk1 y xwzy . L m

, L(m) , E1 E2 .
, m, H G : L(m) K. L(m)
E1 E2 G . E2 G
a0 a0 a0 . , H(xi ) = ai xi xi+1 E1
H (ai , ai+1 ) , G H , G
ai ai+1 , E1 G = a0 a1 ak a0 ,
[] = [a0 ], .
3.89 1 (|K|, a0 )
= 1 (|K 2 |, a0 ).

E(K, a0 ) K 2 K 2 ,
.
1 (S n ) = 1(n 2).
, Bd n+1 S n , n 2 Bd n+1
Cl n+1 2 .

1 (S n )
= 1 (|Bd n+1 |)
= 1 (|Cl n+1 |) = 1.

E(K, a0 ) . K , K 0 =
{a0 , , aN }, L K 0 K , |L| . K
[ai , aj ], K , gij . G(K, L)
, gij , :
238 3

1 ai , aj L , gij = 1;
2 ai , aj , ak K , gij gjk = gik .
3.90 G(K, L) E(K, a0 ) .

:
/
G(K, L) o E(K, a0 )

1 . L i K a0 ai , 0 a0 .
G(K, L)

(gij ) = [i ai aj j ].

ai , aj L , i ai aj j L , |L|
, [i ai aj j ] E(K, a0 ) .
ai , aj , ak K ,

(gij ) (gjk ) = [i ai aj j ][j aj ak k ]

= [i ai aj ak k ] = [i ai ak k ]
= (gik ).

, G(K, L) , G(K, L) E(K, a0 )

.
2 .

([a0 ak al an a0 ]) = g0k gkl gn0 ,

.
3 . , i j L ,

(gij ) = ([i ai aj j ]) = gij ,

= 1G(K,L) . , a0 ak al an a0

[a0 ak al an a0 ] = [0 a0 ak k ][k ak al l ] [n an a0 0 ],
 3.9 . 1 (|K|) H1 (K) 239

([a0 ak al an a0 ]) = [a0 ak al an a0 ],

= 1E(K,a0 ) .
, .
, .
i < j ai , aj K\L , gij G(K, L) ,
: i < j < k ai , aj , ak E\L , gij gjk = gik .
3.60 n X (K, ). L
a0 , E(K, a0 ) = G(K, L)
{g12 , g34 , , g2n1,2n }, , n
.

3.60

H1 (K) 1 (|K|) . 3.89,

E(K, a0 ) H1 (K) .
.
G , a, b G, aba1 b1 G , G
, G , [G, G].
AbG = G/[G, G] , G Abel .
K , K a0

= a0 a1 ak a0

z() = a0 , a1 + + ak , a0 ,
240 3

ai = ai+1 ai , ai+1 . ,
.
: E(K.a0 ) H1 (K)

([]) = [z()].
3.91 K , H1 (K) E(K, a0 ) Abel
( 1 (|K|, a0 ) Abel ).

, Ker E(K, a0 )
[E(K, a0 ), E(K, a0 )].
1 . K 1

z = a1 , a2 + a2 , a3 + + ak , a1 . ai K 0

a0 a1 , = a1 ak a1 ,

z() = z,

([]) = [z], .
2 [E(K, a0 ), E(K, a0 )] Ker . H1 (K) Abel .
3 Ker [E(K, a0 ), E(K, a0 )]. ,

= a0 a1 ak a0 ,

z() B1 (K), [] [E(K, a0 ), E(K, a0 )]. , z() =

(g1 1 + + gk k ), i = ui , vi , wi K 2 , i
a0 ui , i ui vi wi ui i a0 .

k
= (i ui vi wi i )gi a0 ,
i=0

= [].
[]
= 0.
, z(i ui vi wi ui i ) = ui , vi , wi z()
z() , ai , aj n ,
ai , aj n . : E(K, a0 ) G(K, L) , ([])
 3.9 . 1 (|K|) H1 (K) 241

G(K, L) , .
p q ,

E(K, a0 ) / G(K, L)
p q
 
E(K,a0 ) G(K,L)
/
[E(K,a0 ),E(K,a0 )] [G(K,L),G(K,L)]

= q([])
p([]) =1

= 1, []
, p([]) = [] [E(K, a0 ), E(K, a0 )].

, 1 .
242 3

3
1. {a0 , , ap } Rp p + 1 , ai = (a1i , , api ). : p + 1
:
1
a0 ap0 1
a11 p
a1 1

a1p app 1

2. a0 (2, 2), a1 (4, 2) a2 (1, 4) R2 ,

1 {a0 , a1 , a2 } , = (a0 , a1 , a2 );
2 R2 b1 (1, 0), b2 (2, 2), b3 (0, 3) b4 (1, 3) ;
3 c1 (1/3, 1/3, 1/3), c2 (1/4, 0, 3/4), c3 (1/5, 1/10, 7/10) c4 (1/2, 1/3, 1/6)
.
3. : = (a0 , , ap ) {a0 , , ap } ( p + 1
).

r
r
4. p , b0 , b1 , , br p , b = i bi , i > 0, i = 1. b p a,
i=0 i=0
bi a.
5. : .
6. n ?
7. K1 K2 K , : K1 K2 K1 K2 K .
8. : 1 ;
2 K r K r .
9. K , K

K = { | k K, < k , k K k + 1 }

K .
1 K K ;
2 2 .

10. K Cl 5 2 , : |K| .

r
r
11. K Cl q , bi |K|, i = 0, , r. : b = i bi , i > 0, i = 1
i=0 i=0
|K| bi K .
 3 243

12. = (a0 , , ap ) = (b0 , , bq ) Rn , p + q + 2

{a0 , , ap , b0 , , bq } , , p + q + 1 =
(a0 , , ap , b0 , , bq ). K L , , K, , L,
= ( ) ( ), Rn K L . K L
:
K L = K L { | K, L}.

p1
1 : p (K L) = p (K) + pq1 (K)q (L) + p (L), p () p ;
q=0
2 , = a0 , , ap , b0 , , bq , : =
(1)(p+1)(q+1) ;
3 M Rn , (K L) M K (L M ) , : .
13. K , K,

Lk () = { K | K},

1 Lk () K ;

2 2 , Lk (), Lk ( ) Lk (a0 ).
14.

15. R4 K L, |K|
= P 2 , |L| Klein .
16. K K = K1 Kq , Ki Kj = , i = j. :

Bp (K) = Bp (K1 ) Bp (Kq ).

17. : K |K| .
.
18. f (z) , 1 . :

f (z)dz = 0.

19. Mbius Klein , .

244 3

20. , :
1 (a) ;
2 S 2 n ;
3 (b) .
21. , ? .
22. Mbius , , z z . :
z 2z z 2z.

23. |K| T , K 1 z1 , z2 z3 .
: [z3 ] = 1 [z1 ] + 2 [z2 ], 1 , 2 = 1. Klein ?
24. K 2 , K :

(K) = 1, Z1 (K)
= Z Z Z Z, B1 (K)
= Z Z Z,

Z1 (K) B1 (K) {z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 } {y1 , y2 , y3 }, y1 = z1 + z2 , y2 =

z2 z4 , y3 = z1 + 2z3 + z4 .
25. K r K r , : Hp (K r ) = Hp (K), p < r.
26. 2 Betti Euler .

27. T (n, r) nT r . : 1 Betti 1 = 2n+r 1.

mP 2 r P 2 (m, r). 1 .
 3 245

28. K1 K2 K . :

(K1 K2 ) = (K1 ) + (K2 ) (K1 K2 ).

29. n , . :
n 4.
30. : 7 .
31. : , .
32. : S 2 , .
33. K R3 1 , (K) = n, |K|
. , Euler 2n.
34. Spn S n 2p n , p n S n1 I.
(a) (Spn );
(b) (Sp2n ) = 0, 1Sp2n f : Sp2n Sp2n .
35. K L , |K| |L| , :

(|K| |L|) = (|K|) (|L|).

36. K, L M n , K L, K L M (
12). :
(a) H1 (K L M ) = 0;
(b) (K L M ) = 3n 3n2 + n3 ;
(c) H2 (K L M )
=Z| {z
Z}.
(n1)3

37. K =Cl n , n > 0, K m K m . :

Z, p = 0,
Hp (K m )
= 0, 0 < p < m,

Z Z, p = m.

Cnm+1 Z , Cnm+1 .
38. f : K L , L0 L . : K K0 ,
|K0 | = f 1 (|L0 |).
39. K L S 1 T , f 0 K ai L bi . f0
f : K L fp : Hp (K) Hp (L).
246 3

40. K L Klein . f 0 K ai L
bi . f 0 f fp : Hp (K) Hp (L).
41. K L, f 0 f , f fp : Hp (K) Hp (L):
1 K =Bd(a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 ) = L, f 0 (a0 ) = a0 , f 0 (a1 ) = a1 , f 0 (a2 ) = a3 , f 0 (a3 ) = a2 ;
2 K L 1 , f 0 (ai ) = bi (0 i 4), f 0 (a5 ) = b0 .

42. K( 3.1.2), H1 (K) = Z Z [z1 ] [z2 ].

1 f : K K, f1 ([z1 ]) = [z2 ], f1 ([z2 ]) = [z1 ]. ,
;
2 g, h : K K, g1 (a[z1 ] + b[z2 ]) = a[z1 ], h1 (a[z1 ] + b[z2 ]) = (a + b)[z1 ],
g h , : T T ?
43. K , :
{
=
(a) |K| = K
;
(b) =

= .

44. K Rn . : , K :
(a) K, < , K;
(b) , K, = ,

= .
45. K , : {st a|a K 0 } |K| .
46. K , :
1 Sd K , |Sd K| = |K|, dim Sd K =dim K;
2 L K , Sd L Sd K .
47. = (a0 , , ap ) p , bi (a0 , , ap ) , = (b0 , , bp ). x
= (0 , , p )T = (0 , , p )T . A, = A.
0 , ,
48. K , = ( p ) Sd K , x . K x g
0 , : x 0 .
 3 247

49. R K L : K = {0, 5, (0, 5)}, L = {0, 1, 5, (0, 1), (1, 5)}.

|K| = |L|. : 1|K| : |K| |L| . m, 1|K| : |K (m) | |L|
, .
50. p p , i p i (). :

sdp p = [ p , p1 ][ p1 , p2 ] [ 1 , p1 , ,
p ,
] 0 ,

0 < 1 < < p1 < p . p sdp =
1Cp (K) , p E.
51. : f : S 2 T f2 : H2 (S 2 ) H2 (T ) . ,
n, g : T S 2 , g2 ([z]) = n[w], [z] [w] H2 (T )
H2 (S 2 ) , g2 g .

52. V , K , V K ( 12), (K) = V K,
K . :
(a) ( (K)) = 2 (K);
(b) K T , (K) , | (K)| .
5360 D.
53. ? ,
{, 0 }; {, 1 }; {, 2 }; {0 , 1 }; {0 , 2 }; {1 , 2 }; {0 , 1 , 2 }.

54. :
(: , S 2 ).
55. 1 2 Betti , Euler .
56. S . : S .
, .
57. (K, ) S , F ,m .
: lim m = 6.
F

58. 2 .
59. : S1 S2 H1 (S1 )
= H1 (S2 ).
60. S S . : H1 (S1 )
= H1 (S ). 1 (S)
=

1 (S ) ?
61. .
62. : S 2 , P 2 T , ().
63. 1, 2, , n , f : S n1 S n1 f (x1 , , xn ) = (x(1) , , x(n) )
. : {
1
degf =
1 .
64. f : S n S n , f . : f r( r(x) = x).
65. f, g : S n S n , x S n , f (x) = g(x), : degf + (1)n degg = 0.
66. f, g : S 2n S 2n (n 1) . :
(a) f, g f g ;
(b) f f ;
(c) x0 S 2n , f (x0 ) = x0 f (x0 ) = x0 .
67. S 2n , .
: .
68. X Y Rn , x1 , x2 X, x1 = x2 y1 , y2 Y, y1 = y2 , x1 y1
x2 y2 , X Y , X Y ( 12).
248 3

(a) K L Rn . : |K| |L| K L ,

|K| |L| = |K L|;
(b) : Dm Dp
= Dm+p+1 , S m S p
= S m+p+1 .
69. f : X X , g : Y Y , f g : X Y X Y .
: f f , g g , f g f g . S 2m+1 .
70. f : S m S m , g : S p S p . : degf g =(deg f ) (deg g).
71. .
n+1
72. (Liusternik-Schnirelmann ) F1 , , Fn+1 S n n + 1 , S n = Fi ,
i=1
: Fi .
73. f : S n S n (n 1) . :
1 x S n , f (x) = f (x), degf ;
2 degf , x S n , f (x ) = f (x );
3 degf , x S n , f (x ) = f (x ).
74. Brouwer r : Dn S n1 . : r
.
75. :
(a) Brouwer ;
(b) S n ;
(c) S n1 Dn ;
Brouwer-Poincar (3.64) .
76. : .
77. X , : X . X X
?
78. f : Dn Rn , : x1 Dn , f (x1 ) = x1 , x2 S n1 ,
f (x2 ) = x2 , > 1.
79. Brouwer , .
n n
80. ei (i= 0, , n) Rn+1 , = (e0 , , en ), l : {0, , n}
n n
. i = (e0 , , ei , , en ), v i , l(v) = i, l . :
n
Sperner , l , K , K n

= (0 , , n ), l(i ) = i, i = 0, , n, .

n n
n 81. 1 n R v = (v0 , , vn ). f = (f0 , , fn ) :
n+1
n
. v , l(v) = min{i | fi (v) vi , vi > 0}. : l : {0, , n}
;
2 Km
n
, mesh Km 0(m ), m l Km

. xm m . : {xm } , f .
n n
80 81 : f :
Km , 81.1 Km
n
, 0
,

m , m f .
82. 81 Sperner Brouwer , ,
.
83. Spener n n Knaster-Kuratowski-Mazukiewicz n:
K-K-M , i , C = {Ci | i = 0, , n}
i n
I {0, , n} n Cj , Ci = .
iI j I
/ i=0

84. X , f : X X . : f .
85. f : S n S n . : (f ) = 1 + (1)n deg f . :
1 deg f = 1 , f ;
2 f , deg f = (1)n+1 .
 3 249

86. K , f : K K , f . : f
(f ).
87. K , f : K K . :
(a) SdK L, |L| f ;
(b) (f ) = (L).
88. K p Betti p . : Hp (K; Q) Q p .

89. X , f : X X . (K, ) X , f =
1 f : |K| |K|. : f Lefschetz (f) f , (K, ) .
250 3
 4

() :
() , .
.
:
(1) , ;
(2) K , L K ,
|K| |L| ;
(3) ;
(4) , (), .
.

4.1
K , L K , (K, L) .
(), L = , (K.L)
K, .
() ,
.

4.1.1

(K, L) , i : |L| |K| ,

ip : Cp (L) Cp (K) , , Cp (L)
252 4

Cp (K) , ip . Cp (K, L) = Cp (K)/Cp (L),

cp = cp + Cp (L), cp Cp (K).
p : Cp (K) Cp1 (K) p (Cp (L)) Cp1 (L),
p

p : Cp (K, L) Cp1 (K, L),

cp = cp + Cp (L), p cp = p cp + Cp1 (L).

p1 p : Cp (K, L) Cp2 (K, L)

.
4.1 (K, L) , Cp (K, L) (K, L)
p ; p p ( ); Cp (K, L)
Zp (K, L) =Ker p Bp (K, L) =Im p+1 (K, L)
p ; Bp (K, L) Zp (K, L) ,
Hp (K, L) = Zp (K, L)/Bp (K, L) (K, L) p .
L = , Hp (K, ) = Hp (K).
. Cp (K L) = {cp Cp (K) | p
L, cp ( p ) = 0}, L , Cp (K) ,
Cp (K) = Cp (L) Cp (K L).

Cp (K, L) = Cp (K)/Cp (L)

= Cp (K L).

, (K, L) K L
. cp = cp + Cp (L) Zp (K, L),
cp = cp + Cp1 (L) = 0,
cp Cp1 (L), cp Cp (K) . cp
, L . , cp = cp +Cp (L)
Bp (K, L), cp+1 Cp+1 (K), cp + Cp (L) = cp+1 + Cp (L),
cp cp+1 Cp (L), cp Cp (K) ,
cp , K
L . 4.1 2 K, L =Cl .
c1 = a0 , a4 + a4 , a1 , c2 = a0 , a3 + a3 , a2 , c1 ,
, c2 .
 4.1 253

4.1

= (a0 , a1 , a2 ), K =Bd, L = {a0 }, H0 (K, L), H1 (K, L).

C0 (K) = Za0 Za1 Za2 , C0 (L) = Za0 , Z0 (K, L) =
C0 (K, L)
= ZZ, z = g1 a1 +g2 a2 +C0 (L), g1 , g2 Z.

z = (g1 a0 , a1 + g2 a0 , a2 ) + C0 (L)
= (g1 a0 , a1 + g2 a0 , a2 + C1 (L))

Z0 (K, L) = B0 (K, L), H0 (K, L) = 0.

w = g1 a0 , a1 + g2 a1 , a2 + g3 a2 , a0 + C1 (L) 1 .

w = (g1 g2 )a1 + (g2 g3 )a2 + C0 (L),

w Z1 (K, L) g1 = g2 = g3 , Z1 (K, L) = Zw0 ,

w0 = a0 , a1 + a1 , a2 + a2 , a0 . K 2 , B1 (K, L) = 0,
H1 (K, L) = Z.
= (a0 , a1 , a2 ), K =Cl, L =Bd, Hp (K, L), p = 0, 1, 2.
C0 (K) = C0 (L), C0 (K, L) = 0, H0 (K, L) = 0.C1 (K) =
C1 (L), C1 (K, L) = 0, H1 (K, L) = 0. C2 (K) = Z, C2 (L) = 0,
C2 (K, L) = Z , z = g C2 (K, L) , z =
g + C1 (L) = 0, Z2 (K, L) = C2 (K, L) = Z. K 2 ,
B2 (K, L) = 0, H2 (K, L) = Z.
254 4

f : (|K1 |, |L1 |) (|K2 |, |L2 |) , f

( f )

fp : Hp (K1 , L1 ) Hp (K2 , L2 )

:
1 f : (|K|, |L|) (|K|, |L|) , :

1p = 1Hp (K,L) : Hp (K, L) Hp (K, L);

2 g : (|K2 |, |L2 |) (|K3 |, |L3 |) ,

(gf )p = gp fp : Hp (K1 , L1 ) Hp (K3 , L3 );

3 f, g : (|K1 |, |L1 |) (|K2 |, |L2 |) ,

H : (|K1 |I, |L1 |I) (|K2 |, |L2 |), H(x, 0) = f (x), H(x, 1) = g(x),
f g , f g : (|K1 |, |L1 |) (|K2 |, |L2 |).

fp = gp : Hp (K1 , L1 ) Hp (K2 , L2 ).

, (|K|, |L|) , Hp (K, L)

(|K|, |L|) .

4.1.2

.
4.2 () L1 L2 K , K = L1 L2 ,
L = L1 L2 . (K, L2 ) (L1 , L) , e : (|L1 |, |L|)
(|K|, |L2 |)

ep : Hp (L1 , L) Hp (K, L2 )

.
e

ep : Cp (L1 , L) Cp (K, L2 )
 4.1 255

4.2

. .
ep
Cp (L1 , L) / Cp (K, L2 )

=

 ep1 
Cp1 (L1 , L) / Cp (K, L2 )

=

ep
Bp (L1 , L)
= Bp (K, L2 )

Zp (L1 , L)
= Zp (K, L2 ),

e ep .

: (K, L) , M
L , L M L , K M K ,
(K M, LM ) , e : (|K M |, |LM |) (|K|, |L|)

ep : Hp (K M, L M ) Hp (K, L)

.
, (K, L), |L|
, .
, .
256 4

4.1.3

(K, L) K L ,
L K , i : |L| |K| .
, , .
(K, L) , ,
.
1 i : |L| |K|

ip : Hp (L) Hp (K).

2 j : (|K|, ) (|K|, |L|)

jp : Hp (K) Hp (K, L),

, j , jp : Cp (K) Cp (K, L)
jp (cp ) = cp + Cp (L), cp Cp (K).
3
p : Hp (K, L) Hp1 (L)
: z = z + Cp (L) Zp (K, L), z Cp (K), z Cp1 (L),
z [ z ] z Zp1 (L), p ([ z ]) = [z].
[z] z z , z , [z] = 0,
p . , z z, z = z + c, c Cp (L),
z = z + c, c Bp1 (L), [z ] = [z] Hp1 (L)
. , z Bp (K, L), d Cp+1 (K), d Cp (L),
z d = d , [z] = [d ] = 0 Hp1 (L) .
4.3 K n , L K ,

0 / H (L) i / H (K) j / H (K, L) /

n n n

i / j /
/
Hp (L) Hp (K) Hp (K, L) /
i / j /
/
H0 (L) H0 (K) H0 (K, L) / 0
(K, L) , .
 4.1 257

4.4 (K, L) .
Im jp = H0 (K, L). , H0 (K, L)
z ] = [z + C0 (L)], z C0 (K) = Z0 (K),
[
j0 ([z]) = [j0 (z)] = [z + C0 (L)] = [
z ],
j0 (H0 (K)) = H0 (K, L).
.
1 Im i Ker j . i ([z]) Im i , [z] Hp (L),
z Zp (L),
j i ([z]) = [z + Cp (L)] = [Cp (L)] = 0 Hp (K, L),
Im i Ker j .
2 Ker j Im i . [z] Hp (K) Ker j , j ([z]) =
0 Hp (K, L). j(z) = z + Cp (L) , c
Cp+1 (K), z c Cp (L). z c K , z c
K , Cp (L), z c Zp (L), Hp (L)
Hp (K) [z c]L [z c]K . z z c K ,
i ([z c]L ) = [z c]K = [z],
Ker j Im i .
3 Im j Ker . j ([z]) = [z + Cp (L)] Im j ,
z Zp (K), z = 0,
j ([z]) = ([z + Cp (L)]) = [z] = 0 Hp (L),
Im j Ker .
4 Ker Im j . [
z ] = [z + Cp (L)] Ker , z +
Cp (L) Zp (K, L).
z ]) = [z] = 0 Hp1 (L)
([
c Cp (L), z = c. z c K ,
Hp (K) [z c],
j ([z c]) = [z c + Cp (L)] = [z + Cp (L)] = [
z ],
258 4

Ker Im j .
:
5 Im Ker i .
6 Ker i Im .
.
n 2, K =Cl n , L =Bd n , Hp (K, L).
n 2, K L 0 1 , H0 (K, L) =
H1 (K, L) = 0.
p > 1.
j i /
/H
p (K)
/ Hp (K, L) /
Hp1 (L) Hp1 (K) / .
Hp1 (K) = Hp (K) = 0.

Z, p = n,
n1
Hp (K, L) = Hp1 (L) = Hp1 (S ) =
0, p = n.

X = S n S n (n > 0) n , X
K, a0 n + 1 1 2 ,
K =Bd 1 Bd 2 , L =Bd 1 . Hn (K), (K, L)
:
/ i / j / /
Hn+1 (K, L) Hn (L) Hn (K) Hn (K, L) Hn1 (L),
Hn+1 (K, L) = 0. Hn (K, L)
= Hn (Bd 2 , a0 ).
n > 1, (Bd 2 , a0 )
i / j
Hn (a0 ) Hn (Bd 2 ) / Hn (Bd 2 , a0 ) / Hn1 (a0 )
Hn (Bd 2 , a0 )
= Hn (Bd 2 )
= Z, Hn (a0 ) = Hn1 (a0 ) = 0.
, : Hn (K, L) Hn1 (L) = 0 . n = 1, 4.1
, H1 (Bd 2 , a0 ) = Z, i0 : H0 (L) H0 (K) ,
Im1 =Ker i0 = 0, 1 : H1 (K, L) H0 (L) .
n > 0, (K, L)
/ i / j /
0 Hn (L) Hn (K) / Hn (K, L) 0,
 4.2 259

4.3

Hn (L)
=Z= Hn (K, L), ( A A11 )
Hn (K)
= Hn (L) Hn (K, L). Hn (L)
= Hn (S n )
= Z,

Hn (K)
= Z Z.

Z p = 0,

Hp (K) =
0 0 < p < n p > n.

4.2
K, {Cp (K)} Abel
{C p (K)}. p : Cp (K) Cp1 (K) : C p1 (K)
C p (K), = 0. H p (K),
. . : f : |K|
|L| f p : H p (L) H p (K).
,
. , . ,
Abel H (K) = H 0 (K) H n (K) ,
, , . :
(), (
), .
260 4

4.2.1

K , Cp (K) p ,
, . cp : Cp (K) Z K p
. cp , dp , cp +dp , xp Cp (K)
(cp + dp )(xp ) = cp (xp ) + dp (xp ). p
Abel , C p (K).
p : C p (K) C p+1 (K) p+1 : Cp+1 (K) Cp (K)
, : p cp , p cp p + 1 ,
p + 1 xp+1

p cp (xp+1 ) = cp (p+1 xp+1 ).

.
cp p , p + 2 xp+2 ,

( p+1 p cp )(xp+2 ) = p cp (p+2 xp+2 ) = cp (p+1 p+2 xp+2 ) = 0,

p+1 p cp = 0,

p+1 p : C p (K) C p+2 (K)

.
4.5 K , C p (K) K p ;
p : C p (K) C p+1 (K) p ( p ); C p (K)
Z p (K) =Ker p B p (K) =Im p1 p
, H p (K) = Z p (K)/B p (K) K p ;
.
B p (K) Z p (K) p p1 = 0 .
f : K L , fp : Cp (K) Cp (L) f ,

f p : C p (L) C p (K)
fp . : cp C p (L), f p (cp ) K p ,
K p xp (f p (cp ))(xp ) = cp (fp (xp )). f p
 4.2 261

p f p = f p+1 p : C p (L) C p+1 (K)( f p ). ,

cp C p (L) xp+1 Cp+1 (K),

( p f p (cp ))(xp+1 ) = (f p (cp ))(p+1 xp+1 )

= cp (fp p+1 xp+1 )
= cp (p fp+1 (xp+1 ))
= ( p cp )(fp+1 (xp+1 ))
= (f p+1 p cp )(xp+1 ).

fp
C p (L) / C p (K)
p p
 p+1 
f
C p+1
(L) / C p+1
(K)
f p

f p : H p (L) H p (K)

,
, ,
() .
.
K n , Hp (K) H p (K) p
p , Tp (K) T p (K).

p = p , T p (K)
= Tp1 (K), p = 0, 1, , n

T1 (K) .
. Abel ,
G H p (K; G).
, Poincar
, .
Poincar X n , (K, )
.
262 4

1 X , H p (K)
= Hnp (K);
2 X , H p (K; Z2 ) = Hnp (K; Z2 ).
, n X =
(K, ), np = p = p , Tnp (K)
= T p (K)
= Tp1 (K), X
(2) (2)
, np = p .
, Euler-Poincar ,
X = (K, ), Euler :
K
dim
(X) = (1)p p(2) = 0.
p=0

4.2.2

K n ,

H (K) = H 0 (K) H n (K),

Abel , , .
.
K () , .
, , .
: C p (K) C q (K) C p+q (K) : cp C p (K), cq C q (K), cp cq
K p + q , p + q a0 , , ap+q

(cp cq )(a0 , , ap+q ) = cp (a0 , , ap ) cq (ap , , ap+q ),

a0 , , ap+q , Z , .
.
4.6 :
1 (cp1 + cp2 ) cp = cp1 cp + cp2 cp , cp (cp1 + cp2 ) = cp cp1 + cp cp2 ;
2 (cp cq ) cr = cp (cq cr );
3 e C 0 (K), 0 ai K 0 (ai ) = 1,
e cp = cp = cp e.
 4.2 263

.
,
.
4.7 (cp cq ) = (cp ) cq + (1)p cp (cq ).
a0 , , ap+q+1 ,

(cp cq )(a0 , , ap+q+1 )

(p+q+1 )

=(cp cq ) (1)i a0 , , a
i , , ap+q+1
( i=0 )
p
=(cp cq ) (1)i a0 , , a
i , , ap+q+1
i=0

+ (1) c (a0 , , ap ) cq (ap+1 , , ap+q+1 )

p+1 p

+ (1)p cp (a0 , , ap ) cq (ap+1 , , ap+q+1 )

( q+1 )

+ (1)p (cp cq ) (1)i a0 , , a
p+1 , , ap+q+1
i=1
( p+1 )

=cp (1)i a0 , , a
i , , ap+1
i=0

cp (ap+1 , , ap+q+1 ) + (1)p cp (a0 , , ap )

( q+1 )

cq (1)i ap , , a
p+1 , , ap+q+1
i=0

=cp (a0 , , ap+1 ) cq (ap+1 , , ap+q+1 )

+ (1)p cp (a0 , , ap ) cq (ap , , ap+q+1 )
=(cp cq + (1)p cp cq )(a0 , , ap+q+1 ),

(cp cq ) = (cp ) cq + (1)p cp (cq ).

4.8
= ,
= ,
264 4

= ,

,
.

z p z q , (z p z q ) = z p z q +(1)p z p z q = 0,
.
bp = cp1 , (cp1 z q ) = cp1 z q + (1)p1 cp1
z q = bp z q , . .
4.9 : H p (K) H q (K) H p+q (K)

[z p ] [z q ] = [z p z q ], [z p ] H p (K), [z q ] H q (K)

n
n
[z p ], [wq ] H (K), n =dim K, [z p ] H p (K), [wq ] H q (K).
p=0 q=0
( )( )

p
[z ] q
[w ] = [z p ] [wq ],
p q p,q

H (K) . (H (K), +, ) .
[e] H 0 (K) , K .
, :
1 H (K) ;
2 f : |K| |L| f : H (L) H (K),
, ;
3 H (K) , [z p ] [z q ] = (1)pq [z q ] [z p ];
4 , .
X = T , Y = S 1 S 2 S 1
, (K, ) (L, ).
:
H 0 (K) = Z0 , H 1 (K) = Z1 Z2 , H 2 (K) = Z3 ,

H 0 (L) = Z0 , H 1 (L) = Z1 Z2 , H 2 (L) = Z3 .

 4.3 265

H (K) = Z0 Z1 + Z2 Z3 , 1 2 = 3 .
H (L) = Z0 Z1 Z2 Z3 , 1 2 = 0.

f : |K| |L|, f( (0 ) = )
0 , f (1 ) = 1 1 + 1 2 , f (2 ) =
1 1
2 1 + 2 2 , f (3 ) = 3 , . 1 1 =
2 2
2 2 = 0, 1 2 = 2 1

0 = f (1 2 )
= 1 2 1 1 + (1 2 2 1 )1 2 + 1 2 2 2
= 1 2 = 3 .

, X Y .

4.4

4.3
()
, ,
. ,
, .
, .
, ,
. ,
266 4

(). ,
.

4.3.1

Rn+1 = {t = (t0 , t1 , tn ) | ti R} n + 1 (
t0 ), ei = (0, , 0, 1, 0, , 0) i,
i = 0, 1, , n. Rn+1 n = (e0 , , en ) n .
n :
{ }

n
n = t = (t0 , , tn ) Rn+1 | ti = 1, ti 0 .
i=0

0 , 1 2 4.5.

4.5
 4.3 267

4.10 X , n , sn : n X
X n . n Sn (X).

S(X) = Sn (X) X .
n=0
cn : Sn (X) Z Sn (X)
, X n ().
, Abel , X n , Cn (X).
, . n

cn = gi sni , gi .
i Sn (X)
sn

Cn (X) . , X
. , Cn (X)
, .
n sn Sn (X), n > 0, n 1
i sn : n1 X

i sn (t0 , , tn1 ) = sn (t0 , , ti1 , 0, ti , , tn1 ),

i sn sn i .
4.11

: Cn (X) Cn1 (X)

: n = 0 , : C0 (X) 0 ; n > 0 ,
n n
sn Sn (X), sn = (1)i i sn , cn = gj sj Cn (X),
i=0
cn = gj snj .
4.12

= 0 : Cn (X) Cn2 (X).

n 2 , sn Sn (X), sn = 0.
268 4

4.6

j < i, i1 i sn = j i sn . , j < i 1

i1 i sn (t0 , tn2 ) =j sn (t0 , , ti2 , 0, tj , , tn2 )

=sn (t0 , , tj1 , 0, tj , , ti2 , 0, ti1 , tn2 )
=i sn (t0 , , tj1 , 0, tj , tn2 )
=j i sn (t0 , , tn2 ).

j = i 1

i1 j sn (t0 , , tn2 ) =j sn (t0 , , tj1 , 0, ti1 , , tn2 )

=sn (t0 , , tj1 , 0, 0, tj , , tn2 )
=i sn (t0 , , tj1 , 0, tj , , tn2 )
=j i sn (t0 , , tn2 ).
 4.3 269

n
n1
n
n i n
s = (1) i s = (1)i+j j i sn
i=0 j=0 i=0

= (1)i+j j i sn + (1)i+j j i sn
0j<in 0ijn1

= (1)i+j i1 j sn + (1)i+j j i sn
0j<in 0ijn1

i+j+1 n
= (1) j i s + (1)i+j j i sn
0ijn1 0ijn1

=0.

4.13 Cn (X)

Zn (X) = Ker : Cn (X) Cn1 (X)

Bn (X) = Im : Cn+1 (X) Cn (X)

X n ; Bn (X) Zn (X),

Hn (X) = Zn (X)/Bn (X)

X n .
, 0 .
4.14 X , H0 (X)
= Z.
3.18 , .
X = {x0 } .
n 0, n sn : n X,
sn (n ) = {x0 }, Cn (X) = Zsn . n > 0, i = 0, , n, i sn =
S n1 .


n
n 0, n ,
n i n i n1
s = (1) i s = (1) s =
sn1 , n .
i=0 i=0
270 4

C (X), n ,
n
Zn (X) =
0, n .

C (X), n ,
n
Bn (X) =
0, n .

Z, n = 0,
Hn (X) =
0, n = 0.

, , : f : X Y
, sn : n X X n , f sn : n Y Y

n . cn = gi sni Cn (X), fn (cn ) = gi f sni Cn (Y )

fn : Cn (X) Cn (Y ).

fn = fn1 : Cn (X) Cn1 (Y ),

{fn : Cn (X) Cn (Y )} .
4.15 {fn }

fn : Hn (X) Hn (Y )

f .
(
3.49), .
Dn ,

Z, p = 0,
Hp (Dn )
=
0, p = 0.

:
|K|, : Hp (K)
= Hp (|K|), p = 0, 1, .
 4.3 271

4.3.2 Mayer-Vietoris

, Mayer-
Vietoris . ,
. Mayer-Vietoris
.
X , X1 X2 X , X = X1 X2 ,
ik : X1 X2 Xk jk : Xk X , k = 1, 2.

i : Hn (X1 X2 ) Hn (X1 ) Hn (X2 ),

j : Hn (X1 ) Hn (X2 ) Hn (X)

: Hn (X) Hn1 (X1 X2 )

:

i ([z0 ]) = (i1 (z0 ), i2 [z0 ]), [z0 ] Hn (X1 X2 )

j ([z1 ], [z2 ]) = j1 ([z1 ]) j2 ([z2 ]), [zk ] Hn (Xk ), k = 1, 2,

ik : Hn (X1 X2 ) Hn (Xk ) jk : Hn (Xk ) Hn (X) ik

jk , k = 1, 2.
[z] Hn (x), c1 Cn (X1 ), c2 Cn (X2 ), z
c1 +c2 . c1 +c2 = 0, c1 = c2 Zn1 (X1 X2 ). ([z]) = [c1 ],
([z]) c1 , c2 , [z] ,
.
4.16 X1 , X2 , X3 , i , j ,
i / j /
/
Hn (X1 X2 ) Hn (X1 ) Hn (X2 ) Hn (X) /

i / j
/
H0 (X1 X2 ) H0 (X1 ) H0 (X2 ) / H0 (X) / 0

Mayer-Vietoris .
4.17 Mayer-Vietoris .
.
272 4

n ,

Z p = 0, n
Hp (S n )
=
0 .

Mayer- Vietoris n .
{ }
1
X1 = x = (x0 , , xn ) S n | xn > ,
2
{ }
1
X2 = x = (x0 , , xn ) S | xn <
n
,
2
X1 X2 , X1 X2 S n1 , S n =
X1 X2 .
Z, p = 0,

Hp (Xk ) = k = 1, 2,
0, ,

Hp (X1 X2 )
= Hp (S n1 ).

Z Z, p = 0,
0
Hp (S ) =
0, .

(1) n = 1. p = 1 , Mayer-Vietoris
j i /
H1 (X1 ) H1 (X2 ) / H1 (S 1 ) /
H0 (X1 X2 ) H0 (X1 ) H0 (X2 ),

j / i /
0 / H1 (S 1 ) ZZ Z Z,
H0 (X1 X2 )
= Z Z ik H0 (Xk ) ,
(, ) Z Z, i (, ) = ( + , + ).

Im = Ker i = {(, ) Z Z}
= Z.

Ker =lm j = 0 .

H1 (S 1 )
= Z.
 4.3 273

p > 1 ,
j
Hp (X1 ) Hp (X2 ) / Hp (S 1 ) / Hp1 (X1 X2 )
i / Hp1 (X1 ) Hp1 (X2 ),

Hp (X1 ) Hp (X2 ) = Hp1 (X1 X2 ) = Hp1 (X1 ) Hp1 (X2 ) = 0,

Hp (S 1 ) = 0.

(2) n > 1, n 1 . p = 1 ,
j
H1 (X1 ) H1 (X2 ) / H1 (S 1 ) / H0 (X1 X2 )
i / H0 (X1 ) H0 (X2 ),

j / i /
0 / H1 (S n ) Z Z Z.
H0 (X1 X2 ) = Z ik H0 (Xk ) ,
Z, i () = (, ). Im =Ker i = 0. Ker =Im j = 0,
H1 (S n ) = 0.
p > 1 ,
j
Hp (X1 ) Hp (X2 ) / Hp (S n ) / Hp1 (X1 X2 )
i / Hp1 (X1 ) Hp1 (X2 ),

Hp (X1 ) Hp (X2 ) = Hp1 (X1 ) Hp1 (X2 ) = 0, Hp1 (X1 X2 )

=
Hp1 (S n1 ), , Hp (S n ) = Hp1 (S n1 ). ,

Z, p = n
n
Hp (S ) =
0, p = 0, n.

S n .
Van Kampen , Mayer-Vietoris
Van Kampen .
274 4

4.4
.
, Hurewicz
.

4.4.1

, .
I n = {t = (t1 , , tn ) Rn | 0 ti 1, i = 1, , n}, I n
, I n = {t I n | i, ti (1 ti ) = 0}. X
, x0 X, n (X, x0 ) : (I n , I n ) (X, x0 )
. , n (X, x0 ), : I n X relI n ,
, . n (X, x0 ) , n (X, x0 )
n (X, x0 ), []. n (X, x0 )
, n (X, x0 ) : , n (X, x0 ),
:

(2t , t , , t ), t1 [0, 1/2],
1 2 n
(t1 , , tn ) =
(2t 1, t , , t ) t [1/2, 1],
1 2 n 1

n (X, x0 ), , , ,
n (X, x0 ) : [] [ ] = [ ], n (X, x0 )
, n (X, x0 ).
4.18 n (X, x0 ) X x0 n
.
1 .
, :
1 f : (X, x0 ) (Y, y0 ) , [] n (X, x0 ),
[f ] n (Y, y0 ). fn : n (X, x0 ) n (Y, y0 )

fn ([]) = [f ]
 4.4 275

4.7

, fn , f , :
(1) 1X : (X, x0 ) (X, x0 ) (1X )n =
1n (X,x0 ) ;
(2) g : (Y, y0 ) (Z, z0 ) ,
(gf )n = gn fn : n (X, x0 ) n (Z, z0 ).

2 x0 , x1 X, x0 x1 ,
# : n (X, x0 ) n (X, x0 ).

, , ().
3 f g : X Y , H , x0 X, y0 = f (x0 ), y1 = g(x0 ).
: I Y (t) = H(x0 , t), f g
# fn = gn ,
fn
n (X, x0 ) / n (Y, y0 )
#
gn ' 
n (Y, y1 )
.
4
n (X Y, (x0 , y0 ))
= n (X, x0 ) n (Y, y0 ).
276 4

4.4.2

, (
).
I1n I2n I n ,

I1n = {t = (t1 , , tn ) I n | 0 t1 1/2},

I2n = {t = (t1 , , tn ) I n | 1/2 t1 1},

S+
n
S
n
S n ,
n
S+ = {u = (u0 , , un ) S n |un 0},
n
S = {u = (u0 , , un ) S n |un 0}.
, , .
1 : (I n , I n ) (S n , 1),
|I n I n : I n I n
S n {1} , (I1n ) = S+
n
, (I2n ) = Sn
, 1 (1, 0, , 0).
, I n S n ,
.
2 n (X, x0 ), 1 , 2 n (X, x0 ) 1 ,
2 , 1 (I1n ) = {x0 } = 2 (I2n ).
3 n 2 , r : (S n , 1) (S n , 1), r 1S n : S n
S n , rel{1}, r(S+
n n
) = S n
, r(S n
) = S+ .
# n (X, x0 ) : (S , 1) (X, x0 ) .
# n

# , # # n (X, x0 ), : S X rel{1}, ,
# # n
# # . # n (X, x0 ) n (X, x0 ).
#

n (X, x0 ),
: n# (X, x0 ) n (X, x0 ) : # # #

n (X, x0 ), # # # # .

([ # ]) = [ # ],

(I n , I n ) / (S n , 1)
#
# & 
(X, x0 )
 4.4 277

n# (X, x0 ) n (X, x0 ) . n# (X, x0 )

, : 2 ,
# # # #
# #
n (X, x0 ), , + n (X, x0 ),
# #
, # + ,
# #
(S
n
) = {x0 } = + (S+n
). # , # #
n (X, x0 ) ,
#
+# , [ # ] [ # ] = [ # ], #

# (u), u S n ,
# +
(u) =
(u), u S n ,
#
+

[ # ] [ # ] [ # ] ,

([ # ] [ # ]) = ([ # ]) ([ # ]).

n# (X, x0 ) , n (X, x0 ) .
, . ,
, n (X, x0 ).
4.19 n 2 , n (X, x0 ) Abel .
[], [ ] n (X, x0 ), (S n
) = {x0 } = (S+
n
),
[] [ ] = [],

(u), u S n
+
(u) =
(u), u S n .

3 r,

r(u), u S n ,
+
r(u) =
r(u) u S n ,

r(S n n
) = (S+ ) = {x0 } = (Sn
) = r(S+ n
). r 1S n : S n
S n rel{1}, [] = [r], [] = [r], [ ] = [ r]. [r] = [ r] [r]

[] [ ] = [ ] [],

n (X, x0 ) Abel .
,
278 4

4.8

4.20 p : E B , b0 B, e0 p1 (b0 ),
n 2, pn : n (E, e0 ) n (B, b0 ) .
1 pn . [] n (B, b0 ) , S n ,
, ] n (E, e0 ),
, [
pn ([
]) = [p
] = [].

/
(S n , 1) (E, e0 )
p
% 
(B, b0 )

2 pn . [ ] n (E, e0 ), pn ([
], [ ]),
]) = pn ([
H : (S n I, {1} I) (B, b0 ), p p .
, H H e : (S n I, {1} I) (E, e0 ), ,
[
] = [
].
, pn .
S 1 n , n 2.
S 1 , p : R S 1 , n (S 1 , 1) = n (R, 0) = 0.
T = S 1 S 1 , n (T )
= n (S 1 ) n (S 1 ) = 0.

4.4.3

, .
|K|,
1 (|K|)/[1 (|K|), 1 (|K|)]
= H1 (K),
 4.4 279

Hurewicz .
Hurewicz |K| , n 2, |K|
1, 2, , n 1 , n (|K|) = Hn (K).
n 2, S n n

0, k < n,
n
k (S ) =
Z, k = n.

S n ,

Z, k = 0, n,
n
Hk (S ) =
0, k = 0, n,

1 (S n ) = 0.
k < n, 1 (S n ) = = k (S n ) = 0, Hurewicz

0, k + 1 < n,
n n
k+1 (S ) = Hk+1 (S ) =
Z, k + 1 = n.

k + 1 < n Hurewicz . .
k < n k (S n ) = 0.
k > n , Hk (S n ) = 0. k (S n ) .
n = 1 , n > 1 . Hopf
3 (S 2 )
= Z, h : S 3 S 2 , h
Hopf . . 3 S 3

S 3 = {(z1 , z2 ) C C | z1 z1 + z2 z2 = 1},

2 S 2 C( R2 ) , C {}. Hopf
:
z /z z = 0
1 2 2
h(z1 , z2 ) =
z = 0. 2

Hopf , ,
, h . , h H h
280 4

e 1S 3
. h = h 1S 3 , H H,
, S 3 , h .
e
S3 I H / S3
h
H # 
S2

Hopf 3 (S 2 ) , [h]
3 (S 2 )
= Z , . , Hopf
0 ,
.
.
Cayley Hopf S 7 S 4 S 15
S 8.
, Freudenthal 1937
.
S+ n
S n
S n , S+ n
Sn
= S n1 ,
n
(S+ , S n1 ), (S
n
, S n1 ) (Dn , S n1 ) . S n1 S n .

4.9

: (S k1 , 1) (S n1 , 1),
: Dk Dn ,
: x Dk , x = ty, y S k1 , t I,
(x) = t(y). S k S n ,

 4.4 281

4.10

: (S k , 1) (S n , 1),

k1 (S n1 , 1) k (S n , 1) , E([]) = [
]

E : k1 (S n1 , 1) k (S n , 1),

E .
Freudenthal E k < 2n 2
, k = 2n 2 .
.

0, k < n,
: k (S ) =
n
Z, k = n.

k < n. 0 r k 2 r, k + r + 2 < 2n,

k r < 2(n r) 2. Freudenthal

kr (S nr , 1)
= kr1 (S nr1 , 1), r = 0, 1, , k 2,

k (S n , 1)
= k1 (S n1 , 1)
=
= 2 (S nk2 , 1)
= 1 (S nk1 , 1).

k < n n k + 1 > 1, 1 (S nk1 , 1) = 0, k (S n ) = 0.

282 4

2 (S 2 , 1)
= Z n (S n , 1) = Z. n
3, n < 2n 2, n1 (S n1 , 1)
= n (S n , 1).

2 (S 2 , 1)
= 3 (S 3 , 1)
=
= n (S n , 1),

n (S n )
= Z.

4.5
4.5.1

,
() , .

, . ,
,
(
Brouwer ).
, .
.

, .
O F , Hom: O O F ,
1 A, B, C O , , f Hom(A, B),
g Hom(B, C) g f Hom(A, C);
2 f Hom(A, B), g Hom(B, C) h Hom(C, D), h (g f ) =
(h g) f ;
3 A O , 1A Hom(A, A), f Hom(A, B)
g Hom(C, A) f 1A = f 1A g = g. (O , F ) ,
O , F Hom(A, B) A B .
F , X, Y T , Hom(X, Y )
X Y , F = {Hom(X, Y ) | X, Y T },
 4.5 283

, (T , F ) .
T .

(X, x0 ), (Y, y0 ) T ,

Hom((X, x0 ), (Y, y0 )) = {f : (X, x0 ) (Y, y0 ) | f },

F = {Hom((X, x0 ), (Y, y0 )) | (X, x0 ), (Y, y0 ) T },
, (T , F ) .
Tp , (X, A), (Y, B) Tp ,

Hom((X, A), (Y, B)) = {f : (X, A) (Y, B) | f },

Fp = {Hom((X, A), (Y, B)) | (X, A), (Y, B) Tp },

, (Tp , Fp ) .
G , G, H G , Hom(G, H) G H
, H = {Home(G, H) | G, H G },
, (G , H ) .
, Abel .
G b = {Gn | n Z} , G,b G
b
, h bG
= {hn : Gn G |n Z} G b ,
n
: G
h b G
b . ,
(Gb, H
c).

, , :
(O , F ) (O , F ) , F : (O , F ) (O , F )
O O Hom(A, B) Hom(A , B )
A,BO A ,B O
. F :
1 f Hom(A, B), F (f ) Hom(F (A), F (B));
2 A O , F (1A ) = 1F (A) ;
3 f Hom(A, B), g Hom(B, C), F (g f ) = F (g) F (f ),
F . F :
284 4

1 f Hom(A, B), F (f ) Hom(F (B), F (A));

2 A O , F (1A ) = 1F (A) ;
3 f Hom(A, B), g Hom(B, C), F (g f ) = F (f ) F (g),
F .
(T , F ) , (Gb, H c) Abel
. H : (T , F ) (Gb, H c) :
X, Y T , f Hom(X, Y ), Hn (X) Hn (Y ) X Y n
, Hn (f ) : Hn (X) Hn (Y ) f fn ,
, H (T , F ) (Gb, H c) , ()
.
(T , F ) ,
(T , F ) (Gb, H
c) .

, (Abel
) .
(T , F ) (Gb, H
c) , H c : (T , F )
(Gb, H
c) : X, Y T , f Hom(X, Y ), H c (X) =
n
n
H (X) X n , Hn (f ) = f : H (Y ) H (X) f
n c n n

, H c (T , F ) (Gb, Hc) ,
.
(T , F ) , (R , H ) , H : (T , F )
(R , H ) , H .
(T , F ) ,
(Gb, Hc) , : (T , F ) (Gb, H c)
, (X, x0 ), (Y, y0 ) T , f Hom((X, x0 ), (Y, y0 )), n (X, x0 ) X
x0 , n (f ) = fn : n (X, x0 ) n (Y, y0 ) f
, , .
,
, .
 4.5 285

4.5.2

, ,
, Vietoris

Hausdorff Cech . Eilenberg Steenrod
, , ,
.
(Tp , Fp ) , (Gb, H c) (Abel
) , H : (Tp , Fp ) (Gb, H
c)
, . (X, A) Tp n,
: Hn (X, A) Hn1 (A)( Hn1 (A) Hn1 (A, ),
(X, A) n). H :
1 () f Hom((X, A), (Y, B)), g : A B f A
, , Hn (g) = Hn (f ):

/
Hn (X, A) Hn1 (A)
Hn (f ) Hn (g)
 
/
Hn (Y, B) Hn1 (B);

2 () i : A X j : (X, ) (X, A) ,
() :

Hn (i) Hn (j)
/ Hn (A) /H
n (X)
/H
n (X, A)
/
Hn1 (A) / ;

3 () f, g Hom((X, A), (Y, B)), f g ,

H(f ) = H(g) : H(X, A) H(Y, B), n,

Hn (f ) = Hn (g) : Hn (X, A) Hn (Y, B);

4 () U X , U A, e : (X U, A U )
(X, A) , H(e) : H(X U, A U ) H(X, A) ;
5 () X , n, Hn (X) = 0.
286 4

(H, ) (Tp , Fp ) , Hn (X, A)

(X, A) n , Hn (f ) f ,
.
1 5 Eilenberg-Steenrod (
, 2 3 ,
).
. Eilenberg
Steenrod , ,
().
 A Abel Abel
A.I.
A1 G : G G G, (a, b) ab
a b, :
(G1 ) a, b, c G, (ab)c = a(bc);
(G2 ) e G, a G, ae = ea = a, e ;
(G3 ) a G, b G, ab = ba = e, b a ,
a1 ,
(G, ) , G, G , n a an .
:
a, b G, ab = ba,
G Abel . +, e,
a1 0, a. n a na .
A, B G , A B

AB = {ab | a A, b B}.

G A G , A G , gA, Ag
g A . A G , g G,
g 1 Ag A, A G , gA = Ag.
, A . Abel
.
, 1 0.
Z, Q, R C
Abel ;
Q\{0}, R\{0}, C\{0} Abel ;
Zn = {(a1 , , an ) | ai Z} Abel .
288 A Abel Abel

Zn = {0, 1, , n 1} n Abel .
a, b Zn , a + b = qn + d, q, d Z, 0 d < n,

a + b = d,

Zn n .
A2 : G H G H , a, b G,
:
(ab) = (a)(b),
G H .

Ker = 1 (e) = {a G | (a) = e}

G , .

Im = (G) = {(a) | a G}

H , . ,
Ker = {e} , . .
Im = H , .
, G H . : G
= H.
G H . G
= H. .
, 1G : G G G , .

G / H


K

: G H, : H K , : G K .
, . , .
, : G K , , .
A3 N G , N :

aN bN = abN, a, b G
 A Abel Abel 289

, G ( N ) , G/N . , N = {e} ,
G/N = G.

: G G/N
(a) = aN , , .
: G1 G2 , H1 , H2 G1 , G2 ,
(H1 ) H2 . a G,

(aH1 ) = (a)H2 ,

: G1 /H1 G2 /H2 , G1 /H1 G2 /H2

. i : Gi Gi /Hi (i = 1, 2) , :
/
G1 G2
1 2
 

G1 /H1 /G
2 /H2 .

A4 () : G H ,

H
= G/Ker .

, : 1 = 2 . 2 ,
, 2 , ; Ker ={Ker }
G/Ker , . .

G / H
1 2
 

G/Ker / H/{e}.

A5 a G, an = e n a ,
o(a) = n; , a , o(a) = .
G G , o(G). .
A6 (Lagrange ) G , H G , o(H)
o(G), H G .
290 A Abel Abel

G H :

G = g1 H g2 H gr H,

gi H H .

o(G) = r o(H),

o(H) o(G).
A7 G g1 , , gk G
H, g1 , gk ,

H = [g1 , , gk ].

{g1 , , gk } H .
.
, [g] .
Abel Z Zn .
Lagrange , G a o(a) = o([a])
G .

A.II. Abel
Abel .
A8 G H Abel , G H = {(a, b) |
a G, b H} + :

(a1 , b1 ) + (a2 , b2 ) = (a1 + a1 , b1 + b2 ), ai G, bi H, i = 1, 2,

G H +; , G H , G H.
n G Gn .
H1 H2 G , K = {a1 + a2 | a1 H1 , a2 H2 }
G , H1 H2 . K x
x = a1 + a2 , a1 H1 , a2 H2 , K H1 H2 ,
H1 H2 .
 A Abel Abel 291

, H1 H2 : H1 H2 = {0}.
(a1 , a2 ) 7 a1 + a2 H1 H2 .
.
A9 Abel
/ /
/ K G H / ,

Im = Ker ,
G. () ,
, .

0 / K / G / H / 0

. :
/G
/ H ; G /H / 0
(1) 0
; 0 /G /H / 0 .

(2) : G H, :
i
0 / Ker / G / Im / 0,

i , , a G, (a) = (a).
(3) K G ,
/ i / / /
0 K G G/K 0

i , . ,
/ / / /
0 K G H 0

H
= G/Im .

A10 G Abel , {g1 , , gn } G

, ,

1 g1 + + n gn = 0, 1 , , n Z
292 A Abel Abel

1 = = n = 0, G , G n
Abel . G n, n =dimG.

G
=Z| {z
Z}
n

Abel . Abel G1
G2 ,
dim(G1 G2 ) = dim G1 + dim G2 .

, Abel .
A11 ()

/ / / /
0 K G H 0

1 : H G, = 1H ,

G
= Im Im
= K H,

, .
2 H Abel , .

1 g G, (g (g)) = 0, g (g)
Ker = Im , g Im Im .
, Im Im = {0}.
, g = (k) = (h)(k K, h H), = 1H

h = (h) = (k) = 0,

g = (h) = 0.
, Im
= K; = 1H ,
Im
= H, .
2 H Abel , {h1 , , hn } H . h H,
1 , , n , h = 1 h1 + + n hn ,
 A Abel Abel 293

, g1 , , gn G, hi = (gi )(i = 1, , n). ,

: H G

(h) = 1 g1 + + n gn .

= 1H . 1 , .
A12 G n Abel , H G , H
Abel , dim H n.
n . n = 1 , G = Z, mZ =
{mk | k Z}, m {0} Z+ , . n 1 .
G {g1 , , gn }, : G Z
( n )

i gi = n , i Z,
i=1

Ker {g1 , , gn1 } n1 Abel . K = (H),

: H K (h) = (h) , h H. Ker Ker
. , Ker K Abel , dim Ker n 1,
dim K 1.
i
0 / Ker / H / K / 0,

i .

H
= Ker K,

H Abel , dim H n 1 + 1 = n.
A.III. Abel
Abel , :
A13 a1 , , an (n > 1) ,
1, 1 n A, a1 , an 1 .
. n = 2 , r1 , r2 , r1 a1 + r2 a2 = 1.
( )
a1 a2
A=
r2 r1
294 A Abel Abel

.
n 1 , n . d a1 , , an1
. i = 1, , n 1, ai = bi d, b1 , , bn1
1, , 1 n 1 An1 , b1 , , bn1
1 :
b1 bn1

a21 a2,n1
An1 =
,


an1,1 an1,n1
an d 1, s, t, san + td = 1.

b1 d bn1 d an

a21 a2,n1 0

A=

,

an1,1 an1,n1 0
esb1 esbn1 t

e = +1 1, det A = 1.

A14 {g1 , , gn } Abel G . a1 , , an

. 1. G n
, a1 g1 + + an gn .

{a1 , , an } A13 , n A,
det A = 1, A1 . g = (g1 , , gn )T .
Ag G g = (g1 , , gn )T .
g = A1 Ag = A1 g , {g1 , , gn } {g1 , , gn } ,
{g1 , , gn } G , g1 = a1 g1 + + an gn .

A15 G Abel , G
, G Abel .

{g1 , , gr } G .

r
0 1 , , r , i gi = 0. d 1 , , r ,
i=1
 A Abel Abel 295

r
i = di (i = 1, , r), g1 = i gi . , G r
i=1
, g1 . dg1
= 0 g1 = 0, G
r 1 , . {g1 , , gr } Abel G
.
A16 G Abel , G ,

G
= Z 1 Z ,
i Z, i > 1 i | i+1 , i = 1, , 1(i | i+1 i i+1 ).
Abel , ,
, ,
. = 1 , . 1 . G
, , g1 1 ,
, . 1 g2 , , g
G G1 .

G1
= Z2 Z i | i+1 (i = 2, , 1).

G
= Zg1 G1 . Zg1 G1 = {0}.
, a1 , a2 , , a , 0 < a1 < 1 ,

a1 g1 = a2 g2 + + a g .

d a1 , , a , A14 , G
,
a2 a a1
g = g2 + + g g1 ,
d d d
g d a1 < 1 . . Zg1 G1 = {0}. g1
1 , Zg1
= Z1 ,
G
= Z 1 Z ,

1 | 2 , . 1 2 , {g1 , , g }
.

g1 = g1 , gi = gi1

+ gi (i = 2, , ).
296 A Abel Abel

G
= Zg1 Zg . gi

, i = 1,
1
i =
i1 i i = 2, , ,
di

di i1 i . , i = 1 .
i > 1, i 1 .

i i1
i gi = (i1 gi1 ) + (i gi ) = 0.
di di
, gi = gi1
+ gi = 0, gi1
= gi = 0,

i1 | , i (| ,
) i i | , gi
i . i+1

= i di+1i+1
, i | i+1

. G :
G1
= Z1 Z , i | i+1

.

A17 G Abel , G G
, G .
A18 G Abel , T G , G/T
Abel ,
G
= T G/T.
G/T . G/T g + T , g G,
n n(g + T ) = ng + T G/T , ng T .
m, mng = 0. g T , g + T G/T . G/T
. A15 G/T Abel .

i /
0 /T G / G/T / 0,

G = T G/T .
, ,
[1].
A19 ( Abel ) G
Abel ,
G
=Z| {z
Z} Z1 Z ,
r
 A Abel Abel 297

0; > 0 , i Z+ , i > 1, i i+1 . i

, r G , rank G. G .
, r, 1 , , G , G
.
, Abel .
A20 () Abel

0 / K / G / H / 0,

rank G = rank K + rank H.

TK , TG TH K, G H . (TK )
TG , (TG ) TH .

/ / / /
0 K/TK G/TG H/TH 0,

. H/TH Abel ,

G/TG
= K/TK H/TH .

rank G = dim G/TG = dim K/TK + dim H/TH = rank K + rank H.

A21 (1) H G ,

rank G = rank H + rank G/H;

(2) G H ,

rank(G H) = rank G + rank H.

A.IV.
A22 A , A Z A , (a, n)
an , . 1.
298 A Abel Abel

A 1 ,
, W (A):

1 b2 bq ) = a1 a2 ap b1 b2 bq .
(an1 1 an2 2 anp p ) (bm1 m2 mq n1 n2 np m1 m2 mq

a A, w1 , w2 W (A),

w = w1 a0 w2 , u = w1 w2 , t = w1 an am w2 , s = w1 an+m w2 ,

u w I , w u I ; s
t II , t s II .
w, u W (A), w u I II
, w u , w u. , a A, a0 1.
, W (A) :
w1 w2 , w3 w4 , w1 w3 w2 w4 .
A23 A , w A ,
w [w], F [A] = {[w] | w W (A)}
, A :

[w] [u] = [w u].

A = , W (A) = {1}, F [A] = {[1]} .

A = {a}, F (A) = {[a]n | n Z}
= Z .
A , {[a] | a A} F [A] , a
[a].
A24 G , A G ,

: F [A] G.
n
# : W (A) G : an1 1 an2 2 ap p W (A),

# (an1 1 an2 2 anp p ) = an1 1 an2 2 anp p ,

, G .

# (w1 a0 w2 ) = w1 a0 w2 = w1 w2 = # (w1 w2 ),
 A Abel Abel 299

# (w1 an am w2 ) = w1 an am w2 = w1 an+m w2 = # (w1 an+m w2 ),

([an1 1 an2 2 anp p ]) = an1 1 an2 2 anp p ,

G = F [A]/Ker .
F [A] Ker G. R F [A], R F [A] R
, {A; R} F [A]/R.
A25 G, A, , R . R =Ker , {A; R} = G,
G , A G , R , r R ,
q R R .
R Ker G : q Ker , q
gi ri gi1 , gi F [A], ri R,
ri R F [A] . q ri .

F [A]


 %
F [A]/Ker / G

: F [A] F [A]/Ker . g F [A], g (g),

r Ker , r = 1. , R = {r = 1}.
G, G , : F [G] G . R = {r =
1 | r Ker }, {G; R} G . .
G , A, G = F [A], G .
{A; } A . {x; } Z ; {x, y; x =
1} Z .
,{x; xn = 1} Zn .
{x, y; xyx1 y 1 = 1} Abel ,
.
 B Van Kampen
.
X X1 X2 , X0 =
X1 X2 X . i : X0 Xi i : Xi X(i =
1, 2) :
X
? 1 1 1

X0 ?X
2  2
X2
1 (X1 , x0 )
1 ? 1

1 (X0 , x0 ) 1 (X,
?
x0 )
2  2
1 (X2 , x0 )
x0 X0 ,

1 1 = 2 2 .

Xi 1 (Xi , x0 ) = {Ai ; Ri }, Ai ,
Ri (i = 0, 1, 2). a A0 , i (a) 1 (Xi , x0 ),
b = {1 (a) = 2 (a) | a A0 }
Ai , i (a)(i = 1, 2). R
A1 A2 . a Ai , i (a) 1 (X, x0 ) .
a i (a) . A1 A2
b .
1 (X, x0 ) , R1 R2 R
Van Kampen , 1 (X, x0 ) A1
b
A2 R1 R2 R.
Van Kampen
.
 B Van Kampen 301

1. A1 A2 1 (X, x0 ) .
: I X X x0 , { 1 (Xi ) | i =
1, 2} I . Lebesgue , 0 = s0 < s1 < < sn = 1
I n + 1 , |si si1 | < . i = 1, n, (i) = 1
2, ([si1 , si ]) X(i) . (si ) X0 (
[si1 , si ] [si , si+1 ] ). i = 1, , n, X(i)
i : I X(i) :

i (s) = ((1 s)si1 + ssi ),

i (si1 ) (si ) ,

[] = [1 ] [n ].

i = 0, , n, qi : I X0 X0 x0 (si )
, (si ) = x0 Cx0 .

[] = [1 ] [n ]
q1 ]) ([qn1 ][n ][
= ([q0 ][1 ][ qn ])
= [(q0 1 ) q1 ] [(qn1 n ) qn ],

(qi1 i ) qi X(i) x0 ,
A(i) ( 1 (X, x0 ) ) . []
A1 A2 , A1 A2 1 (X, x0 ) .
b 1 (X, x0 ) , :
2. R1 R2 R
b .
2.1 1 (X, x0 ) A1 A2 R1 R2 R
i : 1 (Xi , x0 ) 1 (X, x0 ) , Ri 1 (X, x0 )
Ai , 1 (X, x0 ) Ai (
1 (Xi , x0 ) i ) (i = 1, 2). 1 (X, x0 )
A1 A2 R1 R2 .
a A0 , i (a) 1 (Xi , x0 ), i = 1, 2, 1 (X, x0 )
, 1 (a)(2 (a))1 = 1. , 1 (Xi , x0 ) ,
i (a) Ai i (a), 1 (X, x0 )
302 B Van Kampen

B.1

, 1 (a)(2 (a))1 = 1, 1 (X, x0 ) A1 A2

b
R.
b
2.2 1 (X, x0 ) A1 A2 R1 R2 R
.
[1 ] [k ]=1 1 (X, x0 ) A1 A2
, (i) = 1 2 [i ] ([i ]1 ) A(i) . x0
: (I, I) (X, x0 )
i1 i
(s) = i (ks i + 1), s , i = 1, , k.
k k
[] = [1 ] [k ] = 1 . F : (I I, I I) (X, x0 )
Cx0 .

F (s, 0) = (s), F (s, 1) = F (0, t) = F (1, t) = x0 .

I I {F 1 (Xi ) | i = 1, 2} Lebesgue . I

0 = s0 < s1 < < sm = 1,

 B Van Kampen 303

0 = t0 < t1 < < tn = 1,

{ }
k1 , k2 , k1
k {s1 , , sm1 } i j, (si si1 )2 + (tj
tj1 )2 < 2 . Rij = [si1 , si ] [tj1 , tj ]. (i, j), F (Rij )
X0 , (i, j) = 0, (i, j) = 1 2, F (Rij ) X(i,j) .
F (si , tj ) X0 , (i, j) = 0, (i, j) = 1 2,
F (si , tj ) X(i,j) . aij X(i,j) x0 F (si , tj ) ,
F (si , tj ) = x0 , aij x0 , bij , cij : I X
:

B.2

bij (s) = F ((1 s)si1 + ssi , tj ),

cij (s) = F (si , (1 s)tj1 + stj ).

[] = [b10 ] [bm0 ], [b1n ] [bmn ] = 1.

bi,j1 cij ci1,j bij , X(i,j) .

x0 ij , ij :

ij = (ai1,j bij ) a
ij ij = (ai,j1 cij ) a
ij ,

i,j1 (I), ij (I), i1,j (I), ij (I) X(i,j) ,

i,j1 (i1,j ij ) ij .
304 B Van Kampen

X(i,j) . A(ij) (
1 (X, x0 ) ) [i,j1 ] = [i1,j ][ij ][
ij ],

[i,j1 ] = [i1,j ][ij ][

ij ],

1 (X(i,j) , x0 ) , R(i,j) .
k1 = si1 , [1 ] = [1,0 ] [i1 ,0 ], 1 ((1,0 2,0 )
i1 ,0 ) X(1) , A(1)

[1 ] = [1,0 ] [i1 ,0 ]

R(1) . [2 ], , [k ] ,

[] = [1,0 ][2,0 ] [m,0 ]

R1 R2 . R1 R2

1,1 ]) ([m1,1 ][m,1 ][

[] =([0,1 ][1,1 ][ m,1 ])
=([0,1 ])[1,1 ]([
1,1 ][1,1 ])[2,1 ]
2,1 ][2,1 ]) [m,1 ][
([ m,1 ]

[0,1 ] = [ m,1 ] = 1 , (j, 1) = (j +1, 1)

, [
j,1 ] [j,1 ] A1 A2 , [ j,1 ][j,1 ] = 1
. (j, 1) = (j + 1, 1) , [ j,1 ] A(j,1) , [j,1 ]
A(j+1,1) . j,1 (I) X0 , [ j,1 ][j,1 ] = 1 R b
. ,

[] = [1,1 ] [m,1 ]
b .
R1 R2 R

[] = [1,n ] [m,n ] = 1,
b .
R1 R2 R
b 1 (X, x0 ) .
, R1 R2 R
Van Kampen .
 B Van Kampen 305

8 S 1 S 1 .
S 1 S 1 S 1 S 1 = X1 X2 , X1 S 1 X2 , X0 =
X1 X2 . 1 (Xi , x0 ) {ai ; }(i = 1, 2), 1 (X0 , x0 )
{; }. Van Kampen , 1 (S 1 S 1 , x0 ) {a1 , a2 ; },
.

B.3

Van Kampen , X0 , 1 (X, x0 )

{A1 , A2 ; R1 , R2 }.
Van Kampen , X2 , 1 (X, x0 )
{A1 ; R1 , 1 (a) = 1 | a A0 }.

1 (X2 , x0 ) = 1, 2 (a) , 1 (X2 , x0 )

{; }, Van Kampen .
T .
T Q . , . Q
306 B Van Kampen

O, X1 = Q\{0}, X2 = Q\((I) (I))( Q

), x0 X0 = X1 X2 . O , X1 8
(I)(I) . 1 (X1 , x1 ) {[], []; }, 1 (X1 , x0 )
{[1 ], [1 ]; }, [1 ] = []1 [][], [1 ] = []1 [][], X2 .
X0 S 1 . 1 (X0 , x0 ) {[]; }, 1 ([]) = [1 ][1 ][1 ]1 [1 ]1 .
, 1 (T, x0 ) {[1 ], [1 ]; [1 ][1 ][1 ]1 [1 ]1 = 1} = ZZ.

B.4

P 2 .

B.5

P 2 D2 S 1 . ,
P 2 x1 . D2 O, X1 = D2 \{0}, X2 =
D2 \(I)( D2 ), x0 X0 = X1 X2 . O
 B Van Kampen 307

, X1 (I) = S 1 . 1 (X, x1 )
{[]; }, 1 (X1 , x0 ) {[1 ]; }, [1 ] = []1 [][]. X2
, X0 S 1 . 1 (X0 , x0 ) {[]; }, 1 ([]) = [1 ]2 . ,
1 (P 2 , x0 ) {[1 ]; [1 ]2 = 1}
= Z2 .
.
 C Jordan
Van Kampen , Jordan
.
,
, .
C0 p : E B , b B, b
U , p1 (U ) {V | } :
p1 (U ) = V , , p|V : V U , (E, p)
B .
C1 I = [0, 1] , S 1
.
:
C2 A , f : A R2 \{0} , O
R2 \f (A) , f .

C.1

O B, f (A) B. p R2 \B,
 C Jordan 309

p O R2 \f (A) , R2 ,
R2 \f (A) . R2 \f (A)
O p. F : A I R2 \{0}
[ ]
f (x) (2t), t 0, 12 ,
(2 2t)f (x) p, t [ 1 , 1] .
F (x, t) =
2

[ ]
f (A) , t 0, 12 , F (x, t) = 0;
[ ]
(2 2t)f (x) B p B , t 12 , 1 , F (x, t) = 0. F
f .
C3 A , a, b S 2 , f : A S 2 \{a, b} ,
a, b S 2 \ f (A) , f .
a , S 2 \{a} R2 . b
R2 , .
Van Kampen ,
C4 Jordan C S 2 , S 2 \C .
S 2 \C , .
, S 2 \C .
C A1 A2 , A1 A2 a, b
. X = S 2 \{a, b}, X1 = S 2 \A1 , X2 = S 2 \A2 , ,
X = X1 X2 , X1 X2 = S 2 \C . x0 X1 X2 .

i : 1 (Xi , x0 ) 1 (X, x0 ) (i = 1, 2)

.
/ 1
I X / X
> 1

 h
1
S
: (I, I) (S 1 , 1) (t) = e2it .
1 (S 1 , 1)
X1 x0 , h : S 1 X1 , h = . (I)
310 C Jordan

X , 1 h(S 1 ) = h(S 1 ) A1 . a, b S 2 \1 h(S 1 )

. C3 , 1 h , (1 h) ,

1 ([]) = [1 ] = [1 h ] = (1 h) ([ ]) = 1,

1 . 2 . Van Kampen
, 1 (X, x0 ) = 1. X
= R2 \{0}, 1 (X, x0 )
= Z. .
S 2 \C .

, .
C5 B , U, V, P, Q B , B = U V ,
U V = P Q, P Q . a P, b Q, a, b
U, V ,

1 (B, a) = 1.

B E.
B Z , n Z, U {2n} V {2n + 1} .
X = nZ ((U {2n}) (V {2n + 1}), E = X/ :
x P ,
(x, 2n) (x, 2n 1);

y Q ,
(y, 2n) (y, 2n + 1).

: X E , : X B X B
: (x, m) = x. p : E B
( E ):

X /
>B

 p
E
p .
(1) . X U {2n} V
{2n + 1} , |U {2n} |V {2n+1} . ,
 C Jordan 311

U {2n} W {2n}, W U .

1 ((W {2n})) = W {2n} (W Q) {2n + 1} (W P ) {2n 1}

X , , (W {2n}) E .
(2) p . U, V .

C.2

, p1 (U ) E (U {2n}) ,
E . 2n = |U {2n} : U {2n} (U {2n}),
, . U {2n} U ,

1
p|(U {2n}) = 2n : (U {2n}) U
312 C Jordan

. , U ; , V . ,
(E, p) B .
1 (B, a) = 1.
: (I, 0, 1) (U, a, b) : (I, 0, 1) (V, b, a), :
(I, I) (B, a) B a . E,
e0 = (a, 0) ,

= ((t), 1).
(t) = ((t), 0); (t)

(1) = (b, 0) = (b, 1) = (0), . p
= , p = ,
p( = .
) , ,
, 1 (B, a) = 1.
C6 B , U, V, P, P , Q B , B =
U V , U V = P P Q, P, P , Q . a B, a
P , b Q, a, a b U V ,

1 (B, a) Z.

, 1 (B, a)
= Z, : (I, 0, 1) (U, a, b); : (I, 0, 1)
(V, b, a); : (I, 0, 1) (U, a, a ); : (I, 0, 1) (V, a , a).

C.3

U V = P (P Q) C5 , 1 (B, a)
 C Jordan 313

, , m, n,

n[ ] = m[ ].

U V = (P P ) Q, C5 , E,
E e0 . E ,
, n[ ] = m[ ] , , 1 (B, a) Z.

C7 A S 2 , S 2 \A .

(1) D S 2 , D1 D2 , D1
D2 d . a, b S 2 \D. : a, b S 2 \D
, S 2 \D1 S 2 \D2 .

C.4

. B = S 2 \{d}, U = S 2 \D1 , V = S 2 \D2 . B = U

V, U V = S 2 \D. a, b S 2 \D , S 2 \D
. P S 2 \D a , Q
. S 2 \D S 2 , , P
Q B . a, b U V ,
C5 , 1 (B, a) = 1. B
= R2 , 1 (B, a) = 1, .
.
(2) A, a, b S 2 \A S 2 \A .
([ ]) ([ ])
h : I A, A1 = h 0, 12 , A2 = h 12 , 1 . (1), a, b
314 C Jordan

S 2 \A1 S 2 \A2 , S 2 \A2 .

([ ]) ([ ])
, A2 B1 = h 21 , 34 B2 = h 34 , 1 . (1) , a, b
S 2 \B1 S 2 \B2 . ,
I I1 I2 , In 21n , a, b S 2 \h(In )
. , x xZ+ In . a, b S 2 \h(x)
( S 2 \h(x) = R2 ). S 2 \h(x) = S 2 \ nZ h(In ) = nZ (S 2 \h(In )),
+ +

S 2 \h(I1 ) S 2 \h(I2 ) . (I) , (I)

, S 2 \h(Im ) . S 2 \h(Im )
. h(Im ) . S 2 \A .

C8 Jordan C S 2 , S 2 \C
W1 , W2 , C ( C = W 1 \W1 = W 2 \W2 ).

(1) S 2 \C .
C C1 C2 , C1 C2 p, q
. B = S 2 \{p, q}, U = S 2 \C1 , V = S 2 \C2 , B = U V . Jordan
, U V = S 2 \C . , P, P
, Q , ( S 2 \C ).
a P, a P , b Q. , U, V , a, a b
U V . C6 , 1 (B, a) Z. B = R2 \{0},
1 (B, a)
= Z, . S 2 \C .
(2) C W1 W2 .
, W 1 \W1 C. , S 2 , S 2 \C W1 , W2
S 2 , W 1 W2 = . S 2 = W1 W2 C W1 , W2
C , W 1 \W1 C.
, C W 1 \W1 . W 1 \W1 , x C,
x U , U (W 1 \W1 ) = . , C
= S 1, C
C1 C2 , C1 C2 ,
C1 U . a W1 , b W2 , , C2 S 2 ,
: (I, 0, 1) (S 2 \C2 , a, b). (I) (W 1 \W1 ) = .
(I) S 2 \(W 1 \W1 ) = W1 (S 2 \W 1 ), W1 S 2 \W 1
, (I) .
 C Jordan 315

C.5

(I) S 2 \C2 W 1 \W1 C, (I) (W 1 \W1 ) C1 U ,

U (W 1 \W1 ) = .
 D
D1 2 .
Mbius , .
1925 T. Rado 2 .
D2 S , 2 K, S
, :
(1) K 1 K 2 ;
(2) K v, K v 2
1 , 2 , , s , i (1 i s) i+1 1
( s+1 = 1 ).
: (1) K ,
. , (2) : v
, (2) ,
, v .
D3 S1 , S2 , Si
Di IntDi (i = 1, 2), D1 , D2
, S1 S2 : S1 #S2 . :
Si = Si \IntDi , h :BdD1 BdD2 , x BdD1
h(x) BdD2 , S1 S2 : x BdD1 , x
h(x), S1 S2 :

S1 #S2 = (S1 S2 )/ .

S1 #S2 D1 , D2 h .
:
(1) S1 #S2 ;
(2) S1 #S2
= S2 #S1 ;
 D 317

D.1

(3) S1 #(S2 #S3 )

= (S1 #S2 )#S3 ;
(4) S#S 2
= S.
n S S#S# #S nS.
, S1 S2 , S1 #S2 ;
, S1 #S2 .
Klein , Mbius
:
(1) Mbius M D : P 2 =
(M D)/ ().
, P 2 D2 ,
{ }
1
(x1 , x2 ) D2 | |x2 |
2
{ }
D . (x1 , x2 ) D2 | 1
2 |x2 |
M Mbius .

D.2
318 D

(2) Klein Mbius : (M M )/ ,

D.3

S1 , S2 S1 #S2 Euler
:
D4 (S1 #S2 ) = (S1 ) + (S2 ) 2.

S1 , S2 . S1 , S2
, , S = S1 #S2
.

2 (S) =2 (S1 ) + 2 (S1 ) 2;

1 (S) =1 (S1 ) + 1 (S1 ) 3;
0 (S) =0 (S1 ) + 0 (S1 ) 3.

(S) = 0 (S) 1 (S) + 2 (S) .

. S g(S)
:
0,S = S 2 ,
g(S) =
n, S
= nT nP 2 .

S 2 , m mT n nP 2
Euler :
 D 319

S S 2 mT nP 2
(S) 2 2m 2n

0 m n

Euler .
, .
D5 S
.
Rado S n 1 , , n ,
, i 1 , , i1 (2 i n) ei .
R2 S , ,
. :
i , R2 i i i ,
1 , , n (, R2
n
). = i R2 . |i = i ,
i=1
: S. , S Hausdorff , , S

( S 1 , , n ).
, D. , ei (2 i
n) i j (1 j < i) , 1 (ei ) i j
. , ei ,
D = / . : S
: D S. D , S Hausdorff , S
.
:
(1) D1 , D2 (), A1 , A2
BdD1 , BdD2 [0, 1] , h : A1 A2 , h
D1 D2 .
(2) D , ,
e2 , e3 , .
320 D

D.4

, D : 1 =
2
= D2 , (1), 1 (e2 ) 1 2
, 2 e3 .
, (2), D .
D , S
.

,
, .
, . , ,
, ,
+1() 1,
.
S 2 = {x R3 | x = 1}, 2
.
T = S 1 S 1 .
P 2 , 2
.
 D 321

D.5 S 2 = aa1

D.6 T = aba1 b1

D.7 P 2 = aa
322 D

Klein K .

D.8 K = abab1

mT nP 2 .
T1 , T2 T1 = a1 b1 a1 1 1 1
1 b1 T2 = a2 b2 a2 b2 ,
T1 #T2 = 2T a1 b1 a1 1 1 1
1 b1 a2 b2 a2 b2 .

: mT 4m

D.9

. :

a1 b1 a1 1 1 1 1 1
1 b1 a2 b2 a2 b2 am bm am bm .
 D 323

, P 2 #P 2 4
, a1 a1 a2 a2 .

D.10

: nP 2 2n
. a1 a1 a2 a2 an an .
D6 :
(1) S 2 ;
(2) m mT ;
(3) n nP 2 .

D5 , S .
.
.
.
S , a .
324 D

S = a a1 S = a1 a

S = aa

.
4 , : S =
aa1 , S = (= ).

D.11

,
( aa aa1 , P 2 S 2 , ).
D D , D .
, .
,
, P Q,
a b, a b1 :

D.12
 D 325

c ( a P Q) ,
a , . , P
, Q .
, , , P
, .
.
. S = bb, S = aa1 . ,

D.13

Klein :

D.14

, . :
(1) , S = a1 a1 a2 a2 an an , S = nP 2 .
(2) , c, c1 .
d, d1 , , S = c d c1 d1 .
, S = cc1 , c
, , .
326 D

D.15

, .
, P 2 #T
= aabcb1 c1 .

D.16

, P 2 #T
= 3P 2 .
. :

D.17

S = aba1 b1 , S = cdc1 d1 .
 D 327

, cdc1 d1 .
:
(1) ,
S = a1 b1 a1 1 1 1 1 1
1 b1 a2 b2 a2 b2 am bm am bm ,

S
= mT .
(2) m(> 0) , n(> 0) ,
. :
S
= mP 2 #nT.

P 2 #T
= 3P 2 ,

S
= (m + 2n)P 2 .
.
D7 S1 S2 : (S1 ) = (S2 ),
.
. Euler .
. D6 , S 2 , mT nP 2 .
S1 , S2 , S1 , S2 .
S1 S2 Euler ,
S1
= S2 .
S1 , S2 , S1 , S2 .
Euler ,
S1
= S2 .

D6 D7 .
,
D8 S1 S2 : 1 (S1 )
= 2 (S2 )

H1 (S1 ) = H1 (S2 ).
328 D

S S2 mT nP 2
H0 (S) Z Z Z
H1 (S) 0 Z2m Zn1 Z2
H2 (S) Z Z 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 2m n1
2 1 1 0
i0
i1 {2}
i2
(S) 2 2 2m 2n

0 m n
1 (S, p) {e} {a1 , b1 , , am , bm ; [a1 , b1 ] [am , bm ]} {a1 , , an ; a21 a2n }
 D 329

D.18
330 D
 E
, : |K| |L|,
f = {fp : Hp (K) Hp (L)} ,
. , f ,
, fp = gp Sdm p m
g : K m L . .
E.I.
, ,
. ,
.
E1 = {p : Cp (K) Cp (L)} = {p : Cp (K)
Cp (L)} . D = {Dp : Cp (K) Cp+1 (L)},
p, p p = Dp + Dp1 , ,
, D .
E2 ,
p = p : Hp (K) Hp (L).

z Zp (K), z = 0

p (z) p (z) = Dp (z) + Dp1 z = Dp (z) Bp (L),

p (z) p (z), p ([z]) = p ([z]).

.
E3 , : K L f : |K| |L|
, ,

p = p : Hp (K) Hp (L).

:
332 E

(1) a0 K 0 , b0 L0 , f (st a0 ) st b0 .
e0 :
K 0 L0
(a), a = a ,
0
e (a) =
0
b a=a .
0 0

e0
e : K L, f . , a =
a0 , f (st a) st (a) =st
e0 (a); a = a0 , f (st a0 ) st b0 =st
e0 (a),
e0 .
e K 0 .

(2) f 0 , 1 , , k , = 0 , =
k , K 0 .
K 0 = {a1 , , a0 }, i = 1, , p, (ai ) = (ai ), i =
p + 1, , 1 , (ai ) = (ai ). 0 = , k = 0 p. j = 1, , k,
(a ) i = p + j
j1 i
j (ai ) =
0
(1), 0j j .
(a ) i = p + j.
i
0 , 1 , , k .
(3) (a0 , , ap ) K, (a0 ), , (ap ), (a0 ), , (ap ) L
. , = (a0 , , ap ), i = 0, , p
) f)(st(ai ) st (a)i ), f (st ai ) st (ai ). = f (
( p f ( )
p
st (ai ) st (ai ) .
i=1 i=1
(2), K 0 a0 .
= {p : Cp (K) Cp (L)} = {p : Cp (K)
Cp (L)} D = {Dp : Cp (K) Cp+1 (L)}:
p < 0 p >dim K , Dp = 0;
p = 0 , D0 : C0 (K) C1 (L),

0, a = a0 ,
D0 (a) =
(a ), (a ), a = a
0 0 0

. , a = a0 ,

D0 (a) + D1 a0 = 0 = 0 (a) 0 (a),

 E 333

a = a0 ,

D0 (a) + D1 a0 = (a0 ) (a0 ) = 0 (a0 ) 0 (a0 ).

, p 0

E.1

Dp + Dp1 = p p .

0 < p dimK , Dp : Cp (K) Cp+1 (L) :

p Cp (K) ,

(a ), (a ) p1 , p a0 , p = a0 p1 ,
0 0
Dp ( p ) =
0, p a0 ,

. p1 p1 ( ) ,
(a0 ), (a0 ) p1 (a0 ), (a0 ) p1 = 0,
(a0 ), (a0 ) p1 .
D0 p = 0 . p = a0 p1 ,

Dp + Dp1 p =( (a0 ), (a0 ) p1 ) + Dp1 ( p1 a0 p1 )

=(a0 ) p1 (a0 ) p1 + (a0 ), (a0 ) p1
Dp1 (a0 p1 )
=(a0 ) p1 (a0 ) p1 + (a0 ), (a0 ) p1
(a0 ), (a0 ) p1
=p ( p ) p ( p );
334 E

p a0 , Dp ( p ) = 0, Dp1 p = 0, p ( p ) = p ( p ),
Dp (p ) + Dp1 p = p ( p ) p ( p ), Dp +
Dp1 = p p , . E2 = .

E.II.
. Sd K
K , 1|K| : |Sd K| |K| ,
.
E4 0 : (Sd K)0 K 0 : (Sd K)0
) = a
(K ), a, 0 (
K 0,
(1) 0 :Sd K K;
(2) 1|K| : |Sd K| |K| .

0 , ,
(1) ( p ) Sd K, 0 < < p . 0 ,
i ) p , 0 .
0 (

(2) x |Sd K|, x = i i SdK ,

= ( 0 , ,
p ), 1|K| (x) = x

p . (x) = i ) p ,
i 0 (
1|K| .

E5 :Sd K K = {p :
Cp (Sd K) Cp (K)} sd= {sdp : Cp (Sd K) Cp (K)}

(1) p sdp = 1Cp (K) ;

(2) sdp p 1Cp (Sd K) .

0 p dim K . .
(1) p = 0 , a K 0 , 0 sd0 (a) = a; p > 0 ,
p1 sdp1 = 1Cp1 (K) . p Sd K p , K p
p , p p ( p ) = p ,
= 0, 1 1. K p p , sdp ( p ) Sd K
 E 335

p ,

p sdp ( p ) = p (
p sdp1 p ) = m p ,

m ,

E.2

m p = (m p ) = p sdp ( p ) = p1 sdp1 p = p .

m = 1, p

p sdp p = p .

(2) sdp p 1Cp (SdK) Dp : Cp (SdK) Cp+1 (SdK)

: p = 0 ,
SdK , ( ) = a, a
.
sd0 0 (
) = sd0 (a) = a,
1C0 (Sd K) (
) sd0 0 ( a.
) =
(a, ) Sd K, D0 ( ) = a,
C1 (Sd ) C1 (Sd K)(
Sd Sd Cl ), D0 : C0 (Sd K) C1 (Sd K).
D1 = 0, 1C0 (Sd K) sd0 0 = D0 + D1 .
p > 0 , D0 , , Dp1 , q < p

1Cq (SdK) sdq q = Dq + Dq1 ,

q = (s0 , , sq ) Sd K, 0 < < q , Dq ( q ) Cq+1 (Sd q )

Cq+1 (Sd K).
336 E

p =
0 , ,
p Sd K p , 0 < < p .
p sdp1 p1 ( p ) = Dp1 ( p ), z = p sdp p p
Dp1 p

z = p sdp p p Dp1 p
= p sdp1 p1 p Dp1 p = 0.

z Sd p , , Hp (Sd p ) = 0, z Sd p
, cp+1 Cp+1 (Sd p ) Cp+1 (Sd K), z = cp+1 .
Dp ( p ) = cp+1 , p sdp p p = p Dp ( p ) + Dp1 p ,
Dp : Cp (SdK) Cp+1 (SdK),

1Cp (Sd K) sdp p = Dp + Dp1 , Dp ( p ) Cp (Sd p ).

Dp 1Cp (Sd K) sdp p .

E6 = {p : Hp (Sd K) Hp (K)} sd = {sdp : Hp (K)

Hp (Sd K)} .

E5 p sdp = 1Hp (K) , sdp p = 1Hp (Sd K) ,

.

, .
.
E.III.
. E3
E7 f : |K| |L| , m f :
|K (m) | |L| : K (m) L,

p sdm
p : Hp (K) Hp (L)

, f : K (m+1) L,
 E 337

p sdm m+1
p = p sdp .

sdm
p p
Hp (K) /H (m) / H (L)
p (K )
O 8 p
p sdp
sdm+1
p &  p
(m+1)
Hp (K )

f : |K (m+1) | |L| E3 ,
p = p p . E6

p sdm+1
p = p p sdm+1
p = p sdm
p ,

.
.
E8 f : |K| |L| , f f = {fp =
p sdm
p : Hp (K) Hp (L)} :

(1) g : |L| |M | , (gf )p = gp fp : Hp (K)

Hp (M );
(2) (1|K| )p = 1Hp (K) : Hp (K) Hp (K);
(3) f g : |K| |L|, fp = gp : Hp (K) Hp (L).
fp
Hp (K) / Hp (L)
gp
(gf )p % 
Hp (M )

(1) , n, g : |L(n) | |M |
: L(n) M , m, f : |K (m) | |L(n) |
. n : L(n) L : L(1) L ,
= n f : |K (m) | |L| .

K / /
; LO <M

sdm n

K (m) / L(n)

fp = p sdm n
p , gp = p sdp .
338 E

p = p
n
p , sdp p = 1

gp fp = p sdnp p sdm n n m m
p = p sdp p p sdp = p p sdp .

, gf : |K (m) | |M | ,

(gf )p = ()p sdm m

p = p p sdp ,

(gf )p = gp fp .
(2) ,
.
(3) H : |K| I |L| f g . t I,
ht : |K| |L| ht (x) = H(x, t) . {st b | b L0 } |L|
, H , {H 1 (st b) | b L0 } |K| I .
Lebesgue , m r, K (m)
a k = 1, , r, b L0 ,
[ ]
k1 k
(st a) , H 1 (st b).
r r

, h k1 (st a) st b, h k (st a) st b. h k1 h k
r r r r
k : K (m)
L, k (a) = b . h k1 h k
0
r r
: (h k1 )p = (h k )p , k = 1, , r,
r r

fp = (h0 )p = = (h1 )p = gp .