BEY sciencebirect Antenna Arrays Antenna arrays may be arranged in a number of different wa From Multi-Dimensional Propagation to Multi-Link MIMO Channels Bruno Clerckx, Claude Oestges, in Mimo Wireless Networks (Second, Edition} 2013, 2.5.1 Ideal Versus Real-World Antenna Arrays ‘Antenna arrays naturally constitute an essential part of a MIMO system, There exists a large numberof different array configurations “This snot our goal to go into details about antenna aray theory, but itis interesting to highlight a few points related to antenna arrays. + We have already defined the concept of narrowband and balanced array (ee Definitions 2.5 and 2.6), Usual arays are often ‘narrowband for dlassical systems and are also balanced, although ‘it may happen that local scattering fram the antenna mounting. structure causes some unbalance, even in relatively compact arrays. + In the above, many expressions are also given for uniform linear 334, athough alternative shapes such as circular arrays are mat in practice. As already mentioned, the definition of steering vectors fs not restricted to linear arays, Only two canditions are needed to define steering vector, 3¢ lang as the channel is \WSSUSH: a narrowband array and a plane wave incidence + However, arrays with complex configurations might not support the homogeneous channel assumption. AS an example, an aray ‘made of theee directional antennas oriented in different directions does not yield 2 MIMO matrix whose elements describe an homogeneous channel, What does it mean in practice? For such arrays, the channels are nat antenna stationary: the shadowing might not be the same zeross antennas, and the definitions of Section 2.1.5 are not valid anymore, a the power delay-angle profiles will nt be identical for all antenna elements. Subsequently, the definition of steering vectors is naturally not possible, This also implies that channel correlations onthe transmit side might depend on the receive antenna, and vice-versa + Antennas may be chosen as omnidirectional or directional ‘Whereas Omnidirectional antennas may capture more scattered energy dtective antennas would provide more gain. Hence, there is no guarantee that omnidirectional antennas yield better performance for 3 constrained transmit power, + Antenna spacing might play an important role, which leads toa compromise between the sizeof the array and the captured versity, Small spacing causes channel to be correlated (ace Section 23.1) and and is also responsible for antenna coupling, which is dealt with inthe next section, EEE [ee Antennas AD Ohver Professor, 8Se, PRD, CEng, IEE, FIEEE, in Telecommunications Engineer's Reference Book, 1993 17.3.3 Radiation from arrays Array antennas consist ofa number of discret elements which are usualy smal in size. Typical elements are horns, dipole, and microstrip patches. The discrete sourees radiate individually but the pattern of the array is largely determined by the relative amplitude and phase ofthe excitation currents on each element and the ‘geometric spacing apart ofthe elements. The total radiation pattern isthe multiplication of the pattern of an individual element and the pattern ofthe array assuming pont source, called the array facto. ‘Array theory largely concemed with synthesising an aray factor to form a specfed pater. In communications most arrays are planar asrays with the elements being spaced over a plane, but the principles can be understood by considering an aray of two elements wth ‘equal amplitudes, Figure 17.73). This hasan aray factor given by Equation 17.12, where ¥ is given by Equation 17.13. By + Bae 72) = $+ kdeos@ (723) ‘The pattem for smal spacings will be almost omnidirectional and as ‘the spacing is increased the pattern develops a maxima perpendicular tothe acs ofthe aray. At 2 spacing of half a wavelength, a nul appears along the array als, Figure 17.7(0) Tis is called a broadside array, Ifa phase difference of 180 degrees exists between the two elements then the pattern shawn in Figure 17.7(6) results. Now the main beam is along the direction of the array and the array is called the end-fire array. This illustrates one ofthe prime advantages of the array, namely by changing the electrical phase i is possible ta make the peak beam direction occur in any angular direction. Increasing the spacing above half a wavelength results in the appearance of addtional radiation lobes which are generally undesirable. (Consequently the ideal arrays spacing is half wavelength, though if ‘waveguides or horns are used this s not usualy possible because the basic element ie greater than half a wavelength in size. Changing the relative amplitudes, phases and spacings can produce a wide variety ‘of pattems so that ts possible to synthesise almost any specified radiation pattern. The stray factor for an N element linear array of| equal amplitude is given by Equation 17.14 B= ween ana) “This ic similar tothe pattern of line source aperture, Equation 17.5, and itis possible to synthesise an aperture witha planar array. There is significant benefit to this approach, The aperture fields are determined by the waveguide hara fede which are conetesined by boundary conditions and are usually monotonic functions. This constraint does not exist withthe array so that a much larger range of radiation pattenns can be produced. Optimum patterns with mast of the energy ra be designed EEE [ee ted into the main beam and very low si New Radio Access RF and Transceiver Design Considerations ‘Sassan Ahmadi, in 5G NA, 2019 5.6.4 Antenna Design Considerations Large antenna aay atthe BS are necessary for SG systems and in particular for operation in mm'Wave bands. Large numberof antennas at the UE side are ao expected to guarantee acceptable received signal evel for SG series. As the number of antennas increases, itis advantageous to use 20 and 30 stuctres forthe arrays. This reduces the required space and also enables spatial separation and beamforming in two or three dimensions. For ‘vample, a 64-element uniform linear ara with an inter-element spacing of 1/2 could accipy horizontal span of 3 m at2.GHs, which reduces to 1S m if dsl-polarzed antenna clement are utlized. In contrast an 8 4 dual-plarized araycan be accommodated in 30.6 m x 0.4m space and can spatially resohe users and form beams in 3D space. Antenna araye may be aranged ina numberof ferent ways, the mest common architectures being uniform linear array, uniform rectangular ars, uniform circular array, and stacked uniform circular arrays. The system performance ofthese architectures i offen measured in terms of beam gain and half power besm-width bath in azimuth and in elevation planes. For massive MIMO systems, itis important to capture as many degrees of feeom of the channel as possible with a high numberof efetve antenmas. For compact antenna configurations, this often leads 0 antenna steuctures that have shown to be effective fr multi- «dimensional channel characterization and parameter estimation The number of antennas on the UE will nt be a= large a= the corresponding number atthe BS; however, the number of UE antennas can be much larger than whats used today in mmWave Frequencies. The studies suggest that the performance improves a: the array aperture increases, but theimpac of the aperture is mainly isle when the users are dasely grouped (he, they have high correlation) Furthermore, there sin general 3 good channel resohobily inthe sense that the larger he aperture, the greater the resohabilty, One important aspect to remember is that for physically large aay, there can be large diferences in received power levee cover the aay, which affects user resalvbilty. For beamforming solutions, the antenna elements in an array must be placed close together. ll the analog components (phate shifters, LNAs, PAs, etc) should be tightly packed behind the antenna elements (active antenna sje). The dense packing of antenna elements creates ‘oa main effets (1) spatial corelation and (2) mutual coupling 21. “The NR operation in mmnlvave bands neceestats the use of active antenna systems and lage antenna arrays in the base stations and the devies. While this goal is enabled by elatively sal-sized anton araye in mae Frequencies, it igncatiy increases the implementation complesty and pushes the limits of antenna design and semiconductor technologies. The fll integrated mmave transceivers and antennae requir sophisticated design and consideration of power efficiency component placement and ‘outing, mutual couplings, and thermal constants both atthe component lve and system level within a small area or volume. “These considerations directly affect the achievable performance and the RF requirements and ae applicable othe NR bas tations and the devies, given that in mmWave frequencies, the BSJUE transceiver design and development wil have less diferences compared to Fequency bands below 6 GH2. The etremely wide bandwidths avilable at mmWave frequencies set forth serious challenges forthe data converters and the data conversion interfaces between the analog and digital domains in both racevers and transmits [eet ‘Multi-channel processing Jinyu i, .. fan Gong, in Robust Automatic Speech Recognition, 2016 10.2 The Acoustic Beamforming Problem ‘We consider the uniform linear array (ULA) af microphones depicted in Figure 10.1 Let us assume a point source emitting the rmonefrequent signal 2(8) =e inthe far fed ofthe array. The far field assumption implies that the ratio ofthe distance ofthe source to the microphones versus the sie ofthe array i sa large that the wavefront curvature observed atthe array postion is very small and the sound wave arving atthe sensors can be madeled asa planar wave, We farther assume wave propagation in free Fld, that ic, the signals received at the sensors difer only in the delays, which are caused by the differen distances the sensors have from the source, a0) we Dolan false image “The beamformer consists ofthe beamforming weights (or, mare generally, filters) wp, results. the beamformer output signal is given by avy followed by the summation ofthe filter aoa) where 2o isthe wavelength ofthe source signal, and where rm cosé/c i the time diference between the rival ofthe signal atthe mth microphone and the arival ofthe signal tthe fret microphone. Further, M denotes the number of microphones, and @ isthe angle ofthe impinging wavefront relate tothe endive positon (ue, 8 postion in the direction of the line connecting the ricrophones.Itis cammon practice to define the beamforming weights as complex conjugate coefcients wf, as is done here. [Equation 10.1 can be compactly writen in veetor notation 2() App eXD( 50 }ePCIEn) ° fm 6. = main boat pointing ection where ans isthe angle tothe direction of which maximum i wanted. The curren distribution feeding the elements ofthe Sposa in the platen AA 4, se «an be simplified by collecting the equal amplitude exponential terms together. Thus the normalized aray factor becomes @ $(0,00)= arberap [PAs cos 28d eos0 ~ cos y))+2As cose ‘The beam can be stered by controling the phase shift a. The side lobe level ard the half power bear-width canbe controled by relative current amplitude, The new current amplitude distribution Is 23 compromise between binomial and DelphChebyshev -30 dB side lobe level distributions in which half power beam-width i identical to Doiph-Chebyshev and the side lobe level s decreased 10-375 0B. “These coefficients can be calculated from normalized binomial distribution by adding 1/12 to each amplitude except the center clement amplitude, ths the new cosficlents ae: Ay =Ap= 0.25, Az ‘4c=0.75 and Ay = 1. The resulting normalized aray factor in linear scales shown in ig. 23), in which point source separation dis A/2 and in ig. 2b) array factor multiplied with patch element factor. CY » Dowland ul seimage Purchase boole Antenna Arrays and Classical Beamforming Henrik Asplund, .. Erik Larsson, in Advanced Antenna Syste 5G Network Deployments, 2020 4,1 Introduction ‘An antenna array set of antennas commonly organized ina structure such a an aray of rows and column. An antenma aray can be used for both transmission and reception. By transmitting diffrent vetsions ofthe same signal from all the antennas, the ‘signals amplifstion, referred to a gain, can be controlled co that the gain i different in different directions. Rather than spreading the signal power over an entre cll the signal power an be directed to where the intended weer is located anc even be reduced in other directions to avoid interfering other users. Similarly, when the antenna array is used for reception, the gala inthe direction of where the user‘ located can be increased eo that the received signal power is increased. won tepeaguion nite ate Steet oe cdownscaled with a factor 1/-/N and the gain in terms of power is crite font ertomconsne ad etic nd Dolo alse image “The maximum gain can be increased by having more antennas in the array. However, for cellular network, It is typically of Interest to have a high antenna gain in all the directions where these are user and this is enabled by a beamformer that adjusts the amplitude and delay of| the signal transmitted from each antenna, Compared tothe case when exactly the same signal ie tranemited fom all antennae, the ofthe maximum gain can thereby be changed so that itis ‘obtained in a desired direction rather than right infront ofthe direct antenna array (see the example in Fig. 4.2) aH AAA ear Ho ° tae Dolan false image Inthe present chapter, the opportunities offered by an array of antennae will be demonstrated, primarily by deriving the gain ae 9 function of direction. The case with an antenna array used for transmission ofa narrowband bandpass signal toa single recelbing antenna is considered and rather than using formulations based on the electri fields and deriving radiation intensities, the rE ‘model in Section 3.62 is used forthe free-space single-path care t™ “Section 3.62.6. The reason for taking the approach based on the channel model i to prepare for the MIMO OFDM channel model in Seetion 5.2 which isan extension of the madel presented in the present chapter. The MIMO channel medel will include multiple antennas at both the transmitting and receiving sides forthe case with wideband OFDM-based transmission and serve as a basis for Chapter 6 on multiple antenna techniques. Simao Rf .2.the stating pit taken in Seton 42's the arewth wo ested tanumtingatenas in fe apace the Srl ete bya sovopleatena na cern drectons ete forthe ese tht te sume sg sams fom both eterna Ail ese the sgl apt poprtoal tos product ofthe reaming stnnaupude pater and ney frou Furthermore some use properties ofthe gn ibe nrbed sed hated Ther, econ 434 more gener antenna th an aster umber cements conte here deel toan ata inh ate The ray espns Ce) channel There tisshown hat bao inatucing# beamforming wight et tht repens the lg ans thevwcted gas compl ampltade nd cneeurn aa the gains ghen bya pout betwen the two veaor Theunform linear array (ULA) is defined and it is shown that the maximum gain. inacee wh the rmber of eerente le the wina tema ibe dees Cia beamforming induced Seton 44 low charging the drecionnulch the macmum gan os by rans the ‘ares Go alte clomerts, th ey realy phase shia conn that he signal al constrchely nthe ed decion Use then costed an some tema rade on element spacing az well as on so-called grating lobes. Some other forms of beamforming techniques are alsa illustrated to make ‘the point thatthe properties of the gain pattern depend not only on the aay but slzo on the beamfoomer used ‘The UPA and the dual-polaized UPA are defined in Section 4.5. “These configurations represent commonly used special SN ‘general array introduced in Section 4.3 and some baste props ‘the gain patterns are examined. With a UPA consisting of dual- polarized element pairs, not only the direction ofthe main labe but als the polarlzation can be controlled, Section 4.6 introduces so-called arrays of subarrays.A dual-polarized UPA can be partitioned into subarrays and a benefit ofthis that fewer radia chains are needed. At the same time thie constrains the st of| beamforming weight vectors that can be applied tothe antennas of the underlying array. For classical bearnforming, the dependency between the subarray size andthe range of angles with high gain is ilustrated; the larger the subaray, the smaller the range of angles. ‘This builds intuition for why diferent deployments cll for diferent subsrray sizes as wil be illustrated in Sections 13.4 and 143, Finally, in Section 4.7 he key indings ofthe chapter are summarize. PR [ersten Advanced Antenna System in Network Deployments Henk Asplund, 5G Network Deploym: rik Larsson, in Advanced Antenna Systems for s, 2020 14.4.1 Site Aspects ‘Analysts estimate a global physical cell site count in the order of seven millon today, a number thats expected to grow overtime, The site density varies significantly between regions and countries, and each ste (ype) hasits own requirements and constraints. ‘Aalding new (macro) sites isa costly and a cumbersome process. Hence, there is a desire to re-use existing sites to as large extent as possible. At the same time, thers i limited epace forthe deplayment of antennas and ausiliary equipment at existing sites, and diferent ‘operators, technologies (2G, 36, 4G, and 5G), and features compete in many cates ever the same limited physial site space. Oifeent markets nd sans ings diet dere constraints. Some general trends[observations{remarks are 35 follows In many markets, there are visibility constraints that limit the number of antenna panels per operator and site to roughly two or three, \which puts high requirements on the capability of each panel (se Section 14.4.2. Furthermore, fer each antenna array, there are strict requirements on size and weight dictated by construction constraints (e.g, each sie Is built to support a maximum weight arwind load) and regulated in site rental contracts. There are several aspects affecting the physical size and weight of an antenna panel, including + The antenna ary layout and frequency are fundamental aspects that impact the physical size. An illustration af his is ghen in Fig 14.24, In this ate, for axed antenna width oft most 4 m8 becomes very challenging to apply horizontal domain ‘beamforming fr lve frequency bands s the numberof antenna columns i inited tone or maybe a in mot ide Sipoynet Hatta ies pent tr antenna columa()inta smaller subarays, thereby enabling ‘erties domain beamforming. However, a cecuseed in Section 143, while horizontal domain bearnformings very usefl to Anprove performance the benefit of veteal domain beamforming ie highly scenario dependent. Allowing the width of the antenna to grow beyond the typical ~0.4 m would significantly improve the beamforming potential also for lower ‘requency bande. The wil, howe, increase the vials Jenpact and wind load but might be acceptable in special deployments where the additional capacity i sought. Moving up Jn Frequency makes advanced beamforming much ror feseble and, as discussed in Section 72, sometimes even a necessity to ‘maintain coverage: Download fl-stenage + Anacortes higher weigh ander te tan apse antenna the antenna, ad sd send tsps + Anacive arto egies olin wih sth weight rd the Theor cupt poner he ere enlnghenceneresed sieand wee + nein he uber of equene bands andthe umber tnd sipped ysl neara pel nceses prey the size and weight (see discussion in Section 14.4.2). Todos tematic lon Sanda" ss pert droymen constants. or eanpe Fed ngs o 15,20, and 2.6 mand awh es than mare common ves EEE [ee Cognitive Radio in Multiple-Antenna Systems Jae Moung Kim, .. Yusuk Yun, in Cognitive Radio Technology (Second Edition), 2009 Antenna Corton Mezsurement treetops ee cara hsbecsoun {toner dingy parse hese tewententhantaraceaea een a8) Re(R(m, n)} = Jo (Zon) +2 Sis Js (mn) c05(210) sin c (1) (16.186) Im(2(m, n)} = +1 (nn) si((21-4 1)8) in (1+ Ss where @is the mean angle of arial measured wit respect tothe normal line joining the two antennas (Figure 16.11), and Zn Why, Whee dn the distance between the mth and mh antennas ‘We assume that al signals fom the arriving signal at the antenna array arrive within 2AJ2 of the mean angle of arrival, @been proposed, which may be categorized into fixed beamforming, data-dependent beamforming, and parametric beamforming. Fixed beamforming, where the beamformer coefficients are computed a rior! accarding to some design criterion, is appropriate in static scenarios, where the position ofthe source and the acoustic scene is known and fied. For dynamic scenarios with unknown and moving, speech or noise sources data-dependent methods are preferred, where the beamforming coefcients are computed from the statistics of the incoming signal. They are able to adapt to changing source positions or changing interference pattems. They ae alzo able to at least partly compensate for unknown sensor characteristics. However, ‘they may be too slow to track fast changes. Fat adaptation to hanging sound fields is possible with parametric beamforming approaches, where a perceptually or physically motivated model of the sound field is assumed, and only the parameters ofthe model are learnt fram the input data. This requires lee data and results in faster adaptation compared to purely data-driven methods, where the whole statistical characterization of the scene, e.g, power spectral densities of desired and interfering signals, has to be estimated. Inthe following, we present the baci beamforming design erteria oF data-driven beamforming. We will concentrate on criteria based on second-order statistics. They form the basis of most beamforming {solutions found inthe literature, although besrsforming based on higher-order statistics has also been proposed (Kumatani et al, 2009), EE x Volume 3 Nickolas Kingsley, Jahn Papapalymerou, in Corprehensive Microsystems, 2008 3.10.2.2 Phased Antenna Arrays Integrating switching elements into an antenna array is nothing new. However, using solid-state switches atthe front-end ofan antenna adds an clement of noise. Furthermore, solid-state been used to tune antennas at the front-end, but this to add a level of distortion thats often unacceptable in a communication sytern. As the need for reduced bandwidths and beam steeting increases, so, does the use of planar antenna arrays. This type of antenna sytem allows for excellent control ofthe bear properties, especially when integrated with phase shifers and attenuators. Al ofthese components require switching elements. Azan array becomes larger, ors have the number of components increases, and the required number of switches also increases, Using solid-state switches can add an lsnormous aniount of los to the array. This in turn will aque active devices to compensate fortis lass, These factrs will increase the cost and create other problems such as heat dissipation and distortion. RF MEMS do not have these limitations. They do not consume power. They do nat generate heat. They do not distort RF signals. They re an ideal component for planar antenna systems, Purchase book Recommended publications ° -AEU- Iteration oural of lectronies and Communion Joust ‘Spal Processing Joural Dig signal Processing Joural pie Journal neaemees — rn +" mth Antenna nth Antenna. Downloe fuse image ‘The spatial envelope correlation s given by P= [m,n]. For @= 0° and various angle spreads, A, Figure 16.12 shows that as A decreases, the fist zero inthe correlation occurs ata larger antenna spacing. When the signal arrives from a direction other than broadside, the antenna spacing for low corelation increases, nd the ‘envelope correlation is never 2er0 for all values of 8 0°and A <2 (@ is zero when Re{R{n, ri}. and Im{R(m nl} have zero crossings at ‘eccty the same spacing) Cn a a sn Sept) Dovnlos fa ‘We can estimate the spatal envelope correlation by using p= Eluuy (16.19) where tn)= pens) fiat) . El-] means the expected value, fis the forgetting factor with [0,1 and w= wpa... ws] san aray response vector with n antennas, EE x Cognitive beamforming for spectral coexistence of hybrid satellite systems ‘Shree Krishna Sharm, . Bjéen Ottersten, in Cooperative nd Cognitive Satellite Systems, 2015 13,5.2.1 MVDR technique ‘The received signal at the BS antenna array from (13.1) can also be writen a5 yo Asin, where A= [(@)a(@).na@ called the signal divection matrix (SDM), 5 = [5,5....8, each 5, being the symbol associated with the leh user The beamformer’ esponse tothe desired user located at an angle 9, s given by wa(@,). The optimization problem for the MVDR beamformer can be writen 35 min WR, 9w (3) subject to wa(d,) Since in practical senarias, Rs unavalable and only the sample counance mate Ris avail, given by RB, = EIN, ylm}y(n). Using R, instead of Rig, the ‘optimization problem fr the MVDR beamformer canbe writen 35 min w"Ryw 03.8) subject to wa(é,) \When the desired signal i uncorrelated to the interference, the ‘minimization problem in (13.8) is same as the minimization problem in (13.7) [9]. The solution ofthe constrained optimization problem (13.8) can be obtained by using Lagrange multipliers given by Ezz Purchase book HIRE ee scerecine terete Soprngat Abin Coat endnippot Temeandendiome Piney aly RELX™ ‘We neconeta lp pric and ean uscd loca a yong ove tthe wfc, SIT coy @ 201 Eee Bi oilers or conti Seren