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An entity-relationship model for forest inventory

Timo Tokola, Ari Turkia, Janne Sarkeala, and Janne Soimasuo

Abstract: This paper presents a general data model for forest inventory and management. The data model is based on the entity-relationship model and it can be implemented by relational database management systems. The data model can be used for inventories based on various kinds of sampling designs, and for different forest resource management systems from a forest stand to a national level. The data model supports data needs of complex forest surveys and integration of modules of forest information systems (geographic information systems, database management systems, computation, graphical user interface). The data model can be also applied to other natural resource data management cases. Rsum : Cet article prsente un modle gnral de donnes pour linventaire et lamnagement forestiers. Le modle de donnes est bas sur le modle dentit-relation et peut tre utilis par les systmes damnagement comportant une base de donnes relationnelle. Le modle de donnes peut tre utilis pour les inventaires bass sur divers types de plans dchantillonnage et pour diffrents systmes damnagement des ressources forestires lchelle dun peuplement ou du pays. Le modle de donnes supporte les besoins en donnes des inventaires forestiers complexes et lintgration de modules de systmes dinformation utiliss en foresterie (systme dinformation rfrence spatiale, systme de gestion de base de donnes, calculs et interface graphique de lutilisateur). Le modle de donnes peut aussi tre appliqu dautres cas de gestion de donnes dans le domaine des ressources naturelles. [Traduit par la Rdaction]

Introduction
Utilization of modern information systems has grown rapidly during recent years. Many organizations are using or planning to use database management systems (DBMS), geographic information systems (GIS), and advanced computing techniques for land resource management. However, many forestry organizations have not yet found efficient means to integrate these tools to serve their increased needs. Besides the information technology, objectives of forest management have also changed. Timber production is only one function of a forest, and other uses (recreation, scenic amenity, and protection of biodiversity) have become important. Changing data needs require flexible database management and integration of multisource data. Construction of a functioning, operative land information system lays emphasis on a thorough designing of the system. The initial and most important phase of the system design is the construction of a data model, which is used to perceive, organize, and describe data in a conceptual schema (Klein and Hirsschheim 1987). Batini et al. (1992) define a data model as a collection of concepts that can be used to describe a set of data and operations to manipulate the data. Large conceptual data models have been constructed for the Finnish Forest Research Institute (Saarenmaa et al. 1990) and for other Finnish forestry organizations. These models have been presented at a general level, and they cover almost the whole organization and its functions. Such general data models provide a basis for further development and for more specific

Received February 24, 1997. Accepted June 19, 1997. T. Tokola,1 A. Turkia, J. Sarkeala, and J. Soimasuo. University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, P.O. Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland.
1

Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed.

data models. A more detailed data model has been presented by Paananen (1994) for a forest management planning system based on GIS. Sustainable forest management is always based on forest surveys, which are designed for different levels of decision making: for national, district, and forest holding levels. All the levels have their own types of inventories (Tomppo 1992) and data models (Saarenmaa et. al. 1990; Paananen 1994), although their basic data elements are similar. Detailed information can only be obtained by measuring the sample in the field. The survey area is usually stratified to increase the efficiency of the inventory by allocating more of the field sample into important areas. Thus, the main elements of forest resource information are (i) map data based on stratification and (ii) field plot data based on sampling. Forest resource information systems utilize also a prior knowledge and mathematical models to derive attribute information as a final result. Calculation procedures may vary depending on time and location of target. Monitoring of changes in forests, in particular, sets high requirements for spatio-temporal data management where spatiotemporal data model has great potential (Peuquet and Duan 1995). Sampling in forest inventory fulfills the assumptions of statistical design or at least most of them. Satellite images or aerial photographs provide information that can be used for stratification of the population in an inventory based on sampling design. However, the purposive selection of sample plots is preferable if the description of target area based on auxiliary information is reliable (Schreuder and Wood 1986). An inventory based on a model-based inference enables the use of several classifying variables and interactions without a complex analysis (Mandallaz 1991; Mandallaz 1993, Kangas 1994). Using a well-integrated database system to combine information of maps and previous surveys leads to more effective data collection and easier use of modern estimators. In many cases a system analyst has to build up a data model and an information system from the very beginning according
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Tokola et al. Fig. 1. Relationships and symbols used in description of FIDM entity-relationship model.

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Forest Inventory Data Model (FIDM)

Traditional versus FIDM Data models in forestry traditionally contain an entity set for each object type of real world. For example, entity sets for several types of compartments (soils, vegetation, administrational), sample plots (temporary, permanent), and trees (sample tree, tally tree, seedling count) are needed in a forest inventory to describe variation and hierarchy levels of target. Each of these entities has a set of attributes that differ from one set to another. The FIDM keeps the number of entity sets to the minimum, e.g., FIDM has only three entity sets for observations instead of the eight listed in the previous example. The three sets describes observed objects, values of these objects, and interpretation of the values. All the measured values, whether color of a single needle, the total number of moose in the forest area, or the owner of the forest stand, are stored in the same entity set. Every entity of this entity set is related to one entity in the entity set of observation units, which contains all the objects of measurement, i.e., trees, herb, forest stands, wildlife, etc. The third entity set of interpretations is used to interpret the numeric values into text format. The storage structure is explained further in the section Observations. The existing data models in forestry have usually been designed to handle application-specific data (e.g., Paananen 1994). Such data models are useful as long as the structure of the data does not change; but problems arise if new attributes or a new type of information are to be managed. Changes in, for instance, field measurements require changes in the data model, which consequently causes exhausting reconstruction of the database that implements the data model. One of the requirements for FIDM was that it must be general and application independent. This was achieved by defining the entities and their relations in general terms with as little regard to specific terms of forest resource management as possible. This enables the construction of applications for various types of land resource information systems that are not necessarily restricted to forestry. The data model allows storage and manipulation of any data that can be identified as an object and described with attributes. Any new type of input data, e.g., stones, butterflies, or roots, may require a new application for data manipulation and calculations but no changes to the structure of the data model or its attributes. The flexibility of FIDM is not restricted to the management of observation data, as it also allows simultaneous storage of different level objects, such as various layouts of forest inventories and stratifications and their results, into a single structure. When a forest inventory concept changes, for example, the objective of the inventory is changed from timber oriented to conservation oriented with smaller sampling units than earlier, the old data can be used to complement the new one. Both inventories and all the field data sets can be active in one system. Furthermore the data model can simultaneously support several inventories of the same geographical area. The uniform storage structure allows applications to use standardized inputoutput routines for data manipulation. Regardless of the real-life interpretation of attributes, applications receive data always in the same format. A set of
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to the needs and resources of the receiving organization. However, the same work might be applicable, with only minor changes, in some other organization. If a flexible and general data model is available, the system designer can use it as a basis for information systems with no need to create a new data model for each new case. This paper presents a general conceptual data model called Forest Inventory Data Model (FIDM), designed for forest inventory and management systems. A conceptual data model usually contains an organization of concepts and a graphical notation suitable for describing and defining the vocabulary and conceptualization of the problem (Paananen 1994; Batini et al. 1992). The most widely used type of conceptual data modeling technique is the entity-relationship (ER) modeling, which was introduced by Peter Chen in 1976 and has been extended many times since then (Date 1986; Bowers 1988). The most recent extensions to the ER model were presented in 1986 by Batini, Lenzerini, and Navathe and by Teorey, Yang and Fry (Hull and King 1987) and in 1989 by Elmasri and Navathe. The ER model includes the concepts of entity set, relationship (Fig. 1), and attributes (Bowers 1988; Batini et al. 1992). In this study the basic ER model was used in conceptual analyses and the relational model for the implementation of the database. Five requirements were set for the data model: (1) It must be as general as possible, i.e., it should meet the needs of various land resource management cases and be applicable in different conditions and in different geographical scales of forest inventory. (2) It must allow system development as the information level in the system increases, e.g., adjustment of tree growth models with data inserted in the system. (3) It must be able to manage time series. (4) It must support the integration of system functions, e.g., map management and calculations. (5) It must be applicable by a relational database management system. These requirements are only fulfilled when spatial and nonspatial data are under the same architecture and when integrated management of data and functions are possible.

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Can. J. For. Res. Vol. 27, 1997 Fig. 2. Main elements of the FIDM.

parameters (interpretations) is required for decoding the input as well as for encoding the output. A number of data producers and even a greater number of data users have created a need for data conversions between organizations. As the ownership of forest holdings is changing, the databases of different owners need to be merged when changes take place. Also, varying nomenclatures of organizations and measurement practices cause difficulties in data conversions. In these cases the advantage of FIDM is its ability to keep the original data of different sources intact in the database and to modify only the interpretations. Several organizations can use the same data in their applications by having their own sets of interpretation parameters. Time factor has much been neglected in the present forest inventory systems. Data are collected and stored and sometimes updated, but their history is rarely stored because of insufficient storage capacity or improper methods of time management. This makes it impossible to retrieve information for a given point or line of time, except the present. In FIDM data are labeled with starting and ending dates and some entities are also labeled with calculation or updating dates. This enables extracting information, e.g., for a given area for a given time within the life-span of objects. The analysis is not restricted to the past, since the data model supports scenarios into the future with the possibility of forecasting and economic calculations. The objects, which are not currently needed, may be kept passive in the system or archived with a reference to their storage location. The traditional data models do not directly support forestry modeling and calculations (usually these are handled externally with special and tailored applications). FIDM has entity sets for mathematical modeling of state and dynamics of forest resources, such as stand biomass or tree growth. The models are stored in the database with their formulae and restrictions. The data model allows construction of new models and updating the existing ones. Forestry models are utilized intensively in forestry calculations. In FIDM, the calculations are hierarchically structured and directly linked to models and observations. The descriptions of calculation routines and references to procedures and calculation parameters are stored in the database. As calculations are a part of FIDM, no external applications are required to process the forest measurements into final reports. Components of FIDM General structure The data model consists of seven main elements: (1) observations, (2) calculations, (3) models, (4) inventory and stratification, (5) reporting, (6) change management, and (7) data dictionary (Fig. 2). Every main element consists of entity sets that have links within the main element and between them. In this paper the main elements are in single quotation marks and the entity sets are in italics. When applying FIDM in practice, every main element of the data model is represented by an element of database with the same name, and every individual entity of the data model is represented by a database table of the same name. In the database there are also some auxiliary tables defined to represent many-to-many relations, such as a relation between a sample plot and a forest stratum.

The elements of FIDM are designed to serve and support all the functions of land resource management systems. FIDM forms a kernel of an information system that is capable of performing operations from a simple ASCII-data input to complex GIS operations. Observations The entity set observations covers all measured characteristics from field, like soil class, diameter of tree, or length of tree branch. Those are stored in a hierarchical uniform storage structure that is independent of the initial arrangement of the data. This idea was originally presented by Kurttio et al. (1991) and improved by Alm et al. (1994). Objects of field measurements are defined as hierarchical observation units (Fig. 3), like stand, plot, and tree. Each observation unit is related to its type, possible observed and derived values, and to a reference point. Each observed and derived value is related to an interpretation of value and via it to a unit of measurement. Nominal values, such as forest type classes or field crew members, are always stored as numerical codes in observed values. The key of these codes is stored in text format as description of nominal value. When observation data are stored in the database, the horizontal data structure of the field data collection (i.e., one row containing all the data of one observation unit) is changed into the vertical data structure of FIDM. Each row contains only one observed value and links (relations) to its observation unit and its interpretation. A database based on FIDM contains a small number of long and narrow tables compared with the traditional approach with several wide and short tables. When an application uses the database, it can, if necessary, rebuild the horizontal data structure. (Fig. 4). Hierarchical observation units are common in forest measurements. The hierarchy levels are handled in FIDM by defining a relation from an observation unit to itself, which allows an unrestricted number of levels to be stored in the same data structure (Table 1). One table can be used, for example, for five levels of observation units: forest stands, which have sample plots, which have trees, which have branches, which have needles. Each hierarchy level has observed attributes that are stored in the table observed values: that is, stand quality, mean age by plot, tree height, branch biomass, and needle length; and calculated attributes in the table derived values, such as timber volume
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Tokola et al. Fig. 3. Observations of FIDM.

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Table 1. Entity set observation unit. Field ID Name Sdate Edate Cdate LayerID ObjectID Typ_OU ObsUni RefPoi Explanation Identification code, automatic, internal, unique Identification, external, e.g., number of sample plot or forest stand Date when observation unit was observed Date after which observation is no longer valid Calculation date for the results of observation unit Identification of the GIS layer where observation unit is stored Identification of observation unit within the GIS layer Link to type of observation unit, e.g., to the sample plots layout Link to parent observation unit, e.g., from tree to plot Link to reference point, to the location of observation unit

Table 2. Entity set derived value containing calculated values of an observation unit. Field ObsUni IntVal Value ParSet Explanation Link to observation unit Link to interpretation of value, i.e., explanation of value Calculated value of observation unit, e.g., mean height of a stand, volume of a tree Link to parameter set (and to model) that was used to calculate value

by stand, leaf biomass by plot, bark value by tree, branch weight, and needle nutrient content (Table 2). The entity set type of observation unit distinguishes the observation units from each other and is linked to its value, which stores its characteristics, such as the area of the sample plot. The validity of observation unit is controlled with the field Edate (Table 1), which can be used to mark observation as dead. Values are never updated, but new a observation unit can be created if a new measurement will be done. An old observation unit can be linked to other stratum within stratification. If new a stratum is created, interpretation of value can be updated from value of change area. Models Models in forest inventory describe the state and processes of nature and are used to estimate such things as the amount of bark in a tree stem or the annual volume growth of a forest stand. The main element models of FIDM is linked to the ele-

ments observations and calculations by its main entity model. Together with models calculations calculate and add derived values into the observations, which share a common index in interpretation of value. For instance, volume models are used in forest inventory calculations for single tree volume and timber volume by stand. Model contains mathematical formula of a model in text format and links to variables and parameter sets (Fig. 5, Table 3). Parameter set has links to parameters, where individual parameter values are stored, and to restrictions of parameter sets. Restrictions define certain parameter sets to be valid, say, only in a certain geographical region or only for certain tree species. Models can be organized into different groups (growth models, multiplicative models, Australian eucalyptus models, etc.) according to the users preferences for their easy management. When more and more observations are stored in the database, FIDM supports increasing accuracy of modeling and use of the models, which can be automatically calibrated and different parameter sets used in, say, different topographical conditions within an application area. The valid parameters can be retrieved by checking their starting and ending dates. Calculations Calculations is linked to observations and models. Calculations uses observed values with models and returns derived values to observations.
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Calculations is hierarchically structured. The highest element is calculation type (Table 4), which is directly linked to type of observation unit of observations (Fig. 5). At the second hierarchy level is calculation topic (Table 5), where the subjects of calculation are defined. Calculation method lists techniques to calculate a topic, while calculation routine links calculations to model. Attributes of each calculation run can be stored, thus enabling the repetition of calculations. Consequently, there is no need to store derived values in the database, since those can be recalculated if required. As an example of the above, in a forestry application, calculation type fixed area calculations uses sample plots of type fixed area to calculate topic volume by method single tree. Calculation routine uses model allometric formula for volume and resulting stem volumes are inserted into derived values. Inventory and stratification Map and other georeferenced data are managed by inventory and stratification, which is linked with all the other elements of the FIDM. Inventory and stratification holds information

about the initial phases of establishing a forest information system, e.g., storage of inventory layout. An inventory contains at least one stratification method, and its strata, stratum values, and stratum units (Fig. 6). Stratum values are calculated from observed and derived values of observations and can be assigned to all the stratum units of a stratum. Stratum units are spatially delineated components of a stratum. A single inventory can have several stratifications based, for example, on different interpretation methods of satellite imagery. There can simultaneously be several active inventories of the same geographical area, for instance, one based on pixelwise interpretation of satellite imagery and another based on visual standwise interpretation of aerial photos. Both active inventories may use the same set of field observations, separate sets, or a combination of the two. The inventories can be kept in one database or they can have databases of their own. Spatial objects such as stratum unit (and observation unit, change area, report unit, and report area) are entities in FIDM. A relational database implementing FIDM does not store spatial objects as such, instead, those are stored in GIS,
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Tokola et al. Fig. 5. Models and calculations of FIDM.

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Table 3. Entity set model. Field ID Name Descript Sdate Edate Formula LongFor FileName Int_Val Explanation Identification code, automatic, internal, unique Identification, external, e.g., volume by F Description of model, e.g., model of volume based on the form factor Date when the model was created Date when the model was replaced with a new one Calculation formula, e.g., V = a G H F Long formula, e.g., volume (m3) = parameter a basal area (m2) mean height (m) form value Name of the file where formula is stored in source code Link to interpretation of value, e.g., stand volume

Table 4. Entity set calculation type describes calculation types used in system. Field Name Descript FileName Explanation Identification, e.g., fixed plot calculation or relascope plot calculation Description of type, e.g., calculations for fixed radii sample plot Name of the file where calculation type is stored in source code

change and new strata with new observation units and stratum values have to be created. Areally large changes may cause new stratification or even new inventory. Reporting Reporting is an independent module and separated from the database to serve queries to the database and to the GIS by attribute and spatial requirements. Reporting contains predefined report layouts that can be used as such or modified freely (Fig. 7). Report area consists of spatial report units that are linked to spatial stratum units. Values for reporting are obtained through stratum units, which have links to stratum values and to map data in GIS. Reports can be produced for any area within the inventory area with any attributes in observed or derived values. Report unit can consist of one or several stratum units; e.g., regional reporting could have municipalities as report units and forest stands as stratum units. Data dictionary The data dictionary (also called meta database) and its main entity reference info contain descriptions of data sets available for the system. The factors of meta information are (1) characterization of the data (e.g., the contents and accuracy of the data sets), (2) information about the sources, modifications,
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which handles spatial analysis. Only the description of spatial objects and their identification in GIS are in the database (Table 6). However, stratum unit is a spatially delineated, independent area within stratum, like single forest stand within the fertile forest stands stratum. Changes Changes is represented by change area and type of change. Type of change can be any change caused by human interference or natural causes within an inventory area. Change area is the area where type of change took place (Fig. 6). Change area is linked to stratification and stratum unit. Changes taking place in the inventory area cause the change area to switch from one stratum to another, thus causing the life-span of the existing stratum units to end and new ones to begin. Such change would be, for example, clear-cutting, changing a mature forest into an open area or into a seedling stand, depending on the length of the survey period. In some cases there is no existing stratum for a stratum unit after the

1592 Fig. 6. Inventory and stratification and change of FIDM.

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Fig. 7. Reporting of FIDM.

and manipulations of data sets, (3) information about accessibility, and (4) status of the data sets (whether the data set is active and stored in the GIS and in the database or passive and stored in the archive). The meta information is stored in freeformat text files, allowing the user to enter any text information into the data dictionary. References can be grouped according to their contents; e.g., to digital elevation models, paper prints of aerial photographs, or unprocessed satellite imagery. Target area of reference defines the geographical limits of the information in the system. This can be used to retrieve all the information, active and passive, from an area of interest (Fig. 8). Applications of FIDM The data model was designed to support management of different levels of forest inventory data and different scales of forest inventory. Since there are no means to evaluate a data

model statistically, functionality of FIDM has been tested by constructing practical applications that differ from each other by sampling layout and by the type and amount of data managed. One operative application of FIDM is management of prefelling and after-felling data of logging sites. These 1-km2 areas (0.4 mi2) each are tallied by 100% sampling: all trees bigger than a threshold diameter are measured before and after selective cutting. Forest characteristics are derived by FIDM calculations and tree location maps of logging area produced by a commercial GIS software. Another example of different scope (intermediate level areal coverage) where FIDM has been applied is forest inventory by stand, where inventory area is stratified on aerial photographs and field plots measured by forest compartment. Area of each stand is 110 ha (225 acres), and the total area of each inventory is from a few hundred to a few thousand hectares (acres). Two applications have been constructed for large area inventory by stratified cluster sampling using satellite imagery: one for national forest inventory on a district level and another for forest land allocation and land use planning. Both of these cases cover several hundred thousand hectares (0.5 106 acres); one has only 160 field sample plots, while the another has 5000. FIDM has been functional in these extreme cases described above. Based on experience gained, a few modifications to the attributes of some entities have been made, and some supportive entities added, but the general structure of the data model has not been changed, thus proving the initial design comprehensive and the requirements met. As such, FIDM can be applied to various types of forest inventories, and its use can be extended to management of other natural resources as well.
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Tokola et al. Fig. 8. Data dictionary of FIDM.

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Table 5. Entity set calculation topic. Field Name Descript CalTyp Priority Explanation Identification of calculation topic, e.g., volume, biomass Description of topic, e.g., volume calculations Link to calculation type Calculation priority of models. Models are applied in predefined sequence, e.g., height model is applied before volume can be calculated Enforced calculations, e.g., height calculation is executed always automatically Name of the file where calculation topic is stored in source code

Table 6. Contents of entity set stratum unit. Field ID Number Sdate Edate Area LayerID ObjectID Stratum Explanation Identification code, automatic, internal, unique Identification code, external. e.g., field compartment on a map Date when stratum unit was created Date when life-span of stratum unit ended Area of stratum unit in square metres Identification of GIS layer where stratum unit is stored Identification of stratum unit within the GIS layer Link to stratum

Enforced FileName

However, thorough understanding of the data model is needed to be able to maintain and update the database. The applications of FIDM have been implemented by commercial (ARC/INFO, MS-ACCESS) and noncommercial (GRASS, Postgres) software in several operating systems (Linux, Unix, MS-DOS). Powerful personal computers and work stations give the best results in operative use. Effective optimization is required from the database management system implementing the data model. As most of the data are stored in long tables, reply times of an ineffective DBMS can be long.

Conclusions
In this study an application-independent entity-relationship data model for forest inventory (FIDM) was developed. A system designer can use FIDM for land resource information systems with no need to create a new data model for every new application. The updating of databases is easy if there is no need to change the database structure when entering new types of attributes into database. The initial requirements in the planning phase of FIDM were that the data model must be portable to multiple software and hardware installations and to various cases of forest inventory. The requirements were met by defining the entities of the data model in general terms with little regard to the specific terminology of forest inventory. The dynamic nature of geographical information is difficult

to represent in an ER model if relationships between geographic objects (points, lines, and polygons) are to be properly modeled (Paananen 1994). In FIDM the management of spatial objects is done in a layer-oriented GIS. Spatial objects are described as entities in FIDM, but their spatial relationships are managed by GIS. The data model contains links of spatial objects to their GIS layers and to their object identification within the GIS layers. The data model supports combining spatial data from GIS and attribute data of relational database. The spatial entities of the data model are not restricted to a single geometric presentation, but spatial objects can be described in GIS in either a vector or raster format. Forestry calculations utilize methods that are specific by sampling unit type and regression models that describe forest characteristics. FIDM has entity sets for calculations of state and dynamics or forest resources, such as stand biomass or tree growth. Regression models are stored in the database with their formulae and restrictions and are directly linked to calculations and observations. The models in the database are labeled with starting and ending dates, which enables calculation for forestry monitoring and planning. There is no need to keep all the data for backward calculations or for future prediction simultaneously in the system, since the calculations can be rerun with sets of models and field observations that match temporally. Because all the data have been coded using their interpretations, the database is not easy to use with direct queries. In most cases an application software and special user interface are needed, allowing the use of properly defined queries and
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Can. J. For. Res. Vol. 27, 1997 view of data. ACM Transactions on Database Systems, 1(1), 936. ACM press, New York. Date, C.J. 1986. An introduction to database systems. Vol. 1. 4th ed. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass. Elmasri, R., and Navathe, S. 1989. Fundamentals of database systems. Benjamin/Cummings, Redwood City, Calif. Hull, R., and King, R. 1987, Semantic database modeling: survey, applications and research issues. ACM Computing Surveys, 19(3): 201260. ACM press, New York. Kangas, A. 1994. Model based methods of inference for forest inventory. Research Notes, No. 26. Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu, Joensuu, Finland. Klein, H.K., and Hirschheim, R.A. 1987. A comparative framework of data modelling paradigms and approaches. Comput. J. 30(1): 815. Kurttio, O., Talkkari, A., and Turkia, A. 1991. The design of data management system for research measurement. In Current advances in the use of computers in forest research. Edited by H. Saarenmaa. Workshop of the IUFRO Working Party S4.1103, 14 Feb. 1991, Joensuu, Finland. Finn. For. Res. Inst. Res. Pap. 383. pp. 4351. Mandallaz, D. 1991. A unified approach to sampling theory for forest inventory based on infinite population and superpopulation models. Chair of Forest Inventory and Planning, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zurich. Mandallaz, D. 1993. Geostatistical methods for double sampling schemes: application to combined forest inventories. Chair of Forest Inventory and Planning, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zurich. Paananen, R. 1994. A data model for a GIS-based forest information system. Finn. For. Res. Inst. Res. Pap. 493. Peuquet, D.J., and Duan, N. 1995. An event-based spatiotemporal data model (ESTDM) for temporal analysis of geographical data. Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Syst. 9(1): 724. Saarenmaa, H., Lehto, K., Kaila, E., Salminen, H., and Pntinen, J. (Editors). 1990. Information system strategy of the Forest Research Institute. Finn. For. Res. Inst. Res. Pap. 350. [In Finnish.] Schreuder, H.T., and Wood, G.B. 1986. The choice between design dependent and model-dependent sampling. Can. J. For. Res. 16: 260265. Siitonen, M. 1993. Experiences in the use of forest management planning models. Silva Fenn. 27(2): 167178. Teorey, T.J., Yang, D., and Fry, J.P. 1986. A logical design methodology for relational databases using the extended entity-relationship model. ACM Computing Surveys, 18(2): 197222. ACM press, New York. Tomppo, E. 1992. Multi-source national forest inventory of Finland. In Proceedings of Ilvessalo Symposium on National Forest Inventories. Organized by IUFRO S4.02. Finn. For. Res. Inst. Res. Pap. 444: 5259.

correct interpretations. Compared with traditional database designs the system based on FIDM is slower, because searches are usually made through several tables. Temporal databases in which entities are tracked over time are not widely used in forestry, although a lot of historical information could be used in prediction of present forest characteristics. The simulation of development of forest characteristics over long periods is a basic tool for forest planning calculations (Siitonen 1993). A realistic stand description is very important when simulations of stand development are made (Siitonen 1993). The spatio-temporal look in either a forward or backward temporal direction allows better characterization of reality and makes it possible to use spatial behavior of objects in prediction (e.g., spatial growth models). Applications of FIDM have been constructed to verify its suitability for inventory cases that differ in scale and methodology. All the applications tested so far have been functional, proving FIDM suitable to a wide range of inventories and management of natural resources.

Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Ministry of Education of Finland. The authors thank Dr. Tuula Nuutinen, Dr. Kari Korhonen, and M.Sc. Aki Nalli for their advice and ideas during the methodology development. We also thank M.Sc. Raito Paananen, Dr. Timo Pukkala, Dr. Jussi Saramki, and Dr. Raimo Rask for their valuable comments and suggestions on the manuscript.

References
Alm, J., Lempinen, R., Turkia, A., and Talkkari, A. 1994. Database for supporting spatial data integration in SILMU research programme. In EGIS / MARI 1994, Conference Proceedings, 29 Mar. 1 Apr. 1994, Paris. Edited by J. Harts, H. Ottens, and H. Scholten. Vol. 2. EGIS Foundation, Utrecht/Amsterdam, Netherlands. pp. 11861193. Batini, C., Lenzerini, M., and Navathe, S.B. 1986. A comparative analysis of methodologies for database schema integration. ACM Computing Surveys, 18(4): 323364. ACM press, New York. Batini, C., Ceri, S., and Navathe, S.B. 1992. Conceptual database design. An entity-relationship approach. Benjamin/Cummings, Redwood City, Calif. Bowers, D.S. 1988. From data to database. van Nostrand Reihold, Wokingham, U.K. Chen, P.P. 1976. The entity relationship modeltoward a unified

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