CHAPTER 13 Vapour and Combined Power Cycles 13.1. INTRODUCTION In air standard cycles, the working fluid remains as a gas throughout the entire cycle. But in vapour power cycles, the working fluid is alternatively vaporized and condensed. Steam is the most common working fluid used in vapour power cycles because of desirable characteristics such as low cost, availability, and high enthalpy of vaporization. Other working fluids used include sodium, Potassium, and mercury for high temperature applications and some organic fluids such as benzene and the freons for low temperature applications. The majority of this chapter is devoted to the discussion of steam power plants, which produce most of the electric power in the world today. 13.2. THE CARNOT VAPOUR CYCLE We already discussed that the carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating between two specified temperature levels. Therefore it is natural to consider the possibilities of carnot cycle to be an ideal vapour power cycle. The processes for a carnot cycle are already discussed. Even for ease of understanding let us review the process of carnot cycle. The cycle is represented in T-s plot as shown in Fig. 13.1 1-2 — Isothermal heating process. 2-3 — Isentropic expansion process. 3-4 — Isothermal heat rejection process. 4-1 — Isentropic compression process. But in actual practice carnot cycle is not used in vapour power cycles due to the following impracticalities associated with this cycle. 1. Isothermal heat transfer to or from a two phase Fig. 13:1 system is difficult to achieve in practice. 2. During the isentropic expansion process (process 2-3) at a specific state the quality of steam is very poor ice. at state 3, steam is available with a high moisture content. The impingement of liquid drop on the turbine blade willVapour and Combined Power Cycles 409 cause erosion and is a major source of wear. Hence steam with qualities less than 90% cannot be tolerated in the operation of power plants. 3. The isentropic compression process involves the compression of a liquid- vapour mixture to a saturated liquid. There are two difficulties associated with this process. First it is not easy to control the condensation process so precisely as to end up with the desired quality at state secondly it is not practical to design a compressor to handle two phases of the working medium. Thus we conclude that the carnot cycle cannot be approximated in actual devices and is not realistic model for vapour power cycles. 13.3 IDEAL RANKINE CYCLE Many of the difficulties associated with the camot cycle can be eliminated by superheating the steam in the boiler and condensing it completely in the condenser. The resulting cycle which contains the above modification is called as Rankine cycle, which is the ideal cycle for vapour power plants. The process of Rankine cycle is schematically represented in Fig. 13.2 Also the figure 13.3 shows the cycle on T-s plot. Boiler > 1 Turbine Wr 4 Q, Fig. 13.2 The-ideal Rankine cycle consists of the following processes. 1, Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler. 2. Isentropic expansion in a turbine. 3. Constant pressure heat rejection in a con- denser. 4. Isentropic compression in a pump. Water, the working substance in liquid phase enters the boiler at state | and leaves at state 2 as410 ‘Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering a superheated vapour. The boiler is actually a large scale heat exchanger where heat originating from combustion of gases or from other sources is transferred to water at constant pressure. To get the higher efficiency from the power plant, at the exit of the boiler, the state of working medium should be in superheated region, to accomplish it, superheater is employed. The boiler along with superheater is often called as steam generator. The super- heated vapour at state 2 enters the turbine, where it expands isentropically and produces work by rotating the shaft connected to an electric generator. The pressure and temperature of the steam drops during this process to the values at state 3. At this stage steam enters the condenser. At state 3, the steam is usually a saturated liquid-vapour mixture with a high quality. Steam is condensed at constant pressure in the condenser, which is basically a large heat exchanger, by rejecting the heat to a cooling medium such as atmosphere or lake or river. In areas where water is precious, air is used as a cooling medium instead of water. If air is used as cooling medium then the résulting power plant is said to employ dry cooling system. Steam leaving the condenser as a saturated liquid enters the pump at state 4. It is isentropically compressed to the operating pressure of the boiler at state 1. The water temperature increases slightly during the compression process. 13.4 ANALYSIS OF IDEAL RANKINE CYCLE Let us write (or apply) the steady flow energy equation on unit mass basis for all the components available in Rankine cycle. 13.4.1 Boiler Heat is supplied to the system at constant pressure. No work transfer and change in kinetic energy is also negligible. Therefore, the SFEE (, v3 (tats + 5Q= hy +42 + W becomes, hy+dQ=h, . If heat supplied to the system is Q, Q,=h,- hy 13.4.2. Turbine Here, expansion of the working substance occurs isentropically, then pro- ducing positive work transfer. Also, the change in Kinetic energy is negligible. Hence, SFEE for the turbine can be written as, hy=hy+ OWVapour and Combined Power Cycles 4 If the work done in the turbine is represented as W, W, = hy — hy . 13.4.3 Condenser Heat is rejected from the working substance at constant pressure. Similar to the consideration of boiler, the SFEE for condenser can be expressed as, hy + 6Q=h, “Since the heat flow out of the system, -ve symbol is used. If heat rejected from the system is expressed as Q, Q, = hs— hy 13.4.4 Pump SFEE for the operation of pump is hy =h, - 6W In order to operate the pump, work is supplied to the system. Therefore —ve symbol is given to work transfer. If work done on the pump is expressed as W,, W, = hy hy. The pump handles water (as a saturated liquid) which is incompressible i.e. its density or specific volume undergoes a little change with an increase in pressure. Also, the compression process in the pump is isentropic. The combined first and second law of thermodynamics yields. Tds = dh ~ vdp, Since for isentropic process ds=0 Therefore, dh — vdp =0 = dh = vdp. Since the change in specific volume is negligible Ah = v- (Ap) +. For the pump h, — hy = v,(p; — Pa), Where v is the specific volume in m’/kg and p is in N/m* The efficiency of the Rankine Cycle is given by, — Woes hy — hy) — (hy —hy) HO. yh) Usually, the pump work is very small when compared with turbine work and therefore in some cases, the magnitude of pump work can be neglected. Then hy = hy. ‘ Hence the efficiency equation will become hy —hy ~ hy —hy Te412 ‘Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering The capacity of a steam power plant is often expressed in terms of steam rate (or) Specific steam consumption which is defined as the rate of steam flow (kg/hr) required to produce unit shaft output (1 kW). Mathematically, Steam rate = 260 je W-hr Woes The efficiency of the power plant is often expressed in terms of heat rate, which is the amount of heat supplied to generate 1 kW-hr of electricity. The smaller heat rate, higher will be the efficiency of the plant. Heat rate = 2602.9, = 3600._id ~ Ww, Noyce. KW-hr. Also, the performance of the cycle can be compared on the basis of work ratio, which is defined as the ratio between net work output to the turbine work. Work ratio = Wye/Wp The following diagrams shows the Rankine cycle on T-s and h-s plot. Figure 13.4, 13.5 show the Rankine cycle with saturated steam at the inlet of the turbine s Fig. 13.4 Fig. 13.5 Figures 13.6 and 13.7 shows the rankine cycle with superheated steam at the inlet of the turbine.Vapour and Combined Power Cycles 413 Figures 12.8 and 12.9 shows the Rankine cycle with wet steam at the inlet of the turbine. h Ss s Fig. 13.8 Fig. 13.9 ACTUAL RANKINE CYCLE The actual Rankine cycle differs from the ideal cycle as shown in Fig. 13.10 as a result of irreversibilities in various components. Fluid function and undesired heat losses to the surroundings are the two common sources of irreversibilities. Fluid function causes pressure drops in the boiler, condenser and the piping between various components. As a result, steam leaves the boiler at somewhat lower pressure. Also the pressure at the turbine inlet is somewhat lower than that at the boiler exit due to pressure drop in the connecting pipes. The pressure drop in the condenser is usually very small. To compensate for these pressure drops, the water must be pumped to a sufficiently higher pressure, than it is needed for ideal cycles. This requires a larger work input for the pump. The second source of irreversibility is the heat loss from the. steam to the surroundings. To maintain the same level of net work output, more heat needs to be transferred in the boiler to compensate for these undesired heat losses. This in turn reduces cycle efficiency. The important result of irreversibilities lies with the opera- tion of pump and turbine. Due to this effect the pump requires a large amount of work input and the turbine delivers smaller, amount of work ‘output than obtained from the ideal cycles. Therefore the net work output decreases which reduces cycle efficiency. The deviation of actual pump and turbine operation from the ideal isentropic operation can be expressed as the efficiency of pump and turbine respectively. Also, these irreversibilities are shown in Fig. 13.11 Fig. 13.10414 ‘Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering and p= 28 sn and hy iy hy and the enthalpy at state points obtained from ideal processes whereas h,, h, are the enthalpy at state points obtained from actual processes. 13.6 MODIFICATION TO IMPROVE Fig. 13.11 CYCLE EFFICIENCY From the earlier section we discussed that due to pressure losses, the heat supply to the working substance increases which reduces the cycle effi- ciency. Due to irreversibilities, work done by the turbine decreases, work done on the pump increases. Hence the W,,. reduces leads to reduction in cycle efficiency. Hence, in order to increase the cycle efficiency in the simple Rankine cycle the following methods can be employed. T 2 13.6.1 Lowering the Condenser Pressure This results in increase in work output from the turbine. So, the net work output increases resulting in increased cycle efficiency as shown in Fig. 13.12. Here, the condenser pressure is increased from p; to p; . Hence the steam expands from /, to hy instead of h, to h;. Since hy > hy , hy — hy hy hy — hy > hy — hy. So, the efficiency of the cycle will improve. The temperature to which steam can be superheated is limited by metallurgical considerations. Presently, the highest steam temperature allowed at turbine Fig. 13.13 Fig. 13.12Vapour and Combined Power Cycles 415 inlet is about 620°C. Any increase in this value depends on improving the present material or finding new ones that can withstand higher temperatures.: Ceramics are very promising ‘in this regard in the future turbine bladings. 13.6.3 Increasing the Boiler Pressure ‘The boiler operating pressure can be raised as 47 2 shown in Fig. 13.14. 2 In this case, heat is supplied to the working substance is between 1-2’ instead of 1-2. Since the area under 1-2’ is less than that under 1-2, heat supplied gets reduced in the boiler resulting in improved cycle efficiency. Here from the T-s diagram it can be noticed that the a a3 point 3’ is shifted to the left means that the s moisture content at the exit of the turbine in- Fig. 13.14 creases leads to wear in the turbine blades. From the earlier discussion, the effect of lowering condenser pressure, superheating to a higher temperature and increases the boiler pressure im- proves the efficiency. But all the methods have some disadvantages. Hence some of the methods should be selécted to improve the cycle efficiency. 13.7 REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE In the last section, we discussed that the increase in boiler pressure increases the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle but it also increases the moisture content of the steam to unacceptable levels. Then it is natural to ask the following question in mind. How can we increase the efficiency at higher boiler pressure without facing the problem of excessive moisture at the final stages of the turbine. The answer for this question is, there are two possibilities. (1) Superheat the steam to very high temperature before it enters into the turbine. This would be a desirable solution to increase the cycle efficiency but it is not a viable solution, however since it will require raising the steam temperature to metallurgically unsafe levels. (2) Second possibility is expand the steam in the turbine in two stages and reheat it in between. In other words, modify the simple ideal Rankine cycle with a reheat process. Reheating is a practical solution to the excessive moisture problem in turbine, and it is used frequently in modern steam power plans. The schematic diagram of an ideal reheat Rankine cycle operating power plant is shown in Fig. 13.15. The ideal reheat Rankine cycle differ from the simple Rankine cycle in that the expansion process takes place in two stages. In the first stage, steam is expanded in the high pressure turbine isentropically416 Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering Pump Fig. 13.15 to an intermediate pressure. Then it is send back to the boiler where it is reheated at constant pressure usually, to the inlet temperature of the first stage of the turbine. Steam then expands isentropically in the low pressure turbine to the condenser pressure. The incorporation of the single reheat in a modern power plant improves the cycle efficiency by 4 to 5 percentage. The problem is explained in 7-s diagram as shown in 3 Fig. 13.16. Fig. 13.16 13.8 ANALYSIS OF IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE As we discussed earlier, heat is supplied to the steam in two stages. Initially, heat is supplied between states 1 and 2 at constant pressure. Hence, based on unit mass basis, Heat supplied Q, = (hy ~ hy) kilkg. Also, the steam is reheated between states 3 and 4 at constant pressure. The amount of heat added in this process Q, = hy hy kIfkg Total heat supplied Q,=2,+ Q, = (hy — hy) + (hg — hy) kikVapour and Combined Power Cycles 417 Useful work output is obtained by expanding the steam in the turbine. Here, in the reheat Rankine cycle, expansion is compounded between the stages. The high pressure, high temperature steam expands isentropically in the high pressure turbine between states 2 and 3. On unit mass basis, Wr = hy— hy Again, the reheated steam expands isentropically in the low pressure turbine between states 4 and 5. Hence, work output in LP turbine is Wr = hy- hs Total work output from the turbine Wr= Wr + Wry Wy = (hz ~ hy) + (Ity - hs) The condensed saturated water at state 6 is pumped to the inlet of boiler at state 1 following isentropic compression process. work input required to operate the pump is given by W, = hy ~ he = v, (Py ~ Po) Net work output from the power plant Wres = Wr- W, Net work output The cycle efficiency = oe OE Heat supplied = Wee Q, Also, steam rate for reheat rankine cycle = 3000 | nw .hr. Was By increasing the number of reheats, still higher steam pressures could be used, but the mechanical stresses at a higher proportion at elevated tempera- tures. Hence the cost and fabrication difficulties will also increase. In that way, the maximum steam pressure gets fixed and more than two reheats have not yet been used so far. 13.9 THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE RANKINE CYCLE The Fig. 13.17 shows the T-s diagram of a simple rankine cycle. Here heat is added between states 2 and | at constant pressure. The magnitude of heat addition is Q=h,-h,.418 ‘Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering From the concept of entropy between the states 1 and 2, 82-5, = as where T,, is said to be mean temperature of heat addition. So, Sz 2-H, From the careful analysis of T-s diagram of Rankine cycle, heat is added to the working fluid during the process 1-1’ at a relatively low temperature. This lowers, the average temperature at which heat is added and thus reduces the cycle efficiency. To eliminate this problem, we have to consider to raise the temperature to the liquid leaving the pump, before it enters the boiler. There are two possibilities to increase the temperature of the water. a (1) First possibility is to compress the water isentropically to a high tem- perature as in the Carnot cycle. This would involve extremely high pressures and is therefore impractical. (2) Second possibility is to transfer heat to the feed water from the expand- ing steam in a counter flow heat exchanger built into the turbine, that is, to use regeneration. This solution is also impractical because it is difficult to design such a heat exchanger and because it would increase the moisture content of the steam at the final stages of the turbine. A practical regenera- tion process in steam power plants is accomplished by extracting or bleed- ing steam from the turbine at various points. This steam is used to heat the feedwater. The device where the feedwater is heated by regeneration is called a regenerator or a feedwater heater. A feedwater heater is basically a heat exchanger where heat is transferred from the steam to the feedwater either by mixing the two fluid streams as in open feed waterheater or without mixing them as in the case of closed feedwater heater. The Rankine cycle with regeneration has the following advantages over the simple Rankine cycle. 1. Improves cycle efficiency. 2. Deaerating the feed water—i.e. removing the air that leaks in at the condenser which causes the corrosion in the boiler, Thus deaerating feedwater helps to decrease the corrosion. 3. It controls the large volume flow rate of steam.‘Vapour and Combined Power Cycles 419 13.10 REGENERATION WITH OPEN FEEDWATER HEATER An open (or direct contact) feedwater heater is basically a mixing chamber where the steam extracted from the turbine mixes with the feedwater leaving the pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure. The schematic diagram of a steam power plant with one open feedwater heater is shown in Fig. 13.8 The T-s diagram of a single- stage regenerative cycle is shown in Fig. 13.19. In an ideal regenerative Rankine cycle, 1 kg of steam enters the turbine at the boiler pressure, state 5, and expands isentropically to an intermediate pressure, state 6. x kg of steam is extracted at this stage and routed to the feed-water heater while the remaining steam of (1 - x) kg continues to expand Fig. 13.18 oa } Pump Il Pump | r (1= 29) kg Wr 1 7 s Fig. 13.19 » i420 ‘Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering isentropically to the condenser pressure, state 7. This steam of (1—x) kg leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid at the condenser pressure, state 1. The condensed water, which is also called the feedwater, then enters an isentropic pump: Pump 1 isentropically pumps the water to, state 2 and is routed to the feedwater heater where it mixes with the steam extracted from the turbine. The fraction of the steam extracted such that the mixture leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure, state 3. A pump II raises the pressure of the water to the boiler pressure, state 4. The cycle is completed by heating the water in the boiler to the turbine inlet, state 5. 13.11 ANALYSIS OF REGENERATIVE RANKINE CYCLE WITH OPEN FEED WATER HEATER Total work done in the turbine is equal to the work done by 1 kg of steam from state points of 5 to 6 plus the work done by (1 ~ x) kg of steam between states 6 and 7. ” W, = 1 (hy— hg) + (1 = x) (ig - hy) Work done on the pump is done in two stages. Since the pump I handles (1 - x) kg of water and it compresses water from state 1 to 2, Wp, = (1 — x) (hy - hy) Also, the pump II handles 1 kg of water between states 3 and 4 Wea = 1 (hg hy) Total work input for the pump, Wp = Wp, + Wp = (1 — x) (Itg — hy) + My — hy) The amount of heat input to the water in the boiler is given by Q, = Mhs ~ hy) The net work output for the cycle, et = Wr - Wy - Wore The cycle efficiency = —>* Also, the steam rate = a kg/kW-hr nt The amount of steam bleeded into the feedwater | Feed water (1 ~ ») kg heater can be found from the energy balance equation. The Fig. 13.20 shows the mass in and mass out details of the feedwater heater. Writing the energy balance equation kg -—® x-he+(1—x) =1Xhy xhg + h,—x +h, =hy Fig. 13.20 (Ig = hy) = hy —‘Vapour and Combined Power Cycles 421 Ih, — In . hg — hy Amount of steam bleeded, x = 13.12 REGENERATION WITH CLOSED FEEDWATER HEATER Another type of feedwater heater frequently used in steam power plant is the closed feedwater heater in which heat is transferred from the extracted steam to the feedwater without mixing together. The two streams now can be at different pressures, since they do not mix. The schematic diagram of a steam power plant with one closed feedwater heater and the T-s diagram of the cycle is shown in Fig. 13.21. af +0 ye =O Pump | ® ©@ Pump Il Fig. 13.21 In an ideal closed feedwater heater, the feedwater is heated to the exit temperature of the extracted steam, which ideally leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the extraction pressure. In actual power plants, the feedwater leaves the heater below the exit temperature of the extracted steam because a temperature difference of at least a few degrees is required for any effective heat transfer takes place. The open and closed422 ‘Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering feed-water heater can be compared as follows. Open feedwater heaters are simple and inexpensive and have good heat transfer characteristics. They also bring the feedwater to the Saturation State. But for each heater a pump is required to handle the feedwater. The closed feedwater heaters are more complex because of the internal tubing network to keep the condensed water away from the bleeded steam from the turbine. Thus, they are more expensive. Heat transfer in closed heater is also less effective since the two streams are not allowed to be in contact. However, closed feedwater heater do not require a separate pump for each heater. Most steam power plants use a combination of open and closed feedwater heaters. 13.13 REHEAT-REGENERATIVE RANKINE CYCLE The effect of reheat alone on the thermal efficiency of the cycle is very small. Regeneration is heating up of feedwater by steam extracted from the turbine has a remarkable effect on cycle efficiency. Fig. 13.23 shows the schematic view and T-s plot of reheat-regenerative rankine cycle. Fig. 13.23 Here, 1 kg of steam is produced in the Boiler and ‘x’ kg of steam from the HP turbine is bleeded into heater 1. The remaining quantity (1 — x) kg is reheated and permitted to enter the LP turbine. In the LP turbine y kg and z kg of steam is bleeded into heaters 2 and 3 respectively. Wy = Mig — hys) + (1 = x) (ys ~ hyo) + = x) (hy ~ ya) + (1= x=) (yg— My) + (1-2) (yy — hd)Vapour and Combined Power Cycles Fig. 13.24 Wp = (= x= y-2) (y— hy) + (= x=) (y= hy) + (1 = 2) (lg ~ hs) + Mg ~ hy) Wee = Wr - Wp Q, = My ~ hg) + (1 = x) (yy = I) Wax Nowe =O The values of x, y and z can be found by energy balance equation for heater 1, 2, 3 respectively. For heater 1, the energy balance equation is Xo hyst(1—x) hg= 1X hy. yo nhs Is — he For heater 2, y+ hy. +(1-x-y) hy= (1-2) hs => Yo hy + hy xhy— yhy = hs— x hs Whyz — hy) = his — hy + x(hy— hs) = (hy — hs) (1 - x) 2 (Iax-y-2 (-x-9424 ‘Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering and the energy balance for heater 3 is zh +(L-x-y-2)- hy =(1-x-y)- hy = zh, hy — xhy— yh; ~ zhy = hy — xh, + yhy 2(hy3 — hy) = hy — hy — x(hy — hy) - y(hs - hy) hy-h, Iys—hy z=(l-x-y) 13.14 BINARY VAPOUR CYCLE In most of the applications in Rankine cycles the working fluid predomi- nantly used, is water. Water is the best working fluid presently available, but it is far from ideal case. The binary cycle is an attempt to'overcome some of the short coming of water and to approach the ideal working fluid by using two fluids. Before that, let us list the desirable characteristics of a working fluid 1. A high critical temperature and a safe maximum pressure—These conditions will make the cycle approach the Carnot cycle. Based on metallurgical aspects maximum temperature of the cycle should not exceed 620°C. 2. Low triple point temperature—The triple point temperature should be far below the temperature of the cooling medium to avoid any solidifi- cation problem. 3. Condenser pressure should not be too low—If the condenser pressure is too low, it will cause air leakage problem. 4. A high enthalpy of vaporization (hy). 5. High thermal conductivity. 6. It should be inert, non toxic, inexpensive and should be easily available. Not surprisingly, no fluid posseses all these characteristics. Water comes closest, although it does not fare well with respect to characte ics | and 3. Water has a low critical temperature i.e. nearly 374°C and very high saturation pressure. We cannot change the property of water or steam but we can replace it with more suitable fluid during the high temperature part of the cycle. The result is the power cycle that is a combination of two cycles, one is the high temperature region and other is the low temperature region. Such a cycle is called a binary vapour cycle. In binary cycles, the condenser of the high temperature cycle, also called as topping cycle serves as the boiler of the low temperature cycle, also called as bottoming cycle. Thus, heat re- jected from the topping cycle is used as the heat input for the bottoming cycle. Some working fluids found suitable for the high temperature cycle are mercury, sodium, potassium and sodium-potassium mixture. The schematic and T-s plot for mercury-water binary vapour cycle is shown in Fig. 13.26. The critical temperature of Hg is 898°C and its critical pressure is onlyVapour and Combined Power Cycles 425 18 Mpa makes it suitable for topping cycle. But Hg cannot be used as a single working fluid, since its condenser pressure at accepted condenser temperature of 32°C is 0.07 N/m*. This is very very low and is not practical. If we maintain the accepted condenser pressure of 0.07 bar, corresponding temperature of Hg. would be 237°C which is very very high at condenser outlet. Hence, use of Hg is limited to only topping cycle. The main disadvantage of using Hg is, it is toxic and costly. But efficiency of the plant can be increased up to 50% by adopting binary cycles. However, binary cycles are not economically attractive because of their high initial cost and the competition offered by the combined gas and steam power plant. Fig. 13.26 Fig. 13.27 SOLVED PROBLEMS 1. A simple Rankine cycle steam power plant operates between the temperatures of 260°C and 95°C. The steam is supplied to the turbine at a dry saturated condition. In the turbine, it expands in an isentropic manner. Determine the efficiency of Rankine cycle followed by the turbine, and the efficiency of the Carnot cycle, operating between these two temperature limits. Draw turbine cycle on h-s and T-s diagram. Given, Steam Power Plant T, = T, = 260°C = 533 K T, = 95°C = 368 K To Find, Mp. Meare426 Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering Fig. 13.28 Fig. 13.29 Solution: From Steam tables At 260°C (dry saturated) p2 = 46.943 bar, 796.4 kIikg, 5, = 6.001 kJ/kg - K. At 95°C p, = 84526 bar, yy = 398 Ki/kg = Ings = 2270.1 KI/kg Sp = 1.250 kI/kg - K, Sqs = 6.167 kI/kg - K. 3 = Spy + X3 Ses Since -250 + x; (6.167) 2. Condition of steam at point “3° = x, = 0.7704 hy = hig + Xyhgs = 398 + (.7704 x 2270.1) = 2146.86 kJ/kg hy —hy _ 2796.4 — 2146.86 = BOB LEAN _ TOR "TR - Thy 27964 398 _ Fa _ 533-368 Meat = 3 2. A steam engine is supplied with 90% dry steam at a pressure of 10 bar. The exhaust takes place at 1.1 bar. Determine (i) Rankine efficiency (ii) Percentage increase in efficiency if the steam has a temperature of 250°C before entering the cylinder. Given, Steam Engine , = 10 bar, p, = 1.1 bar, x; = 0.9; f, = 250°C To Find, my % increase in efficiencyVapour and Combined Power Cycles 427 Solution: Case (i) #09. From steam tables At lO bar, hp = 762.6 kI/kg, hnyg, = 2013.6 KS/kg Sp = 2.138 kI/kg - K, Sp = 4445 kI/kg - K. At Ll bar, ig = 428.8 ki/kg - K, Iigs = 2250.8 kJ/kg - K, Sp = 1.333 ki/kg - K, Ss = 5.995 ki/kg - K We know that, for wet steam hy = hy + 3 hy = 762.6 + (0.9 X 2013.6) 574.84 kI/kg 5p = Syq + Xp Sq = 2138 + (0.9 x 4.445) = 6.1385 kI/kg - K and also $3 — 5, = 5+ X53 6.1385 = 1.333 x, (5.995) Condition of steam at *3’ 0.8016 ho +X; Igy = 428.8 + (.8016 x 2250.8) = 2233.01 kiikg _y—hy In —hy _ 2574.84~- 2233.01 Te Thy Te Thy, 2574844288 1 = 15.93% Case (ii) Temperature of Steam at inlet T, = 250°C From steam tables at 10 bar, f,., = 179.9°C. Since T> fy at turbine entry steam Specific enthalpy of superheated steam at 10 bar and 250°C h, = 2943 kglkg. Specific entropy of superheated steam at 10 bar and 250°C s, = 6.926 kIikg. We know that 5) = 55 = 5p +23 Sy 6.926 = 1.333 + x; (5.995) fx = 0.9329) ip + 3 hygs = 428.8 + (0.9329 x 2250.8) = 2528.67 ki/kg Fig. 13.31428 Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering fy —h; _ 2943 - 2528.67 = Tah, Daas O% % increase in efficiency 16.48 - 15.93 = 393 x 100 = 3.453% 3. Steam is supplied to a steam turbine at a pressure of 20 bar and 230°C, it is then expanded isentropically to a pressure of 1 bar. Determine (i) Rankine Efficiency (ii) Specific Volume of steam at the end of expansion. Given, P, = 20 bar, 1, = 230°C, p, = 1 bar To Find, 1p, v5. Solution: From steam tables specific enthalpy of steam (2902.4 - 2794.7) x 30 at 20 bar and 230°C } = 2194.7 + 9 hy = 2859.32 kI/kg Specific entropy of team at 20 bar & 230°C f82=6451 +(6:545- 6451) x 39 = 6.507 kNkg K es $2 =53= Sp 44353 T From steam tables, at 1 bar, 2 hy = 417.5 ki/kg, hg, = 2257.9 kJ/kg, preps trams | /NY 5p = 1.303 ki/kg - K, 5jgs = 6.057 kJ/kg - K; vg, = 1.6938 m/Kg An | S3= + Xs Sigs 4 6.507 = 1.303 + x, (6.057) x; = 0.8592 5 hy = 417.5 + (0.8592 x 2257.9) = 2357.42 ki/kg alam ea oe 20.55% (ii) Specific Volume at the ud of Expansion V5.5Vapour and Combined Power Cycles 429 4, Steam at a pressure of 15 bar and at temperature of 300°C is supplied to a steam turbine working on the Rankine Cycle. If the exhaust takes place at 0.15 bar, evalutate (i) Rankine efficiency and calculate steam consumption in kg/hr to develop 750 kW, if efficiency ratio is 0.6. Given, 0.15 bar .6 T = 15 bar, 1, = 300°C, p, Power = 750 kW, Eff. Ratio = To Find, 7g, m, Solution: From steam tables (superheated) At 15 bar, 300°C => hy = 3038.9 kJ/kg, s, = 6.921 kJ/kg - K. At 0.15 bar, Igy = 226 KM/kg, hygs = 2373.2 kIMkg, Sp = 0.755 kIfkg + K, Sg = 7.254 kIkg + K. We know that 6 = Oy = Sp + 3 Sips 6.921 = 0.755 + x; (7.254) 9 — 2243.2: y= Leal = 3038.9 = 2243.25 _ 98 200 Ty hy, 3038.9 226 We know that Efficiency ratio To Mean. Ty, = May * Eff. ration = 0.2829 x 0.6 = 0.1697 tg = -_Workdone_ _ Power - ‘” Heat Supplied — m, x Heat Supplied mae h) Mass flow rate of Power _ 750 steam Thy (ig hy, ) «167 x (3038.9 ~ 226) mn, = 1.6 Kg/sec x 3600 Cehg=h, and hy= hy) 5656.24 kg/hr.430 Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering 5. A steam power station uses the following cycle steam at boiler outlet = 150 bar and 550°C. Reheat at 40 bar to 550°C. Condenser at 0.1 ar . Using Mollier Chart and assuming ideal processes, find the (a) Quality at tur- bine exhaust, (b) Cycle efficiency, (c) Steam rate. Given, = 150 bar = p, 1 bar To Find, Xs, Meycjes Steam Tate Solution: From Mollier chart At 150 bar and 550°C, hy = 3450 kJ/kg 2-3 => Isentropic process .. Draw a vertical line which cuts at 40 bar > hy = 3050 kJ/kg. Draw constant pressure line (40 bar) to cut at 550°C * hy = 3565 kI/kg, => 45 is Isentropii Draw a vertical line which cuts 0.1 bar line at state 5. > hy = 2290 kI/kg [xs = 0.88]= Quality at turbine exhaust, From steam tables v, =¥5 = v = 0.00101 mg Pump work (W,) = v Ap = v(p, - pg) = 0.00101 x (150 - 0.1) x 100 = 15.14 ki/kg From steam table, fig (at 0.1 bar) = 191.8 kJ/kg. sf, = 0.649 kJ/kg - K 54, = 5p = 0.649 ki/kg - K. wiki W, = hy — hg => hy = W, ~ hig = 15.14 + 19.18 = 206.94 Ki/kg Heat supplied (Q,) = (hy ~ hy) + (hg hy) = (3450 ~ 206.94) + (3565 - 3050) = 3758.06 ki/kg . Turbine work (W,) = (hy ~ hy) + (hy — hs) = (3450 ~ 3050) + (3565 - 2290) = 1675 kJ/kg Way = Wy — Wp = 1675 — 15.14 = 1659.86 kJ/kg Woe _ 1659.86 = a = .17%] Tey Q, 3758.06 A 3600 _ 3600 = = 2.1493 ke/kWh] Steam rate = i, 1675 1493 kg/kWh, W,Vapour and Combined Power Cycles 431 6. In a reheat cycle steam at 550°C expands in an HP turbine till it becomes saturated vapour. It is reheated at constant pressure to 400°C and then expands in a L.P. turbine to 40°C. If the moisture content at turbine exhaust is given to be 14.67% find (a) the reheat pressure, (b) the pressure of steam at inlet to the h.p. turbine, (c) the net work outpuvkg and (d) the cycle efficiency. Assume all process to be ideal. Given, T, = 550°C. T, = 400°C, Ts = 40°C Xs = (1 — 0.1467) = 0.8533. To Find, ps, Pi Wace Meycte Solution: From steam tables at 40°C; Ng = 167.5 kJ/kg = hg Nygs = 2406.9 kI/kg: = 0.07375 bar, Vo = Vy = Vp = 0.001008 miskg ig = lhyy + (Xs X liygs) = 167.5 + (.8533 x 2406.9) = 2221.31 ki/kg. From Mollier Chart: Mark point 5. Draw vertical line to meet 400°C. => 0 bar 245 ki/kg From 4 trace a constant pressure to line meet x = 1. hy = 2800 ki/kg 3-2 Insentropic process (meet 550°C) = p, = 200 bar, hy = 3390 kI/kg. W,(Pump work) = vo(Ap) = vg(p2 — ps) = 0.001008 x (20 - 0.07375) x 100 = 2.0086 ki/kg Also. hy — hg = 2.0086 kJ/kg => hy = hg + 2.0086 = 167.5 + 2.0086 = 169.5086 kJ/kg (3390 — 2800) + (3245 — 2221.31) = 1613.69 ki/kg. Wr = (hy — hy) + (lig hy Q(Heat supplied) = (hig = hy) + (ig hy) (3390 — 169.5086) + (3245 — 2800) = 3665.49 kI/kg W, — Wp = 1613.69 — 2.0086 = 1611.68 kJ/kg = Wot _ 1611.68 Texte = 0 = 3665.49 = 43.97%432 Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering 7. A steam turbine gets its supply of steam at 70 bar and 450°C. After expanding to 25 bar in high pressure stages, it is reheated to 420°C at the constant pressure. Next it is expanded in intermediate pressure stages to an appropriate minimum pressure such that part of the steam bleed at this pressure heats the feedwater to a temperature of 180°C. The remaining steam expands from this pressure to a condenser pressure of 0.07 bar in the low pressure stage. The isentropic efficiency of the h.p. stage is 78.5% while that of the intermediate and |.p. stages is 83% each. From the above data (a) determine the minimum pressure at which bleeding is necessary and sketch a line diagram of the arrangement of the plant, (b) sketch on the T-s diagram of all the processes, (c) determine the quantity of steam bleed per kg of flow at the turbine inlet, and (d) calculate the cycle efficiency. Neglect Pump Work. Given, p, = 70 bar, T, = 450°C, p, = 25 bar, T, = 420°C, p, = 0.07 bar Tape = 78:3%, The = Mhye = 83%, W, = negligible 1kg ROG HPT LPT LPT —] O | -- Generator ™ ~ 1) y® 25 bar, 420°C, 6 py | mkgy (-mikg ; ‘ Condenser FWH aul + +® P 9 © Pump-1 tkg Pump Il Fig. 13.36 To Find, Ps, m, MNeycte Solution: Assume the FWH is an open heater. Feedwater is heated to 180°C. *. Py at 180°C = 10.027, bar = 10 bar is the pressure at which heater operates. ~. Bleeding pressure From Mollier chart: Ay = 3280 kJ/kg (at 70 bar, 450°C) PsVapour and Combined Power Cycles hy, = 2980 kJ/kg. (@ 25 bar) T hig = 3240 kI/kg. (@ 25 bar, 420°C) hg, = 3030 kJ/kg (@ 10 bar) wkt > hg = 3065.7 kJ/kg From Mollier a 3065.7 - 2215 = 2359.62 kJ/kg From steam tables at 0.07 bar hy = 163.4 kI/kg = hg when p= 10 bar, hy = 762.6 kJ/kg Energy balance for heater'is written as mX hs + (1 - m) hg =1 X hy m x 3065.7 + (1 — m) 163. 2902.3 m = 599.2 > ‘m = 0.2065 ki/kg gga = tn dt ts = hs + A= mm) Cs — he) ae (hy ~ hy) + (hg ~ hy) __ (3280-3044.5) + (3240 3065.7 ) + (1 ~.2065) (3065.7 -2359.62) (3280-762.6) + (3240—3044.5) 1e = 35.76% 8. The net power output of an ideal regenerative-reheat steam cycle is 80 MW. Steam enters the high pressure turbine at 80 bar, 500°C and expands till it becomes saturated vapour. Some of the steam then goes to an open434 Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering feedwater heater and the balance is reheated to 400°C, after which it expands in the low pressure turbine to 0.07 bar. Compute (a) the reheat pressure, (b) the steam flow rate to the high pressure turbine (c) the cycle efficiency. Neglect pump work. Given, Net power output p= 80 x 10° kW. p, = 80 bar, T; = 500°C, T, = 400°C, p. To Find, py, (17), Myce Solution: From Mollier chart. Mark point 2 at p, = 80 bar and 500°C, Draw an isentropic line to meet saturation line. From Mollier’s Chart 770 kIkg, hg (at 400°C) = 3265 kJ/kg 360 kI/kg, When p, = 0.07 bar y= hg = 163.4 ki/kg. Also, when p)=7 bar, f= hy = 697.1 kikg ct ‘m,—rmass of steam enter into FWH (Bleeding) ri—smass of steam expand in high pressure turbine wn Energy Balance Equation FWH is nom myhy + (tin = my) + hig = tit hy (2. hy = hg) 1m,(2770) + (vit ~ m,) (163.4) = 697.1 sin Ym 2606.6 .m, = 533.7 m im, = 0.2047 rh Fig. 13.39 Network output = it (Ihy ~ hy) + (rit ~ m,) (Ing hts) = 80 x 10° ra (3495 — 2770) + (sn — .2047 ra) (3265 — 2360) = 80 x 10° Weer _ 80 x 10° ‘heat supplied — rilh, — hy 1+ Gn —m, ) (Ig — hy ) 80x10" * 55.37[ 3495 — 697.1) +[( 55.37 — (.2047 x 55.37] 3265-2770] Neycte = 45.27% 9. A binary-vapour cycle operates on mercury and steam. Saturated mercury vapour at 4.5 bar is supplied to the mercury turbine, from which it exhausts at 0.04 bar. The mercury condenser generates saturated steam at 15 bar which is expanded in a steam turbine to 0.04 bar. (a) Find the overall (Hi) Moyle =Vapour and Combined Power Cycles 435 efficiency of the cycle (b) If 50,000 kg/h of steam flows through the steam turbine, what is the flow through the mercury turbine (c) Assuming that all processes are reversible, what is the useful work done in the binary vapour cycle for the specified steam flow (d) If the steam leaving the mercury condenser is superheated to a temperature of 300°C in a superheater located in a mercury boiler, and if the internal efficiencies of the mercury and steam turbines are 0.85 and 0.87 respectively. Calculate the overall efficiency of the cycle. Given, rin, = 50,000 kg/h, 1Iq, = 85, 1, = 0.87 py = 4.5 bar, p. = 0.04 bar p,= pj = 15 bar Py = 0.04 bar To Find, Noveratr Hts Work done, After superheating Noverait Solution: For mercury cycle, (From appendix) hy, = 355.98 ki/kg. 5, = 0.5397 kI/kg -K Sco Spt Xe Shy = 0.0808 + x, (0.6925 — 0.0808) x, = 0.75 h, = 29.98 + (0.75 x 299.87) = 254.88 kJ/kg - K (Wp)m = hy — h, = 355.98 — 254.88 = 101.10 kI/kg (Wp) = Ng = fy = VX AP = 76.5 x 10 x (4.5 - 0.04) x 100 =3.41 kiikg W,., = 101.1 - 3.41 = 97.69 kJ/kg Q, = hy ~ h, = 355.98 — 29.98 = 326 kI/kg, 1 = Wed Q = 97.69/326 = 29.97% For the steam cycle hy = 2792.2 kI/kg 53 = 6.4448 kI/kg - K = 55 = 5/45 5g3 = 0.4226 + x, (8.4746 - 0.4226) > x, = 0.748 hy = 121.46 + 0.748 x 2432.9 = 1941.27 kJ/kg Se436 ‘Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering (Wy) = hy — hy = 2792.2 — 1941.27 = 850.93 ki/kg (Wp)s = hy — hy = 0.001 x (15 - 0.04) x 100 = 1.496 = 1.5 ki/kg 21.46 + 1.5 = 122.96 kivkg Q, = hy ~ hy = 2792.2 ~ 122.96 = 2669.24 kI/kg (W,e.)s; = 850.93 — 1.5 = 849.43 kJ/kg — We _ 849.43 ts= Q, 2669.24 Overall Efficiency of the binary cycle would be = My + Th ~ Mes My = 0.2997 + 0.318 — (0.2997 x 0.318) 2.24% The over all efficiency can also be determine by the following manner By writing the energy balance for a mercury condenser-steam boiler im (hh, = hy) = 1 (hy hy) where m-is the amount of mercury circulating for 1 kg of steam in the bottom cycle. = 0.318 = 31.8% _ Iya —h _ 2669.24 _ 2669.24 _ m= Thy ~ 75488-2998 224,90 ~ 11-87 ke of He (Q)roat =m (Ih, — hy) = 11.87 x 326 = 3869.6 kI/kg of steam (Wout = 1 (lig — hh.) + (Ihy — hg) = (11.87 x 101.1) + 850.93 = 2051 kJ/kg of steam (Wp)uar May be neglected — Wr _ 2051 ~ Q, — 3869.6 Case (b) If 50000 kg/h of steam flows through the steam turbine, the flow rate of mercury m,, would be 0000 x 11.87 = 59.35 x 10* kg/h 1051 x 50000 = 10255 x 10* kJ/h = 0.2849 x 10° kW = 28.49 MW Case (d) Considering the efficiencies of turbines (Wp) = hy —h = 0.85 x 101.1 = 85.94 kIkkg hy = 355.98 — 85.94 = 270.04 kJ/kg writing the energy balance wea = hi) = (yh) = 0.53 = 53% Case (€) (Wr )rcur equation for Heat exchanger 2669.24 240.06 = 11.12 kg of Hg/Kg of SteamVapour and Combined Power Cycles 437 © (Deotar = 11" (ty — hig) + Mhz’ — hy) = 11.12 x 326 + (3037.3 - 2792.2) = 3870.22 ki/kg Sy’ = 6.9160 = 0.4226 + x,’ (8.4746 - 0.4226) xy’ = 0.806 hy’ = 121.46 + (0.806 x 2432.9) = 2082.38 ki/kg (Wy)q = hy — hy’ = 0.87 (3037.3 - 2082.38) = 830.78 kiikg (Wp yous = 11-12 x 85.94 + 830.78 = 1786.43 ki/kg Pump work is neglected 1786.43 Mover = 3979.92 = 46.2% 10. A turbine is supplied with steam at a pressure of 32 bar and a temperature of 410°C. The steam then expands isentropically to a pressure of 0.08 bar. Find the dryness fraction at the end of expansion and thermal efficiency of the cycle. If the steam is reheated at 5.5 bar to a temperature of 395°C and then expanded isentropically to a pressure of 0.08 bar, what will be the dryness fraction and thermal efficiency of the cycle? Given, Case (i) — P, = 32 bar, ’ T, = 410°C, P, = 0.08 bar To Find, x5 1% Solution: From Mollier chart h, = 3500 kJ/kg, hy = 2170 ki/kg. Fig. 13.41 Heat drop (or work done) = hy — hy = 3250 ~ 2170 = 1080 ki/kg Heat supplied = hy — hy = 3250 — 173.9 = 3076.1 kI/kg Work done 1080 Thermal Efficiency = ‘Heat Supplied 307 x; = 0.83 (From Mollier Chart) = 35.1%Case (ii) Given, p, = 32 bar, py = 5.5 bar, Ps = 0.08 bar From Mollier chart hy = 3250 ki/kg hy = 2807 kJ/kg, hg = 3263 kJ/kg, his = 2426 kI/kg, Work done = (hy - hy) + (ty hg) = (3250 — 2807) + (3263 — 2426) = 1280 kJ/kg Heat supplied = (It, — ys) + (hy— hs) = (3250 ~ 173.9) + (3263 - 2807) = 3532.1 kI/kg Ny = Work done/Heat supplied = 1280/3532 = 36.2% Condition of steam at the exhaust Xs = 0.935 [ From Mollier Chart) 11. Dry and saturated steam at 15 bar is supplied to a steam engine. The exhaust takes place at 1.1 bar. Calculate (i) Rankine Efficiency (ii) Mean Effective Pressure (iii) Steam consumption per LP. hour, if the efficiency ratio is 0.65; and (iv) Carnot cycle efficiency for the given pressure limits using steam as the working fluid. r n, Steam Engine Le 2 fo] To Find, 7x, MEP, Steam rate (w.r. to LP) ‘4 3 Nesenor s Solution: Rankine Efficiency: Fig. 13,43 We know that Rankine Cycle Efficiency neglecting pump work’ hy ~ hy (ng) = Be hy = hy) hy Enthalpy of steam available at engine inlet (kJ/kg) -Enthalpy of steam to condenser inlet (kJ/kg) h,-Enthalpy of steam at condenser outlet (kJ/kg) From Steam Stables: At 15 bar (dry saturated) =1 in = h, = 2789.9 ki/kg, 5y= 5, = 6.441 ki/kg - K.Vapour and Combined Power Cycles 439 28.8 kI/Kg, ly = 2250.8 kI/kg, .333 ki/kg - K. 543 = 5.995 kl/kg » K. We know that process 2-3 is isentropic = 41 Kg kK sp + X5 Sp (333 + & °s: 995) => hy = hig + X3 Nygs = 428.8 + (.852 x 2250.8) = 2346.47 kik. Since Iiyy = Rpg = tng = hig = 428.8 kik, fy hy _ 2789.9 - 2346.47 h,-h, — 2789.9- 428.8 Mean Effective Pressure ™= = 18.78% Net workdone It; ~ hy A tY__Pis 15 bar MEP = ————— = > 3 2 Stroke volume V; ° vy = xy - vgs = 0.852 x 1.5492 = 1.319908 mivkg qe $ hh, -h, —2789.9- 2346.47 MEP = — =—___— LE vy 1.319908 > = 335.955 kN/m? Fig. 13.44 MEP = 3.36 bar] Steam rate Efficiency Ratio = hve Mesokine ™ = 0.65 x .1878 = 0.1221 = Mrermai = EFF. Ratio x Mp We know that WD. _ Wi D. (indicated) = ‘W:D(indicated) (hy =h) Heat supplied hy =i Ia hy <. Syndicated work = My X (ly = hy Tn = 1221 x (2789.9 - 428.8) 288.29 kikg 600 _ _3600 Steam rate = Was = 388.29 = 12.49 kg/kW-hrwhere T, —- Maximum temperature of cycle (at 15 bar) T; — Lowest temperature of cycle (at 1.1 bar) From steam tables, At 15 bar 7, = 199.8°C; At 1.1 bar; 7, = 103.2°C _ (199.8 + 273) ~ (103.2 + 273)) ‘carnat (199.8 + 273) 12. In a steam power plant operating with simple Rankine cycle, the turbine is fed with steam at 100 bar, 637 K. Find the actual enthalpy and quality of the steam extracted at 14 bar if the turbine stage efficiency is 90% (GATE "92) Given, p, = 100 bar, T, = 673 K Pa = 14 bar, 7 = 90% To find hy, x, Solution: From Mollier chart, when p, = 100 bar and 7, = 673 K h, = 3097 kI/kg and 5, = 6.218 kJ/kg - K If the expansion is isentropic, 5, = 5) = 6.218 kI/kg -K Let the quality of steam at exit be x,' From steam tables when p, = 14 bar 5,= 2.284 ki/kg. K 5, = 6.469 kJ/kg. K Sy = St XY + Spy 6.218 = 2.284 + x (6.469 — 2.284) => xy = 0.94 and Nig + X, Ny, = 830 + 0.94 x (2790 — 830) = 2672.4 kIikg Let the condition at the end of actual expansion be ‘2’. The turbine efficiency, = 20.43% _ hon 1 ae 09 = eros © 3097 - 2672.4Vapour and Combined Power Cycles 441 = hy = 2715 kilkg Also, hay = hyg + (Iga) _ faa hyy _ (2715-830) _ = = «096 a 2790-830 «. The conditions of steam at outlet is 96% dry. 13. Dry saturated steam enters a friction less adiabatic nozzle with negligible velocity at a temperature of 300°C. It is expanded to a pressure of 500 kpa. The mass flow rate is 1 kg/sec. Calculate the exit velocity. | (GATE ’95) Given, T, = 300°C, V, = 0 (Negligible) P = 5000 kpa = 50 bar, m = 1 kg/sec Fig. 13.46 To find V,. Solution: At the inlet of the nozzle, the steam is dry saturated. Hence, from the mollier chart when T, = 300°C Over the saturated vapour line, h, = 2751 ki/kg and s, = 5.7081 ki/kg. K Since point 1 lies on saturated line and the process is isentropic, State 2 lies in the wet region. o Sy From steam tables, when p> = 50 bar Sp = 2.9206 kI/kg. K Sq = 5.9735 kI/kg. K iy = 1154.5 kI/kg, tgp = 2794.2 kI/kg $3 = 5, = 5.7081 = 2.9206 + x, (5.9735 - 2.9206) x, = 0.91 hy = lig + Xy higy = 1154.5 + 0.91 (2794.2 - 1154.5) = 2646.63 kI/kg S15 Spt Sper442 ‘Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering From SFEE, for nozzle with negligible initial velocity v2 hy =hy+ = 1 + 2 v2 => 2751 = 2646.63 + > > V, = 456.88 nvs 14, A rankine cycle is operating between a pressure of 80 bar and 0.1 bar. The maximum cycle temperature is 600°C. If the steam turbine and the condensate pump efficiencies are 0.9 and 0.8 repectively. Calculate the spe- cific work and thermal efficiency. (GATE 98) Given, 1 = 80 bar, p, = 0.1 bar, T; = 600 + 273 = 873 K. 1; = 90%, Np = 80% To find W. m, Solution: From Mollier chart at 873 K and 80 bar, 3642 ki/kg 7.026 ki/kg -K is an isentropic process 54 = 5, = 7.0206 = 5p + x5 - 5p From steam table, Fig. 13.47 when p= 0.1 bar, 5, = 0.6488 kJ/kg - K 5, = 8.1494 kI/kg - K hy = 191.9 kJ/kg h, = 2584.2 ki/kg 7.0206 = 0.6488 + x, (8.1494 - 0.6488) 0.85 gg + Xs, Np = 191.9 + 0.85 x (2584.2 — 191.9) = 2225 kikg Now turbine efficiency. hy —hy why hy 3642 = Iy 3642 — 2225 => hy = 2367. kJ/kg vid 0.9Vapour and Combined Power Cycles 443 ~. Work out from the turbine W, = hy - hy = 3642 - 2367 K = 1275 kikg From the diagram hig = hg = 191.9 kI/kg Also. Wp = vg (Ap) From steam tables when p = 0.1 bar, v, = 0.0010103 m’ kg. Wp = 0.0010103 (80 - 0.1) x 107 = 8.072 ki/kg. Since the 7 of the pump = 80% Ideal work p= “Ketual work 8 0.8 = ————_ Actual work => Actual work = 10.09 ki/kg Net work output = W,- W, = 1275 - 10.09 = 1264.91 kJ/kg Now, Wp = hy — hy o hy = Wp + hy = 191.9 + 10.09 = 202 ki/kg <. Heat Supplied = h, ~ hh, = 3642 - 202 = 3440 ki/kg ~. Thermal efficiency, Wp _ 1264-91 Me 0 = 36.77% 15. An adiabatic steam turbine receives dry saturated steam at 1.0 MN/m? and discharges at 0.1 MN/m?. The steam flow rate is 3 kg/s and the moisture at exit is negligible. If the ambient temperature is 300 K find the rate of entropy production and power lost (GATE 99). Given, p2= 1 MN/m*, p, = 0.1 MN/m? m = 3 kg/s, x, = negligible T= 300 K To find rate of entropy production power lost.444 ‘Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering Solution: Rate of entropy production = mh (s3~ 54) S_q = 7.359. ki/kg. K Sy = 6.586 kJ/kg. K Rate of entropy production = 3(7.359 — 6.586) = 2.319 ki/kg. K Fig. 13.48 Ss Power list = Ty(As) = 300 x 2.319 = 695.7 kW. 16. In a steam Rankine cycle using one stage of reheating between two turbine cylinders. The steam at inlet to high pressure cylinder is at 100 bar and 500°C. The steam at exit of low pressure turbine is at 0.07 bar and is quality is 85%. Determine the cycle thermal effici (IES 1990) Given, To Find, Cycle thermal efficiency Solution: In Molier chart note the point 2 corre- sponding to 100 bar and 500°C. Draw a vertical line from 2 until it meets satu- ration line name it as 3. Note the point 5 corresponding to 0.07 bar and x = 85% from 5 draw vertical line upwards till it meet with the reheat s pressure curve, Name it as 4. Fig. 13.49 From Table and Chart hy = 3370 ku/kg hy = hy + 0.85 Nig = 163.4'+ (0.85 x 2409.2) 1 — hi = Vp X (Da Ps) X 100 KIvkg .001007 x (100 — 0.07) x 100 0 ki/kg | = lig + 10 = 163.4 + 10 = 173.4 kJ/kg hy = 173.4 kikg‘Vapour and Combined Power Cycles 445 Heat supplied = (hy - hy) + (hy — hy) = (3370 — 173.4) + (3050 ~ 2780) Q = 3466.6 ki/kg Work done by turbine = (hty— hy) + (hig - hy) = (3370 — 2780) + (3050 — 2211.22) = 1428.8 ki/kg Net work done W=W,- W, = 1428.8 - 10 = 1418.8 ki/kg W _ 1418.8 n= 0 * 34666 = 0.4093 1 = 40.93% Result: Cycle efficiency = 40.93%. 17. In a Rankine cycle the conditions of steam at turbine inlet is 70 bar and 550°C with a velocity of 30 m/s. It discharges to the condensor at 0.20 bar with a velocity of 90 mvs. If the steam flow rate is 35 kg/s. Find the thermal efficiency and net power produced. (IES 1992) Given, P, = py = 70 bar, Ty = 550°C, p; = 0.20 bar, rit = 35 kg/s The find: Thermal efficiency and net power produced. Solution: From steam tables fy = 3529.25 kikg 52 = 6.9435 kJ/kg. K Corresponding to 0.2 bar. 832 5;, = 7.077. kIikg. K Process 2-3 is isentropic so 5_ = 53 6.9435 = 5) + 35 5f, 6.9435 = 0.832 + x, x 7.077 => 2X = 0.8636 = 2X; = 86.36% So hy = hry +X; lgs = 251.5 + 0.8636 (2358.4) = 2288.21 k/kg From steam tables, at 0.2 bar hg = 251.5 ki/kg Power develo} by turbine nee }ws =mx (I~ hy) = 35 x (3529.25 — 2288.21) . = 43436.4 kW446 ‘Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering Power required for pump = tit X vp (P2~ Ps) 5 x 0.001017 x (70 ~ 0.2) x 10? = 248.45 kW. Also. W, = hy ~hg= 28S kJ/kg = 7.0986 ki/kg. = hy = hg + 7.0986 = 251.5 + 7.0986 hy = 258.5986 kI/kg. Heat input Q=(h,-h)xm = (3529.25 — 258.5986) x 35 Q = 114472.8 kW Net power developed W. _ 43187.95 Effi . W_ 8187.95 ~ 93773. iciency, = 97 haamg 79378 1 = 37.13% | Result: Net power developed’= 43.188 MW. Thermal efficiency = 37.73% 18. The following data refer to a steam turbine power plant employing one stage of regenerative feed heating. state of steam entering high pressure stage: 100 Mpa, 600°C state of steam entering low pressure stage: 2 Mpa 400°C state of steam entering condenser: 0.01 Mpa, 0.9 dryness fraction A certain amount of steam is bleed for feed heating at exit from the high pressure stage. Calculate mass of steam bleed per kg of steam passing through the high pressure stage and the amount of heat supplied in the boiler per second for an output of 10 MW. Neglect pump work. (IES 1993) Given, Ts = 600°C = 873 K Ps = 10 x 10° N/m? = 100 bar Po = 2 x 10° N/m? = 20 bar T, = 400°C = 673 K p; = 0.01 x 10° N/m? = 0.1 bar 4 =0.9 P=10MWVapour and Combined Power Cycies 447 To find, Mass of steam bleed = ? Amount of heat supplied in boiler Solution: In Mollier chart mark point 5 corresponding to 100 bar and 600°C. Draw a vertical line downwards to meet 20 bar. Mark point 6. Mark point 7 corresponding to P; = 20 bar and T; = 400°C. Draw a vertical line from 7 to meet 0.1 bar and 0.9 dryness fraction. Mark as point 8. Using Chart and Tables hs = 3620 ki/kg hy = hy = 191.8 kikg ig = 3245 kikg hy = 908.5 ki/kg. hy = hy + x 91.8 + (0.9 x 2392.9) = 2345.41 Kiikg W = 10 x 10°Watts Let | kg of steam enter high pressure turbine. At exit of high pressure stage m kg of steam is bled. So (1 — m) kg of steam enters of low pressure stage. By energy balance equation, mX he + (1-m) xh, =1 xh; mx 3245 + (1 - m) x 191.8 = 908.5 => m [3245 — 191.8] = 908.5 - 191.8 m X 3053.2 = 716.7 => m = 0.2347 kg When the mass flow rate of steam is x instead of 1 Kg at iniet of high Pressure turbine, then the amount of steam flowing through low pressure turbine is x(1 — m). The work output from the turbine Wr =x (hs — hig) + x(1 — m) (ig - h,) = 10 x 10? KW448 ‘Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering x x (3620 — 3245) + x (1 - 0.2347) (3245 - 2345.41) = 10 x 10° (x x 375) + (x x 688.46) = 10 x 10° x [1063.46] = 10 x 10° x= 94 kgs . Amount of steam input = 9.4 kg/s Heat supplied to boiler in ki/kg Q,=hs— hy Since pump work is negligible, h, = hy. : Q, = 3620 - 908.5 = 2711.5 kikkg Heat supplied to boiler per second = xX (hy — hs) =94 x 27115 = 25.49 MW vudg Result: 1. Actual mass of steam bled =xm = 9.4 x 0.2347 =2.21 kg/s Heat supplied in boiler = 25.49 MW » REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What are the components of steam power plant? . What are the constituent process of a Rankine cycle? 3. Compare the Rankine cycle with Carnot cycle in terms of efficiency and work ratio. 4. Define specific steam consumption (or) steam rate of an ideal Rankine Cycle. 5. What are the desired properties of a working fluid to be used in vapour power cycle? 6. Sketch the reheat cycle on Mollier chart. 7. Draw the 7-s diagram of reheat cycle. 8. Why reheat cycle is not used in low pressure boiler? 9. List the advantages of reheat cycle. 10. Draw the block diagram of reheat cycle. 11. What are feed water heater? 12. Why ideal regenerative cycle can not be practically possible? 13. Sketch the schematic representation of closed and open type of feed water heaters in actual regenerative cycle for steam. v‘Vapour and Combined Power Cycles 449 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 25. . Discuss the effect of steam pressures and temperature at inlet to the turbine on efficiency in a Rankine cycle. List the advantages of regenerative cycle. Draw the block diagram of regenerative cycle. Represent the binary vapour cycle on T-s diagram. Draw the block diagram of binary vapour power cycle. What do you understand by steam rate, heat rate and what are their units? How the quality of steam at the turbine exhaust gets restricted? When is reheating of steam recommended in a steam power plant? What is the effect of reheat on (1) Specific output (2) Cycle efficiency (3) Steam rate and (4) heat rate? What is the effect of regeneration on (1) Specific output (2) Cycle efficiency (3) Steam rate and (4) heat rate? . Mention the merits and demerits of open and closed type feed water heaters? ‘What are topping and bottoming cycles? OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS . Ina theoretical Rankine cycle, the expansion process is assumed to be (a) isothermal (b) adiabatic (©) polytropic (d) None of the above . Rankine cycle efficiency of a well maintained steam power plant is in the range of (a) 25 to 35% (b) 10 to 20% (c) 35 to 45% (d) 50 to 60% . Steam engine works on the basis of (a) Simple Rankine cycle (b) Modified Rankine cycle (c) Ideal Regenerative Rankine cycle (d) Reheat Rankine cycle . Efficiency of Carnot cycle is ___ than the Rankine efficiency (a) lower (b) equal (c) higher (d) none of the above . Rankine efficiency of steam power plant is __ in winter as compared to that in summer (a) lower (b) equal (c) higher (d) there is no such comparison . Rankine cycle comprises (a) two isothermal, two isentropics (b) two isobars, two isothermal (c) two isobars, two isentropic (d) two isothermal, two isochorics‘Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering . Ina Rankine cycle with superheated steam, (a) work done increases (b) dryness fraction of steam with isentropic expansion increases (c) specific steam consumption decreases (d) all of the above . Heating of dry steam above saturation temperature is known as (a) Super heating (6) Super saturation’ (c) Latent heat (d) Super tempering . A wet vapour can completely specified by (a) pressure only “(b) dryness fraction only (c) both pressure and dryness fraction (d) specific volume only. ). In the regenerative cycle, part of the steam is withdrawn from the turbine and used in heating the (a) exhaust fan (b) feed water (c) steam being supplied to the turbine (@) all of the above . The efficiency of a Rankine cycle is (a) increases with decreasing temperature of heat rejection (b) decreases with decreasing temperature of heat rejection (c) decreases with increasing temperature of heat rejection (d) none of the above . Rankine cycle efficiency for a power plant is 29%. The carnot cycle efficiency will be (a) less (b) more (© equal (d) none of the above . Number of processes in a Rankine cycle are (a) 3 () 4 (©) 5 @) 6 . On Mollier chart, free expansion, throttling processes are represented by (a) horizontal straight line (b) vertical straight line (c) curved line (d) inclined line from saturation point . The chief advantage of reheat cycle is (a) increase efficiency (b) more work output (c) avoid corrosion (d) decrease moisture content in low pressure stages.‘Vapour and Combined Power Cycles 451 ANSWERS i) ue 3.b 4c 5. 6.¢ 7.4 Ba Xe 10.b Ilha 12.b 13.6 14.b 15.d EXERCISE . A simple Rankine cycle steam power plant operates between the tem- perature of 260°C and 95°C. The steam is supplied to the turbine at a dry saturated condition. In the turbine, the steam expands isentropi- cally. Determine the efficiency of a Rankine cycle and compare it with the efficiency of the carnot cycle operating between these two tem- perature limits. (26.2%, 30.96%) . Dry saturated steam at 10 bar is supplied to an engine working on Rankine cycle. It is exhausted to 0.5 bar. Calculate the efficiency of the rankine cycle and specific steam consumption. (20.13%, 7.344 kg/kW-hr) . Steam at 15 bar, 300°C is supplied to an engine working on Rankine cycle. The exhaust takes place at 0.8 bar. Calculate the condition of steam after expansion, Rankine efficiency and specific steam, con- sumption. (0.906, 21.18%, 6.5 kg/kW-hr) . A steam turbine is supplied with dry saturated steam at 25 bar. The exhaust takes place at 0.2 bar. For‘a flow rate of 8 kg/s, calculate the (i) power required to drive the pump. (2) Turbine power (3) Rankine efficiency and quality of steam at the end of expansion. (19.84 kW, 5.94 MW, 29.2%, 0.767) . Steam is supplied to a turbine at dry and saturation condition at 40 bar. The steam exhausts to 0.035 bar. If the plant operates on Rankine cycle, calculate per kg of steam rankine efficiency, and specific steam consumption. Neglect the pump work. (36.4%, 3.67 kg/kW-hr) . A steam turbine is supplied with steam at a pressure of 85 bar, 450°C. The steam is reheated to its original temperature in a reheater at 10 bar. The expansion then takes place upto 0.08 bar. Find the efficiency of the reheat cycle and work output if the flow rate of steam is 1 kg/s. (48.06%, 1.486 MW) . Steam at 90 bar, 480°C is supplied to a steam turbine. The steam is reheated to its original temperature through a reheater at 12 bar. Then it expands upto 0.07 bar. Find the efficiency of reheat cycle and power output for a flow rate of | kg/s of steam. (Ans. 42.1%, 1.6 MW) . A steam power station uses the following cycle. Steam at boiler outlet 150 bar, 550°C. Reheat at 40 bar to 550°C condenser at 0.1 bar. Assuming ideal processes estimate the quality of steam at turbine ex- haust, cycle efficiency. . (0.88, 43.9%)9 ‘Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering An ideal regenerative cycle operates with steam supplied at 30 bar, 400°C and a condenser pressure of 0.1 bar. For this cycle find the cycle efficiency and steam rate. Also, calculate the dryness fraction of steam extracted, if. at the point of extraction the pressure is 5 bar. (35.8%, 3.88 ke/kW-hr, 0.1725 kg) . In a steam power plant the condition of steam at inlet to the turbine is 20 bar, 300°C and the condenser pressure is 0.1 bar. Two feedwater heater operate at optimum temperatures of 150°C and 100°C. Deter- mine the quality of steam at turbine exhaust, cycle efficiency and fraction of steam bleed into heaters. (0.816, 33.34%, 0.093 kg, 0.091 kg)