Campbell

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0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 \u8220?Who Says?!\u8221?:
\par\pard\ql \li2668\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 How the S
ource of Price Information and the Direction of Price Change \par\pard\ql \li423
8\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Influence Perceptions of Pric
e Fairness \par\pard\ql \li5044\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5044\sb0\sl-27
6\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5044\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5044\sb0\sl-276\
slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5044\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5044\sb0\sl-276\sl
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0 \par\pard\ql\li5044\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5044\sb8\sl-276\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Margaret C. Campbell \par\pard\ql \li3734\sb0\sl-2
76\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li3734\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100
(Under review at \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 Journal of Marketing Research\ul0\n
osupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 ) \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1
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76\sb241\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Margaret C. Campbell is As
sistant Professor of Marketing, Leeds School of Business, University \up0 \expnd
tw-4\charscalex100 of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, 303-735-6305, 303492-5962 (fax), \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 (\ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs24
meg.campbell@colorado.edu\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 ). The author thanks Barne
y Pacheco for discussion of ideas and \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 assistance w
ith data collection and analysis and Dipankar Chakravarti, Amna Kirmani and \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Donald R. Lichtenstein for helpful comments.

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\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9967\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscal
ex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 2 \par\pard\ql \li5395\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par
\pard\ql\li5395\sb175\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf2\f3\fs24 \u8220?Who Says?!\u8221?: \par\pard\ql \li2668\sb4\sl-276\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 How the Source of Price Information and the Direc
tion of Price Change \par\pard\ql \li4238\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\cha
rscalex100 Influence Perceptions of Price Fairness \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1485\s
b56\sl-552\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Three experiments show that the
source of price change information-i.e., whether human or \line \up0 \expndtw-3
\charscalex100 inanimate-can influence consumers\u8217? perceptions of price fai
rness. When processing is \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 unconstrained, a p
rice increase is perceived as more unfair when presented by a human than an \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 inanimate communication; there is no effect of s
ource for a price decrease. When processing is \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 constrained, a human source of a price increase results in greater price \ul0
\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 unfairness\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 relative to an \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 inanimate source, and a human versus inanimate
source of a decrease leads to greater price \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 fairness\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 . In addition t
o demonstrating that the source of price information, moderated by the \line \up
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 direction of the price change, influences fairness pe
rceptions, the studies also provide strong \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 e
vidence that affect induced by these variables influences perceptions of price f
airness. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmk
start Pg3}{\bkmkend Pg3}\par\pard\ql \li9967\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9
967\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9967\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 3 \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb0\sl-276\slmul
t0 \par\pard\ql\li2159\sb175\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 Price fairness is often of concern to consumers, policy ma
kers, politicians, and firms. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1293\sb55\sl-554\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Whether motivated by ethics or by beliefs that consu
mer perceptions of unfair prices will lead to \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 decr
eased profitability, many firms avoid treating consumers unfairly (Blinder 1991;
Piron and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Fernandez 1995). Perceptions of p
rice fairness, which encompass a consumer\u8217?s subjective sense \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 of a price as right, just, or legitimate versus wrong, un
just, or illegitimate, can influence a variety \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 of
important marketplace factors. For example, perceptions of price fairness can in
fluence \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 behavioral intentions, willingness t
o pay, willingness to engage in business with the firm, and \line \up0 \expndtw4\charscalex100 consumer satisfaction (Campbell 1999a & b; Kahneman, Knetsch, an
d Thaler 1986a & b; \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Martins and Monroe 1994;
Sinha and Batra 1999). Importantly, evidence suggests that \line \up0 \expndtw4\charscalex100 consumers\u8217? perceptions of unfair prices can limit firm pro
fits, both because consumers avoid \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 doing bus
iness with unfair firms and forego their own benefit to punish unfair behavior,
and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 because firms modify their behavior out
of concern that consumers will limit interaction with \line \up0 \expndtw-4\char
scalex100 firms that they perceive as unfair (Franciosi et al. 1995; Guth, Schmi
ttberger, and Schwarze \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1982; Kahneman, Knets
ch, and Thaler 1986a; Piron and Fernandez 1995; Urbany, Madden, and \line \up0 \
expndtw-4\charscalex100 Dickson 1989). However, in spite of the importance of co
nsumers\u8217? perceptions of price fairness, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 there is still much we do not know about how these perceptions are formed (Bol
ton, Warlop, and \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Alba 2003; Campbell 1999a; Xia an
d Monroe 2003). \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1453\sb0\sl-555\slmult0\fi719 \up0 \expnd
tw-4\charscalex100 The most influential research on perceived price fairness has
been that by Kahneman, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Knetsch and Thaler (
1986a and b). This research develops the principle of dual entitlement, \line \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 suggesting that perceptions of price fairness are ba
sed on a reference transaction and the belief \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 that the transactor (e.g., the customer, employee, etc.) is entitled to the re
ference price and that \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the firm (e.g., merch
ant, employer, etc.) is likewise entitled to its reference profit. Violations of
\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg
4}{\bkmkend Pg4}\par\pard\ql \li9967\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9967\sb0\
sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9967\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscale
x100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 4 \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri2140\sb216\sl-560\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 the consumer\u8217
?s reference price are considered unfair unless the price increase is deemed \up
0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 necessary to maintain the firm\u8217?s reference prof
its. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1248\sb5\sl-554\slmult0\fi719\tx2159 \up0 \expndtw-4
\charscalex100 Recent price fairness research has extended the principle of dual
entitlement in two \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 important ways. First, r
esearch has shown that consumers sometimes make inferences of the \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 firm\u8217?s motive in changing a price and that these inf
erences of motive influence perceptions of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 p
rice (un)fairness (Campbell 1999a & b). Price increases are perceived as fair or
unfair in part \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 based on whether the consume
r infers that the firm is intending to take advantage of consumers, \line \up0 \
expndtw-4\charscalex100 regardless of the profit that accrues to the firm. Secon
d, recent research has broadened \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 examination
of the references consumers use, demonstrating that how consumers think of past
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 prices, competitor prices, and firm costs c
an influence perceptions of price fairness (Bolton, et al. \line \up0 \expndtw-4
\charscalex100 2003). These two pieces of research add to earlier work by showin
g that consumers\u8217? perceptions \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 about th
e circumstances surrounding the price influence perceived fairness. The work by
\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Campbell (1999a &b) identifies a factor-infe
rred motive-that plays an important causal role in \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charsca
lex100 perceptions of price fairness. The work by Bolton et al. (2003) shows tha
t the reference \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 consumers use in thinking ab
out a price situation influences fairness perceptions. \line \tab \up0 \expndtw4\charscalex100 The goal of the present research is to contribute to the existin
g price fairness literature by \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 proposing and
examining previously unidentified factors that influence consumers\u8217? perce
ptions \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 of price fairness. We propose that th
e marketing source of price change information, whether \line \up0 \expndtw-4\ch
arscalex100 human or inanimate, can influence perceptions of price fairness and
that the influence depends \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 upon the directio
n of the price change. We also suggest that affect influences perceptions of pri
ce \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 change and that affect is one way in whic
h source effects arise. While drawing from existing \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
alex100 research on perceptions of fairness, our work differs from past research
in three important ways. \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 First, prior resea
rch primarily focused on how price fairness concerns arise when a price is \par\
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mkend Pg5}\par\pard\ql \li9967\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9967\sb0\sl-241
\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9967\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 5 \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\q
l\li1440\sb175\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\
f3\fs24 higher than the consumer\u8217?s reference, and thus examined factors th
at are centrally related to a \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\
ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 price increase decisi
on, such as costs, profits, and motives of the marketer (e.g., Bolton et al. \pa
r\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 2003; Campbell 1999a & b; Kahneman et al. 1986a & b; V
aidyanathan and Aggarwal 2003, \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1254\sb35\sl-554\slmult0 \
up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 etc.). We broaden the view of relevant factors by f
ocusing on the influence of a situational factor, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscal
ex100 namely, the source of price information, that can be considered incidental
to the actual pricing \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 decision. Second, whi
le previous research on price fairness tended to examine prices that are \line \
up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 higher than the consumer\u8217?s reference (price i
ncreases), we examine both price increases and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex1
00 decreases, suggesting that the effect of the source of the price information
is influenced by \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 whether the price represent
s an increase or a decrease to the consumer. Third, prior research on \line \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 price fairness was predominantly of a cognitive nature
. For example, research has examined \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 consume
rs\u8217? thoughts about past prices and product costs (e.g., Bolton et al. 2003
; Kahneman et \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 al. 1986a & b), inferences of
motive (Campbell 1999), and thoughts about appropriate pricing \line \up0 \expnd
tw-4\charscalex100 rules (Dickson and Kalapurakal 1994). We contribute to the ex
isting price fairness literature by \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 emphasiz
ing that affect (feelings or emotions toward a price situation) can have an impo
rtant \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 influence on perceptions of price fair
ness. We propose that situation-induced affect (affect that \line \up0 \expndtw4\charscalex100 arises in response to the pricing situation rather than ambient
affect such as mood), directly \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 influences pe
rceptions of price fairness. That is, whether an affective reaction to a marketp
lace \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 situation is positive or negative can i
nfluence perceived price fairness. \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb236\sl-276\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Specifically, drawing from existing research demonstr
ating effects of human versus \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1360\sb58\sl-550\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 inanimate sources, we propose that the source of pri
ce information can influence the perceived \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 f
airness of a price change. That is, whether a price is presented by a human mark
eting agent \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 (e.g., a salesperson) or an inan
imate marketing communication (e.g., a price tag) will sometimes \par\pard\sect\
sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg6}{\bkmkend Pg6}
\par\pard\ql \li9967\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9967\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \
par\pard\ql\li9967\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf1\f2\fs22 6 \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1481\sb216\sl-560\slmult0 \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 influence perceived price fairness
. The nature of this influence will be affected by the direction \up0 \expndtw-3
\charscalex100 of the price change. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1273\sb5\sl-554\slmul
t0\fi719 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Further, this research examines the proce
ss by which source influences price fairness. We \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 p
ropose that the source of a price change impacts both inferences of motive and a
ffective \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 responses. Recent research in other
domains supports dual processes, cognitive and affective, \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 that jointly influence a variety of evaluations and behaviors (e.g., Cl
ore 1992; Lowenstein et al. \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 2001; Peters and Slovi
c 2000, Shiv and Fedorikhin 1999). Consistent with this, we propose that \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 both cognitions (i.e., inferences of motive) and feelings
evoked by the source and price change \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 can directl
y influence perceptions of price fairness. The overall model that we develop and
test is \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 presented in Figure 1 and helps guide the
following discussion. \par\pard\ql \li5236\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li52
36\sb220\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Insert Figure 1 about here
\par\pard\ql \li2159\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2159\sb0\sl-276\slmult0
\par\pard\ql\li2159\sb12\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Lastly, ou
r dual process conceptualization of price fairness effects suggests that the \pa
r\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 availability of processing resources can impact the ef
fects of source and price change on \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb264\sl-276\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 perceptions of price fairness. Research indicates th
at affective reactions are often more \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \p
ar\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 spontaneous a
nd rapid than cognitive processes and are likely to arise even when processing \
par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 resources are constrained (Berkowitz 1993; LeDoux 19
96; Shiv and Fedorikhin 1999). The \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1259\sb33\sl-556\slmul
t0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 cognitive process is likely to be relatively mo
re controlled, and thus cognitions are more likely to \line \up0 \expndtw-4\char
scalex100 be limited by processing constraints (this distinction has been discus
sed by many researchers; \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 see, for example, C
haiken 1980, Epstein 1994, and Petty and Cacioppo 1986). We draw upon \line \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 this research to propose different patterns of effects
of the source and price change on price \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 fai
rness perceptions under unconstrained and constrained processing conditions. In
particular, we \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 expect different effects when
affect and inferences differ; differences arising from limiting \par\pard\sect\
sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg7}{\bkmkend Pg7}
par\pard\ql\li9967\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf1\f2\fs22 7 \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1286\sb221\sl-554\slmult0\tx2159 \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 cognitive processing will o
ffer evidence in support of the proposed dual effects of affect and \line \up0 \
expndtw-4\charscalex100 cognition on perceived price fairness (Haidt 2001; Loewe
nstein et al. 2001). \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The overall concep
tualization is explored in three experiments. The first experiment \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 provides evidence in support of the proposed source and p
rice-change effects (when processing \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 is unco
nstrained). Study 2 builds on this, examining the influence of cognitive inferen
ces of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 motive and affective reactions when p
rocessing is unconstrained. Results support dual influences \up0 \expndtw-4\char
scalex100 on price fairness, showing that, when processing is unconstrained, bot
h inferences of motive and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 affect mediate th
e source and price change effects and that both provide unique explanatory \line
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 power for perceived price fairness. Study 3 exami
nes the patterns of source and price-change \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
effects under constrained and unconstrained processing. This provides further ev
idence of the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 important role of affect by sh
owing that limiting cognitive resources alters the pattern of source \line \up0
\expndtw-5\charscalex100 and price effects on perceived fairness. \par\pard\ql \
li3993\sb236\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 SOURCE EFFECTS: PERSON
VERSUS OBJECT \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1260\sb56\sl-552\slmult0\fi719 \up0 \expnd
tw-4\charscalex100 While there has not been a great deal of research on effects
of the source of an outcome, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 some research s
uggests that people respond to and evaluate other people differently than \line
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 inanimate objects (Moon and Conlon 2002; Sears 198
3). That is, whether an outcome is \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 attribute
d to a human or an inanimate source can influence perceptions of the source. \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Specifically, research finds that people are ev
aluated and treated more favorably than objects \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex
100 when there is a good outcome (Lau, Sears, and Centers 1979; Rook, Sears, Kin
der and Lau 1978; \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Moon and Conlon 2002; Sears 1983
). However, people are evaluated more negatively than \line \up0 \expndtw-4\char
scalex100 objects in the context of poor performance; these effects have been te
rmed a \u8220?person sensitivity \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 bias\u8221?
(Moon and Conlon 2002). \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\
sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg8}{\bkmkend Pg8}\par\pard\ql \li9967\sb0\sl-241\slmult0
\par\pard\ql\li9967\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9967\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \
up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 8 \par\pard\ql \li2159\
sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2159\sb175\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 While source and outcome-valence effects h
ave been demonstrated in a variety of \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1266\sb55\sl-554\sl
mult0\tx2159 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 contexts (e.g., investment, performan
ce, education, politics,), the process by which these effects \line \up0 \expndt
w-4\charscalex100 arise has not been directly studied and is not well understood
. There are two potential \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 mechanisms by whic
h these patterns of source and outcome-valence effects may arise. One \line \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 possibility is that the effects are driven by differen
ces in how people attribute outcomes when the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 source is human versus inanimate. A human may seem more similar than does an o
bject and it \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 may be easier to think about a
human as an intentional causal agent (Green and Mitchell 1979; \line \up0 \expnd
tw-4\charscalex100 Moon and Conlon 2002). In general, people often overestimate
the role of humans in controlling \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 outcomes (
e.g., Gilbert and Malone 1995; Heider 1958). It may be that people are more attu
ned \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 to thinking about the intentions of a pe
rson, rather than an object, leading to an outcome. \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-4\c
harscalex100 A second potential mechanism underlying source and outcome-valence
effects is \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 situation-induced affect. When a
person is associated with a negative outcome, others may feel \line \up0 \expndt
w-4\charscalex100 discomfort with the person (Rosenbaum 1986). An object is less
likely to evoke affect than is a \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 human such
that felt discomfort will differ for outcomes associated with humans than with
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 inanimate objects (Moon and Conlon 2002). A
difference in the likelihood of responding \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 a
ffectively to a human versus an inanimate object could underlie the person sensi
tivity bias. In \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 fact, earlier research has d
emonstrated that felt discomfort is lower (comfort is higher) for people \line \
up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 than objects when there is a good outcome, but disc
omfort is higher for people than objects when \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 there is a poor outcome (Moon and Conlon 2002). Although no evidence as to the
effects of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 discomfort on evaluations or of
mediation has been reported, this is consistent with the idea that \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 a tendency to have more extreme affective reactions to a
human than an object could lead to \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 more posi
tive and/or negative evaluations of the human than the object. \par\pard\sect\se
ctd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg9}{\bkmkend Pg9}\p
ar\pard\ql \li9967\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9967\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \pa
r\pard\ql\li9967\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf1\f2\fs22 9 \par\pard\ql \li3614\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li3614\sb1
75\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 SOUR
CE EFFECTS ON PERCEIVED PRICE FAIRNESS \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1420\sb56\sl-553\s
lmult0\fi719 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The research reviewed provides reason
to expect that consumers will sometimes have \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 different perceptions of outcomes associated with humans versus objects and th
at the particular \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 source effect depends upon the v
alence of the outcome. We draw upon this to propose that the \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 source of price information, e.g. a salesperson versus a price tag, c
an influence the perceived \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 fairness of the p
rice. We also suggest that the effect of the source will be moderated by whether
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the price information represents a bad outcome, i
.e., a price increase, or a good outcome, i.e., a \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
price decrease, for the consumer. \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb236\sl-276\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 As discussed above, the patterns of results of source
effects and outcome valence on \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1327\sb56\sl-553\slmult0 \
up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 evaluations seen in prior work can be explained by
either a cognitive or an affective mechanism, \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 alth
ough neither mechanism has been explicitly examined. We propose that both of the
se \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 mechanisms play a role in causing source
and outcome effects on perceptions of price fairness. \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex
100 That is, we propose that the effects of source on the perceived fairness of
price increases and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 decreases can be caused
both by differential inferences of the price setter\u8217?s motive and situation
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 induced affect. The conceptualization and hypothes
es are developed below. \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Source Effects and I
nferred Motive \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1406\sb7\sl-553\slmult0\fi719 \up0 \expndt
w-4\charscalex100 The research on fair prices suggests that consumers consider p
rice fairness when their \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 reference price for
a product is violated (cf. Bolton et al. 2003, Kahneman, Knetsch and Thaler \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1986a & b). As discussed above, recent research
shows that when there is a price increase, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
consumers may infer the marketer\u8217?s motive for changing the price and that
inferred motive \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 mediates the effect of the p
rice change on perceptions of (un)fairness (Campbell 1999a & b). \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-4\charscalex100 Combining this with research showing that source and outcom
e valence impact evaluations, we \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 suggest tha
t when processing is unconstrained, the source of price information and the dire
ction \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmksta
rt Pg10}{\bkmkend Pg10}\par\pard\ql \li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li98
61\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\ch
arscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 10 \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmul
t0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb175\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 of the price change influence the inferences of motive mad
e by the consumer, thereby \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1247\sb55\sl-554\slmult0\tx215
9 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 influencing perceptions of the fairness of the p
rice. However, the pattern of results is expected to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 differ somewhat from that seen in earlier source research. In earlier r
esearch (e.g., Moon and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Conlon 2002), respon
dents were responsibile for evaluations (e.g., as a company vice president) \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and indicated their perceptions when a positive
or negative outcome was attributed to either a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 human (e.g., factory workers) or inanimate (e.g., industrial robots) source.
Respondents were \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 asked to provide specific e
valuations; thus, regardless of the valence of the outcome, respondents \line \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 were likely to think about the causality of the outc
ome in order to respond to the performance \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 m
easures. This led to a negative effect of a human versus an object when the outc
ome was \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 negative and a positive effect of a
human relative to an object for a positive outcome. \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-2\c
harscalex100 However, in the pricing context it is likely that the valence of th
e outcome, i.e., whether \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 there is a price in
crease or a price decrease, will affect the extent to which consumers think abou
t \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the causality of the price change. It is w
ell accepted that consideration of causality is more likely \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 for negative events (Folkes 1988; Weiner 1985). Thus, when faced
with a price increase, a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 negative, consumer
s are likely to think about why the increase has occurred. As discussed \line \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 earlier, when considering the causality of the price
increase, it is likely to be easier to infer \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 motive for a human presenting a price increase than for an inanimate object. E
ven though there \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 must be a human causal agen
t for a price change even when it is presented on a tag (e.g., a \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-2\charscalex100 manager in a backroom or an executive at headquarters), it
is easier for consumers to think about \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 motiv
e when faced with a human than an inanimate object. It follows that a source eff
ect is likely \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 to arise when there is a price
increase such that the price is perceived as less fair when presented \line \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 by a human marketing agent than an inanimate marketin
g communication. Because positive \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 events are
less likely to evoke attributional thinking (Folkes 1988; Weiner 1985), consume
rs are \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkst
art Pg11}{\bkmkend Pg11}\par\pard\ql \li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9
861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 11 \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1386\sb222\sl
-553\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 less like
ly to think about reasons for a price decrease and thus, differences in the like
lihood of \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 inferring motive for human versus inanim
ate sources will not come into play. Because \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
consumers are no more nor less likely to infer motive for human versus inanimat
e sources when \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 there is a price decrease, no effec
t of source is expected. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1387\sb233\sl-280\slmult0\fi719
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 H1: When processing resources are unconstrained, t
he effect of source on perceptions of \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 price fairne
ss will be moderated by the valence of the price change: a) When there is a pric
e \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 increase, the price will be perceived as l
ess fair when the source of the price information is a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 human rather than an inanimate marketing agent; b) When there is a pr
ice decrease, source will \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 not affect perceived fai
rness. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1440\sb33\sl-556\slmult0\fi719 \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 In short, we propose that whether the source of price information is
human or inanimate \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 can influence consumers\u8217?
perceptions of the fairness of the price. When processing is \line \up0 \expndtw
-4\charscalex100 unconstrained, the impact of the source on price fairness is mo
derated by whether the price is \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 increased (a
negative consumer outcome) or decreased (a positive consumer outcome). When \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 there is a price increase, a human source resul
ts in greater perceived unfairness of the price \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex
100 increase than an inanimate source, but there is no effect of source when the
price is decreased. \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Source Effects and Affe
ct \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb216\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 While
the previous hypothesis is primarily based on consideration of the effects of \
par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 cognitions on perceptions of price fairness, we also
propose that affect has an important \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1287\sb56\sl-553\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 influence on fairness perceptions. Recent th
eorizing suggests that intuition and emotions actually \line \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 contribute the lion\u8217?s share to perceptions of moral judgments s
uch as fairness (Haidt 2001). \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Interestingly,
we are unable to find research that has explicitly examined the causal role of
affect \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 either on perceptions of fairness gen
erally or perceptions of price fairness specifically. Some \line \up0 \expndtw-4
\charscalex100 research demonstrates a correlation between perceived unfairness
and negative emotions, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 suggesting that emoti
ons are an outcome of perceived fairness (Markovsky 1988). Since this \line \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 work was correlational in nature, it is equally consis
tent with the reverse causality. That is, the \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12
240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg12}{\bkmkend Pg12}\par\pard\ql \li9
1\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22
12 \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1508\sb216\sl-560\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10

0 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 correlation between perceived unfairness and negat
ive emotions could mean that the perceived \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 unfairn
ess produced a negative emotional response or that induced negative affect led t
o \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 perceptions of unfairness, or that both oc
curred. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1306\sb0\sl-554\slmult0\fi719 \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 We propose a less strong form of Haidt\u8217?s (2001) argument. That
is, while we believe that \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 perceived unfairne
ss can result in negative emotional reactions, we propose that both cognitions,
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 such as inferences of motive, and affect, su
ch as feelings of discomfort, influence perceptions of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 unfairness. This view of price fairness judgments is consistent with
widely accepted dual \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 processing models of ju
dgments (see Chaiken and Trope 1999). Several current streams of \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-4\charscalex100 research suggest that exposure to stimuli is often likely t
o result in both cognitive and affective \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 rea
ctions and that both can influence responses (e.g., Bargh 2002; Berkowitz 1993;
Epstein \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1993; Hoch and Lowenstein 1991; Leve
anthal 1993). Judgments and perceptions are often based \line \up0 \expndtw-4\ch
arscalex100 on affective reactions (see Schwarz 2000; Schwarz and Clore 1996; Wy
er, Clore, Isbell 1999 for \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 recent reviews).
There is increasing evidence that people monitor their feelings and that \line \
up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 subjective affect influences higher level evaluativ
e judgments of a variety of consumer and non-\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
consumer stimuli (e.g., Damasio 1994; Pham et al. 2001; Schwarz and Clore 1983;
1996). There \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 is also evidence that the exte
nt to which affect influences judgments and evaluations is \line \up0 \expndtw-4
\charscalex100 contingent upon the relevance of affect for the judgment to be ma
de (Pham 1998; Raghunathan \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 and Pham 1999). O
ne way in which judgments of fairness may differ from some other types of \line
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 judgments may be that there is an emotional reacti
on to things that are unfair (Finkel 2001; Xia \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex1
00 and Monroe 2003). Thus, affect is likely to be relevant to fairness judgments
and thus may \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 influence perceived price fair
ness. In short, perceptions of unfairness are likely to result at least \line \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 in part from direct affective responses as well as c
ognitive inferences. \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1253\sb218\sl-280\slmult0\fi719 \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 H2: Affective reactions to a price change situation in
fluence perceptions of the fairness of \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 the price;
negative affect leads to greater perceive unfairness. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\
paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg13}{\bkmkend Pg13}\par\pard
f2\fs22 13 \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2159\sb175\sl276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 As noted e
arlier, a growing body of research indicates that affect, at least lower order \
par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1248\sb55\sl-554\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 aff
ective reactions, may be more basic and thus play a larger role in judgments whe
n processing \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 is constrained than unconstrain
ed (e.g., Berkowitz 1993; Shiv and Fedorikhin 199. That is, \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 feelings experienced during a judgment are likely to exert great
er influence when processing \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 resources are d
iminished than when they are not diminished. This suggests that the influence of
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 affect on perceived price fairness is likel
y to be strongest when processing is constrained. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 Because people are more likely to respond emotionally to humans than inani
mate objects, a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 source effect is expected fo
r price changes. When there is a price increase, both the affective \line \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 reaction and cognitive inferences of motive are likely t
o be negative such that a negative effect of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
a human versus inanimate source on perceived fairness is expected regardless of

the extent of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 processing resources. However
, when there is a price decrease, affective and cognitive reactions \line \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 are likely to diverge. Specifically, when there is a pri
ce decrease, a human source will induce \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 more
positive affect than an inanimate object although, as noted above, the source i
s unlikely to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 influence inferences of motive
. Thus, processing constraints will result in different effects of \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 source on price fairness when there is a price decrease.
When processing is constrained, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 perceived fa
irness will be higher when a price decrease is presented by a human versus an \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 inanimate source. \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb216\s
l-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 H3: When processing resources are co
nstrained, the effect of source on perceptions of \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb4\sl-27
6\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 price fairness will be moderated by the
valence of the price change: a) When there is a price \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb4\s
l-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 increase, the price will be perceive
d as \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 less\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 fair when the
source of the price information is a \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1255\sb1\sl-280\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 human rather than an inanimate marketing agent
; b) When there is a price decrease, the price will \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 be perceived as \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 more\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 f
air when the source of the price information is a human rather than an \up0 \exp
ndtw-5\charscalex100 inanimate marketing agent. \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb264\sl-27
6\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Note that the overall conceptualization
presented here suggests that regardless of the \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1321\sb50\
sl-560\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 constraints on processing resources
, the perceived unfairness of a price increase will be greater \line \up0 \expnd
tw-4\charscalex100 when the source of the price is a human versus an object, alt
hough the underlying mechanism by \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15
840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg14}{\bkmkend Pg14}\par\pard\ql \li9861\sb0\sl-2
41\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb19\sl-24
1\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 14 \par\pard
\ql \li1440\ri1300\sb219\sl-556\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosup
ersub\cf2\f3\fs24 which the source effect arises differs. It is when there is a
price decrease that cognitions and \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 affect result i
n different source effects. When processing is unconstrained, the source will no
t \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 influence inferences of motive when there is a p
rice increase, thus no difference in perceived \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 fai
rness is expected. However, when processing is constrained, and affect plays a g
reater role in \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 price fairness judgments, price fai
rness will be perceived to be greater when the price decrease is \up0 \expndtw-3
\charscalex100 presented by a human rather than an inanimate object. \par\pard\q
l \li1440\ri1340\sb6\sl-554\slmult0\fi719 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Three st
udies examine the conceptualization. The first study tests hypothesis 1, verifyi
ng \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the basic source effect predicted when processi
ng is unconstrained. The second study tests H2, \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ex
amining whether affect exerts an influence on perceptions of price fairness and
whether this is \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 in addition to the influence of in
ferences of motive (when processing is unconstrained). That is, \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 this allows exploration of whether there are dual cognitive and af
fective influences on price \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 fairness or whet
her a sole cognitive process provides a complete explanation. The third study \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 tests hypothesis 3, examining effects of sourc
e and price increases and decreases when \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 pro
cessing is constrained and unconstrained. \par\pard\ql \li6110\sb216\sl-276\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Study 1 \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult
0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Research
Overview and Design \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2159\
sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The objective of the first expe
riment is to present an initial examination of the \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1327\s

b34\sl-555\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 hypothesized effects of the sou
rce of price information and price change on fairness perceptions. \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 This study examines if whether a price change is presente
d by a marketing agent or a marketing \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 commun
ication can influence the perceived price fairness of a price increase. The stud
y had a 2 \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (information source: salesperson v
ersus price sticker) X 2 (price change: increase versus \line \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 decrease) between-subject design. One hundred and thirty undergradua
tes (76 men and 54 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl
-240{\bkmkstart Pg15}{\bkmkend Pg15}\par\pard\ql \li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par
\pard\ql\li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 15 \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1
446\sb216\sl-560\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs
24 women) participated in this paper-and-pencil study. Participants were given t
reats (e.g., donuts, \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 granola bars, or soft drinks)
in appreciation for their help. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb235\sl-276\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 Procedure \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb264\sl-276\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Participants were asked to read a short product purch
ase scenario. The scenario asked \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1333\sb56\sl-553\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 them to imagine that a friend was shopping for an
automobile and was looking at cars \u8220?at one of \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex1
00 the dealerships your friend previously visited.\u8221? While looking at cars
either a) a salesperson tells \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the friend the price
or b) the friend sees the price of the car on a sign. The price is either $500
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 higher or lower \u8220?than the price s/he had obs
erved on his or her previous visit.\u8221? Subjects then \up0 \expndtw-4\charsca
lex100 rated the perceived fairness of the price (1 = very unfair and 9 = very f
air). Subjects completed \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 several covariate items i
ncluding gender, age, and income; these did not have any significant \up0 \expnd
tw-5\charscalex100 effects in the analyses and will not be discussed further. \p
ar\pard\ql \li1440\sb236\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Analysis a
nd Results \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1240\sb56\sl-553\slmult0\fi719 \up0 \expndtw-4
\charscalex100 A 2 (source: salesperson vs. sticker) X 2 (price change: increase
vs. decrease) ANOVA of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 perceived price fair
ness revealed the expected pattern of results. Results showed an effect of \line
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 price change (F(1, 127) = 43.2, \ul0\nosupersub\c
f3\f4\fs24 p\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 < .0001) and a marginal effect of sourc
e (F(1, 127) = 2.95, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 p\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 <
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 .09), qualified by a significant interactio
n (F(1, 127) = 4.59, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 p\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 <
.03). Overall, a price increase \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 was perceiv
ed to be less fair (M = 3.41) than a price decrease (M = 5.22). Additionally, as
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 hypothesized, a price increase was perceive
d to be significantly less fair when the consumer \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscal
ex100 learned of the increase from a salesperson (M = 2.88) than from the sticke
r (M = 3.94; \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 t\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 (1, 127) \
line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 = 2.74, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 p\ul0\nos
upersub\cf2\f3\fs24 < .007). The source of the price information did not impact
perceived fairness when \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 there was a price d
ecrease (M\ul0\sub\cf5\f6\fs21 SP\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 = 5.27, M\ul0\sub\
cf5\f6\fs21 S\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 = 5.16; \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 t\
ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 (1, 127) = .30, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 p\ul0\nos
upersub\cf2\f3\fs24 > .75). \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Discussion \par
\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg16}{\
bkmkend Pg16}\par\pard\ql \li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb0\sl241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10
0 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 16 \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1245\sb221\sl-554\slmult
0\fi719\tx2159\tx2159 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24
In this study we examined source effects on perceptions of price fairness when t
here was \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 either a price increase or decrease

and processing was unconstrained. The results of this study \line \up0 \expndtw
-4\charscalex100 provide support for hypothesis 1 presented above. Perceptions o
f the (un)fairness of a price \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 increase were
influenced by the source of the price information; the price increase was percei
ved \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 as more unfair when presented by a sales
person rather than a price sticker. The source did not \line \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 influence the perceived price fairness when there was a price decreas
e. \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The study results support the basic
idea that the source of a price increase can influence \line \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 perceptions of price fairness. These results support the conceptualiz
ation that when processing is \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 unconstrained
by a secondary, distracting task, consumers think about the reasons for a price
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 increase. It is easier to make inferences of
motive for a person than for an object, such that the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 increased price is perceived as less fair when presented by a human a
gent than an inanimate \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 agent. Consumers are
less concerned about the causality of a price decrease, and thus there is no \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 effect of source on the perceived price fairnes
s when the price has been decreased. \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Wh
ile the study results are consistent with the theorized process, the study does
not \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 provide direct examination of the underl
ying process. The conceptualization presented above \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
alex100 suggests that perceptions of price fairness are influenced both by infer
ences of the price setter\u8217?s \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 motive and
affective reactions to the price set. While affect is expected to have a grea
ter \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 influence when processing resources are
diminished than when cognitive resources are not \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscale
x100 diminished, the theoretical notions suggest that affect can also exert infl
uence on perceptions of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 price fairness when
cognitive processing is undiminished. As noted earlier, a growing body of \line
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 research demonstrates the important influence of a
ffect on judgments, decision-making, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 intenti
ons, and behaviors; H2 proposes that consumers\u8217? affective reactions to pri
ces can \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 influence perceived price fairness.
The results of study 1 lead to questions about \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 how\u
l0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 source \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15
840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg17}{\bkmkend Pg17}\par\pard\ql \li9861\sb0\sl-2
41\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb19\sl-24
1\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 17 \par\pard
\ql \li1440\ri1261\sb220\sl-555\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosup
ersub\cf2\f3\fs24 influences the perceived fairness of a price increase. In part
icular, does a human source of a price \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 increase re
sult in more inferences of negative motive and/or more negative affect than a ta
g? If \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 so, do both inferred motive and affect
contribute to perceptions of price fairness? Study 2 was \line \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 designed to give more direct insight to the influence of inferred
motive and affect on perceptions \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 of price fa
irness. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1254\sb7\sl-553\slmult0\fi719 \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 Study 2 was also an opportunity to examine and replicate effects of p
rice source and price \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 change in the context
of a different scenario. First, we wanted to replicate the source effects \line
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 under unconstrained processing within a different
product category. Since many people have a \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 n
egative stereotype of car salespeople, we thought it would be useful to examine
source effects \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 within a more positive produc
t category. Second, research demonstrates that consumers are more \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 likely to be suspicious of marketing agents\u8217? motives
when observers of rather than actors in an \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
interaction (Campbell and Kirmani 2000). Study 2 provided an opportunity to exam
ine source \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 effects within a first person sce
nario rather than when the purchaser was \u8220?a friend.\u8221? Third, study \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 2 was also used to replicate the source findin
gs with a different human marketing agent. In study \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
alex100 1, the constructs of human versus inanimate price source were manipulate
d by a salesperson \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 versus a sticker, both pr
esenting the same price information. However, a salesperson acts as an \line \up
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 agent for the firm but may act to meet his or her own
goals as well as those of the firm (for a \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 r
eview of agency theory see Bergen, Dutta, and Walker 1992). A sticker can be con
sidered a \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 more direct reflection of the firm
\u8217?s motives than a salesperson because a salesperson could have \line \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 his or her own motives that might differ from those of
the firm owner/manager. Thus, in study 2, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 th
e human source of the price information is the owner of the store; the owner of
the store has \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the same motives regardless of
whether he or she presents the price personally or via a price tag. \par\pard\s
ect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg18}{\bkmkend
Pg18}\par\pard\ql \li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb0\sl-241\slm
ult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 18 \par\pard\ql \li5630\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\l
i5630\sb175\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\
fs24 STUDY 2 \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Overview and Design \par\pard\ql \li14
40\ri1328\sb56\sl-553\slmult0\fi719 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The primary ob
jective of study 2 is to examine whether, under unconstrained processing \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 conditions, consumers\u8217? inferences of motive and aff
ective reactions to pricing situations \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 influ
ence perceptions of price fairness. In particular, this examines whether inferre
d motive \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 and/or affect mediate the effects o
f source and price change on perceived price fairness. One \line \up0 \expndtw-4
\charscalex100 possibility is that inferences of motive influence perceptions of
fairness and mediate source \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 effects and emo
tional reactions do not when processing resources are unconstrained. The \line \
up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 alternative explanation proposed here is that, alth
ough inferences of motive influences perceived \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 pri
ce fairness when processing is unconstrained, affect also influences perceptions
of fairness. \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Study 2 was designed to allow
insight to this with the inclusion of measures of inferred motive \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-5\charscalex100 and emotional reaction, as described below. \par\pard\ql \
li1440\ri1412\sb7\sl-553\slmult0\fi719 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 To replicat
e the study 1 findings in a different purchase environment, particularly one \up
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 without a negative stereotype, study 2 used a househo
ld goods scenario. A pretest revealed that \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 attitud
es toward household goods salespeople (M = 5.5; 1 = bad/negative/unpleasant, 7 =
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 good/positive/pleasant) were positive and s
ignificantly higher in the subject population than \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
attitudes toward car salespeople (M = 3.3; \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 t\ul0\no
supersub\cf2\f3\fs24 (1, 39) = 6.85, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 p\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf2\f3\fs24 < .0001). In addition, household \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 go
ods (e.g., linens, rugs, chairs, posters, frames, etc.) are something students p
urchase and are a \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 product category where price flu
ctuations are not unusual. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb236\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expnd
tw-5\charscalex100 Procedure \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1460\sb58\sl-550\slmult0\fi7
19 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Ninety-seven undergraduates (49 men and 48 wome
n) participated in a study for course \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 credit
. All subjects read that they were shopping for a rug and had seen one that they
liked for \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 $500 the previous week and were g
oing back to look at it again. Half the subjects learned the \par\pard\sect\sect
d\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg19}{\bkmkend Pg19}\p
ar\pard\ql \li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \pa

r\pard\ql\li9861\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf1\f2\fs22 19 \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1242\sb220\sl-555\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw
-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 current price from the price tag on
the rug and half learned the price from the owner of the store. \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-4\charscalex100 Crossed with this, half of the subjects read that the price
was \u8220?25% higher than the price you \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 ob
served on your visit last week\u8221? while half of the subjects read that the p
rice was 25% lower. \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 After reading the scenar
io, subjects rated the perceived fairness of the offered price (same scale \line
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 as study 1). Then subjects indicated their feelin
gs on a bipolar scale of positive versus negative \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscal
ex100 feelings. Subjects indicated how they felt \u8220?after reading this scena
rio\u8221? on a seven-point scale (1 = \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 negat
ive, 7 = positive). Subjects next indicated inferred motive on a two-item scale
(\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 r\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 = .66, \ul0\nosupersu
b\cf3\f4\fs24 p\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 < \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 .0001) by indicating their perceptions of the motive for the price change (1 =
bad, 7 = good) and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 their agreement with, \u
8220?The intent in this situation was to take advantage of you (the customer)\u8
221? \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 (1 = agree, 7 = disagree; based on Camp
bell 1999). Subjects completed manipulation check \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscal
ex100 measures for the source of the price information (1 = a price tag, 7 = a p
erson) and the direction \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 of the price change
(1 = decrease, 7 = increase), wrote any thoughts or feelings that they had \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 while reading the scenario, and lastly, indicate
d gender and age. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb236\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\char
scalex100 Analysis and Results \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1586\sb30\sl-560\slmult0\f
i719 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Unless otherwise noted, all analyses were con
ducted with a 2 (price source) X 2 (price \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 change)
ANOVA. \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb235\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 Manipulation checks\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 . Subj
ects indicated whether the scenario had referred to a price \par\pard\ql \li1440
\ri1284\sb34\sl-555\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 decrease (1) or increa
se (7) on a seven-point scale. There was a main effect of price change; the \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 price was rated as an increase (M = 6.06) in the
price increase condition and a decrease in the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex
100 decrease condition (M = 1.87; \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 F\ul0\nosupersub\c
f2\f3\fs24 (1, 93) = 359.64, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 p\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3
\fs24 < .0001). There were no other significant \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscale
x100 effects. Subjects indicated the source of the price information on a sevenpoint scale (1 = a price \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 tag and 7 = a perso
n). The average rating indicated that the price was presented by a person (M = \
par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg20
}{\bkmkend Pg20}\par\pard\ql \li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb0\
x100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 20 \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1306\sb216\sl-560\slm
ult0\tx2159 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 6.40) in t
he owner condition and a price tag (M = 1.67) in the tag condition (\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf3\f4\fs24 F\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 (1, 93) = 388.38, \ul0\nosupersub\c
f3\f4\fs24 p \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 < .0001).
There were no other significant effects. Thus, both manipulations were successf
ul. \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 Perceive
d Fairness\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 . Analysis replicates the source and price
change effects seen in study \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1293\sb0\sl-555\slmult0\tx2
159 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1. Again, a price increase was perceived as si
gnificantly less fair (more unfair) when the source \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
alex100 of the price information was the owner of the store (M = 2.04) than when
the source was the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 price tag (M = 2.89; \ul
0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 t\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 (1, 93) = 2.35, \ul0\nosup
ersub\cf3\f4\fs24 p\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 < .02). The source of the price

information did not impact \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 perceived price f
airness when there was a decrease in the price (M\ul0\sub\cf5\f6\fs21 O\ul0\nosu
persub\cf2\f3\fs24 = 5.72; M\ul0\sub\cf5\f6\fs21 T\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24
= 5.54; \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 t\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 (1, 93) = \line
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 .49, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 p\ul0\nosupersub
\cf2\f3\fs24 > .62). Overall, there was a main effect of price change (F(1, 93)
= 146.4, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 p\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 < .0001) and
a \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 significant interaction between the sourc
e and the price change (\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 F\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24
(1, 93) = 3.89, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 p\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 < .05
). \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 Mediatio
n\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 . Our theoretical development proposes that both in
ferences of motive and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 affective reactions c
an underlie the effects of source and price change on price fairness. We \line \
up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 explore each of these variables as possible mediato
rs by first examining whether the independent \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 variables of source and price change influence inferred motive and affect in t
he same manner as \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 perceived price fairness.
The ANOVA results appear in Table 1. These show that the influence \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 of source, price change and their interaction on both inf
erred motive and affect is similar to the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 pa
ttern of effects on perceived fairness, supporting possible mediation (Baron and
Kenny 1986). \par\pard\ql \li5280\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5280\sb225\
sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Insert Table 1 about here \par\pard
ql\li2159\sb272\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The significant int
eraction effects in particular support the possible mediation of the \par\pard\q
j \li1440\ri1379\sb56\sl-553\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 effects of so
urce and price change on perceived fairness by inferred motive and affect. Analy
sis \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 of the two-item measure of inferred moti
ve shows that when there was a price increase, subjects \line \up0 \expndtw-4\ch
arscalex100 inferred more motive to take advantage when the owner was the source
of the price information \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 (M = 2.18; 1 = inf
erred motive) than when the price increase was conveyed by a price tag (M = \par
0 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 21 \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pa
rd\ql\li1440\sb175\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf2\f3\fs24 3.20; \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 t\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 (1, 9
3) = 3.05, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 p\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 < .003). Wh
en there was a price decrease, there was no difference in \par\pard\qj \li1440\r
i1284\sb53\sl-556\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 inferred motive to take
advantage when the price was presented by the owner (M = 5.23) relative \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 to the price tag (M = 5.31; \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 t\
ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 (1, 93) < .8, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 n.s\ul0\nos
upersub\cf2\f3\fs24 .). Likewise, when there was a price increase, subjects \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 felt significantly more negative when the price inform
ation was presented by the store owner (M \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 = 1.79)
than the price tag (M = 2.63; \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 t\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f
3\fs24 (1, 93) = 3.08, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 p\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24
< .003). When there was a price decrease, \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 feeling
s were equally positive whether the price decrease was presented by the owner (M
= 5.32) \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 or the price tag (M = 5.25; \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf3\f4\fs24 t\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 (1, 93) = .24, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f
4\fs24 n.s\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 .). \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1286\sb0\sl-555
\slmult0\fi719\tx2159 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The next step was to examine
whether inferred motive and affect influenced perceived \line \up0 \expndtw-4\c
harscalex100 fairness and, if so, whether including each variable in the full mo
del diminished the source and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 price change e
ffects on perceived price fairness. We first included inferred motive in the ful
l \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 model. Results, presented in Table 1 (Mode
l C), support the mediating role of inferred motive. \line \up0 \expndtw-4\chars
calex100 Inferred motive significantly influenced perceived fairness. Importantl
y, the inclusion of inferred \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 motive as a cov
ariate eliminated the previously significant interaction effect. This indicates
that \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 inferred motive mediates the source by
price change effects on perceived price fairness. \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 Next, we included the measured affect in the full model (see Table 1,
Model D). Affect \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 was a significant predicto
r of perceived price fairness, supporting H2. Further, as a critical \line \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 indicator of mediation, including affect as a covariate
in the model eliminated the interaction \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 eff
ect of source and price change on perceived price fairness. Thus, the necessary
criteria are all \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 met, demonstrating that aff
ect mediates the effects of the source and the source by price change \line \up0
\expndtw-5\charscalex100 interaction on perceived fairness. \par\pard\ql \li215
9\sb221\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 These analyses provide supp
ort for our conceptual model. These indicate that inferred \par\pard\qj \li1440\
ri1247\sb30\sl-560\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 motive and affect both
influence perceptions of price fairness and each mediates effects of source \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 and price change on fairness perceptions. Since
the theoretical notions presented here propose \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw1
2240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg22}{\bkmkend Pg22}\par\pard\ql \li
61\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22
22 \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1253\sb220\sl-555\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 that inferred motive and affect both play roles i
n source biases on perceptions of fairness, it is \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 important to examine whether each adds explanatory power in addition to th
at provided by the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 other. Thus, we included
inferred motive and affect simultaneously as covariates in the full \line \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 model. This analysis showed that both of these variables
, even when controlling for the other, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 influ
ence perceived price fairness (see Table 1, Model E). Inferred motive was a high
ly \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 significant predictor of price fairness a
nd affect was likewise a significant predictor, providing \line \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 additional support for H2. With both covariates, there was a signi
ficant, but reduced, effect of the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 price cha
nge on price fairness. The previously significant effect of the source by price
change \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 interaction was removed, indicating f
ull mediation of this effect. A Chow test was used to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 compare this model to the model that included inferred motive as the s
ole covariate (without \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 affect; Model C in Ta
ble 1). This showed that including affect in addition to inferred motive \line \
up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 significantly increased the explanatory power of th
e model (\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 F\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 (1, 91) = 4.35
, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 p\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 < .05). Thus, these
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 analyses support that both inferred motive a
nd affect play mediational roles in the source by \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 price change effect on perceived price fairness. The research provides sup
port for the conceptual \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 model that inferred
motive and affect are both antecedents of perceptions of fairness and that \line
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 both mediate the source by price change effects s
een on perceptions of price fairness. \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Summar
y and Discussion \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1258\sb0\sl-556\slmult0\fi719 \up0 \expn
dtw-2\charscalex100 Study 2 provides insight to several important issues. First,
with different product category \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and source
manipulations, this replicated the results seen in study 1. The results provide
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 additional evidence of a source bias in perc

eptions of price fairness that is moderated by the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 valence of the price change. More importantly, study 2 provides further i
nsight into how source \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 effects are likely to
arise. This study strongly suggests that source, influenced by the direction of
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 a price change, impacts inferences of motiv
e and emotional reactions and that both of these then \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\
f2\fs22 23 \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb175\sl276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 influence
perceptions of price fairness. The results provide compelling evidence that when
a \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult
0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 person is the source of information on a price i
ncrease, consumers make negative inferences \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1342\sb56\sl553\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 about the marketing agent\u8217?s moti
ves for the price change and have negative emotional reactions, \up0 \expndtw-4\
charscalex100 at least when cognitive resources are unconstrained. These inferen
ces and emotions lead to \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 greater perceived u
nfairness than when the price increase is presented by an inanimate object \line
\up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 such as a price tag. \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb236\s
l-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The results of study 2 provide suppo
rt for our conceptual model that there are dual \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1252\sb35
\sl-554\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 processes-cognitive and affectiveby which source, moderated by price change, influences price \line \up0 \expndtw
-4\charscalex100 fairness. As discussed above, earlier research proposes and dem
onstrates that when both \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 cognitive and affec
tive processes are evoked, affect will have a relatively greater influence when
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 processing resources are constrained than un
constrained (\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 cf\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 . Shiv an
d Fedorikhin 1999). Since \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the directions of
affective reactions and inferences of motive are expected to differ in the case
of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 a price decrease, further support of the
idea that affect, in addition to inferred motive, influences \line \up0 \expndtw
-4\charscalex100 perceptions of price fairness and mediates the source by price
change effects would be provided \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 by differen
t patterns of results when processing is constrained than unconstrained. In part
icular, a \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 positive source effect when proces
sing is constrained and there is a price decrease would provide \line \up0 \expn
dtw-4\charscalex100 additional support for the proposed role of affect. As outli
ned above, and supported by studies 1 \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 and 2,
when there is no particular resource constraint, a negative effect of a human r
elative to an \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 inanimate source appears when
there is a price increase and no source effect appears when there \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 is a price decrease. However, when processing resources ar
e constrained such that affect has a \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 greater
influence on fair price perceptions, we expect to see a source effect both when
there is a \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 price increase and when there is
a price decrease. We expect consumers to react affectively more \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-4\charscalex100 to human marketing agents than to price tags. A price incre
ase is likely to induce negative affect \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\pa
perh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg24}{\bkmkend Pg24}\par\pard\ql \li9861\sb
0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb19
\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 24 \pa
r\pard\ql \li1440\ri1261\sb220\sl-555\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0
\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 while a price decrease induces positive affect. Thus, wh
en perceptions are based on affect a price \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 increas
e will be perceived as less fair when presented by a human agent, but a price de
crease will \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 be perceived as more fair when present
ed by a human agent versus a price tag (see H3). Thus, \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 the next step is to explore source and price change effects under different
levels of resource \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 constraints; this is the
primary objective of study 3. \par\pard\ql \li5620\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard
\ql\li5620\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5620\sb244\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs24 STUDY 3 \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb
264\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 Ove
rview and Design \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1245\sb56\sl-553\slmult0\fi719 \up0 \exp
ndtw-4\charscalex100 The theoretical conceptualization suggests that the extent
to which affect evoked by the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 price scenario
influences perceptions of price fairness depends upon the processing resources
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 available during the task. The primary objec
tive of study 3 was to further explore our proposition \line \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 that affect influences perceptions of fairness by examining fairness
perceptions when processing \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 resources alloca
ted to consideration of the price situation were diminished by a secondary task.
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 This also provided replication of the study
1 and 2 findings for source effects and fairness \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscal
ex100 perceptions when resources were undiminished. Subjects were randomly assig
ned to a 2 \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 (processing resources: unconstrai
ned vs. constrained) X 2 (source of price information; owner vs. \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-4\charscalex100 price tag) X 2 (price change: increase vs. decrease) betwee
n-subjects design. \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Procedure \par\pard\ql \l
i2159\sb236\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Like the other two stud
ies, study 3 employed a scenario paradigm. The scenario was \par\pard\ql \li1440
\ri1292\sb56\sl-553\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 basically the same as
used in study 2. Subjects read similar overall instructions as in the previous \
line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 studies. Two hundred and thirty-three undergr
aduate students participated, randomly assigned to \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charsca
lex100 the different conditions. In the unconstrained processing resources condi
tion, subjects were \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 asked to read a short sc
enario of a product purchase situation with the same basic instructions as \par\
pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg25}{\b
kmkend Pg25}\par\pard\ql \li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb0\sl-2
41\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 25 \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1334\sb220\sl-555\slmult0
\tx2159 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 the previous s
tudies. For the constrained processing resources condition, subjects read the sa
me \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 instructions and were additionally asked
to remember the exact order in which numbers in word \line \up0 \expndtw-4\chars
calex100 and numeral form occur in the scenario. There were five such numbers em
bedded in all \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 conditions of the scenario. (T
his processing resources manipulation has been widely used, e.g., \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 Campbell and Kirmani 2000; Gilbert, Pelham and Krull 1988;
Shiv and Fedorikhin 1999). \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 All subject
s read that they were shopping for a rug and had seen one that they liked for \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 $400 the previous week and were going back to
look at it again. Approximately half the subjects \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscal
ex100 in each processing condition learned the current price from the price tag
on the rug and half \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 learned the current pric
e from the owner of the store. Crossed with this, half of the subjects read \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 that the price was \u8220?25% higher than the pr
ice you observed on your visit last week\u8221? while the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\
charscalex100 other half of the subjects in each processing condition read that
the price was 25% lower. After \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 reading the s
cenario, subjects rated the perceived fairness of the offered price. \line \up0
\expndtw-5\charscalex100 Results \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1269\sb8\sl-552\slmult0\
fi719 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The extent to which this study replicated th
e results from studies 1 and 2 was examined \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
first. When there was no processing constraint, the pattern of results on percei
ved price fairness \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 was the same as in the ea
rlier studies. As expected, there was a main effect of the price change \line \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 such that a price increase was perceived as less fai
r than a price decrease (MI = 2.58, MD = 4.52; \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex1
00 F (1, 110) = 59.1, p < .0001). There was also a main effect of source (F(1, 1
10) = 4.2, p < .04) \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 qualified by an interact
ion of source and price change (F(1, 110) = 3.8, p < .05). As \par\pard\qj \li14
40\ri1443\sb10\sl-550\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 hypothesized, when t
here was a price increase, the price was perceived as significantly less fair \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 when the price increase was presented by a hum
an (the owner; M = 2.08) than by an inanimate \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 object (the price tag; M = 3.08; t(1, 110) = 2.67, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24
p\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 < .009). When there was a price decrease the \par
0 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 26 \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1749\sb216\sl-560\slmult
0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 source had no impact
on perceived fairness (Mowner = 4.50, Mtag = 4.53, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24
t\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 < 1, p > .9). See \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Fi
gure 2a. \par\pard\ql \li5236\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5236\sb239\sl-27
6\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Insert Figure 2 about here \par\pard\ql
\li2159\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2159\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\l
i2159\sb272\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Next, we examined the p
attern of effects when processing was constrained. If task-\par\pard\ql \li1440\
sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 induced affect influences perceptions of fairness, this impact should be
strongest under \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8
\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 constrained processing resources.
If people are more likely to respond emotionally to another \par\pard\ql \li1440
\sb264\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 human than to an inanimate o
bject, when processing is constrained a source effect is likely to \par\pard\ql
\li1440\ri1255\sb55\sl-554\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 appear both whe
n there is a price increase and when there is a price decrease. When there is pr
ice \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 increase, both the cognitive appraisal o
f the marketer\u8217?s motives and any affective response \line \up0 \expndtw-4\
charscalex100 should be negative. Thus, limiting cognitive resources should not
change the negative bias \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 arising from a huma
n relative to an inanimate source. However, the emotional reaction to a price \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 decrease is likely to be positive; that is, co
nsumers should feel more positive about a price \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex
100 decrease presented by a human than by an inanimate marketing agent. As shown
in Figure 2b, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the data support this concept
ualization. When processing resources are constrained a source \line \up0 \expnd
tw-4\charscalex100 effect is seen both when there is a price increase and when t
here is a price decrease. Overall, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 there was
a main effect of the price change (F(1, 114) = 10.4, p < .002) such that a pric
e increase \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 was perceived as less fair than a
price decrease (MI = 3.68; MD = 4.57) and a cross-over \line \up0 \expndtw-4\ch
arscalex100 interaction between source and price change (\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\
fs24 F\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 (1, 114) = 7.4, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 p\
ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 < .008). A price increase was \line \up0 \expndtw-4\
charscalex100 perceived to be marginally less fair (more unfair) when presented
by the owner (M = 3.33) than \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the price tag (
M = 4.03; \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 t\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 (1, 114) = 1.
82, p < .07). Importantly, when a human (the owner) \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
alex100 presented a price decrease, subjects perceived the price to be fairer (M
= 4.97) than when the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 same price decrease w
as presented on a price tag (M = 4.17; \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 t\ul0\nosuper
sub\cf2\f3\fs24 (1, 114) = 2.03, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 p\ul0\nosupersub\cf
2\f3\fs24 < .05). \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl

-240{\bkmkstart Pg27}{\bkmkend Pg27}\par\pard\ql \li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par
\pard\ql\li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 27 \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0
\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb175\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charsca
lex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 Discussion \par\pard\ql \li2159\sb0\sl-276\sl
mult0 \par\pard\ql\li2159\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Study
3 provided important replication and extension of the findings from studies 1 a
nd \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1259\sb55\sl-554\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
2. The results seen when processing was unconstrained replicate that there is a
source effect \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 when there is a price increas
e and no such effect when the price is decreased. The results of \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-2\charscalex100 study 3 importantly extend the findings of studies 1 and 2,
indicating that, when processing \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 resources
are constrained, source effects appear both when the price is increased and when
it is \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 decreased. When there was a price dec
rease, there was a person positivity bias such that price \line \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 fairness was perceived as higher when a price decrease was present
ed by a human (the owner of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the store) than
when presented by an inanimate object (a price tag). When there was a price \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 increase, a person negativity bias appeared such
that price fairness was lower when the price \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 increase was presented by the human relative to the inanimate object. The two
different patterns \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of results when processin
g resources were not constrained by a secondary task versus when \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-2\charscalex100 processing was constrained provide support for the idea tha
t situation-induced affect is one of the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 pro
cesses by which source, moderated by price change, influences perceived price fa
irness. \par\pard\ql \li4612\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4612\sb0\sl-276\s
lmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4612\sb224\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 DI
SCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1673\sb56\sl-552\slmult0\fi719 \
up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Taken together, our findings suggest that the incid
ental factor of the source of price \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 change i
nformation can contribute to perceived price (un)fairness and that the effect of
the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 source differs when there is a price in
crease versus a price decrease. The same price can be \line \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 perceived as less, or more, fair depending upon the source of the pric
e information and the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 direction of the price
change. This contributes to the literature on price fairness in two ways. \line
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 First, while earlier work implies that the direct
ion of a price change influences price fairness, \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb236\sl-2
76\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 research has focused on price increases
without explicitly considering price decreases (Bolton, \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs
24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg28}{\bkmkend Pg28}\par\p
ard\ql \li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pa
rd\ql\li9861\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f1\f2\fs22 28 \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1325\sb221\sl-554\slmult0\tx2159\tx2159 \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 Warlop and Alba 2003). Th
e research presented here presents an exploration of price fairness of \line \up
0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 increases and decreases. More importantly, the source
effect appears quite different from \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 anythin
g suggested by prior price fairness work, such as that of, or inspired by, dual
entitlement. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 While earlier work suggests tha
t the direction of the price change will influence perceived \line \up0 \expndtw
-2\charscalex100 fairness, as shown here, it does not suggest that the source of
the price change information will \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 influence
perceived fairness. That a variable that is not directly linked to the price de
cision can \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 influence price fairness is intri
guing and opens new directions for research. \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 These results also provide insight to the mechanism underlying the effects
of source on \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 price fairness. In combination

, these findings indicate that source influences price fairness \line \up0 \expn
dtw-2\charscalex100 because of differential effects of humans and inanimate obje
cts in eliciting both inferences of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 motive a
nd affect. The role of affect in mediating source effects on price fairness is s
upported \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 both by mediation analysis using a
measured affective response and by theoretically-relevant \line \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 differences in perceptions of price fairness when processing is co
nstrained versus unconstrained. \line\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 These fi
ndings contribute both to the source effects literature and to the price fairnes
s \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 literature. First, while earlier research
on source effects has shown that there can be differences \line \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 in evaluations of outcomes associated with people versus objects,
the processes underlying these \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 differences h
ave not been explored. Our research explicitly examines how source effects arise
. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 This provides evidence for the theoretical
notions that person-object differences are driven by \line \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 differences in cognitive inferences about and affective reactions towa
rds humans versus objects. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 However, this res
earch does not fully explicate the psychological difference to consumers \line \
up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 between humans and inanimate objects. That is, whil
e this shows that the two evoke different \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 pr
ocessing, this does not pinpoint what exactly it is about the human versus objec
t that elicits \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240
{\bkmkstart Pg29}{\bkmkend Pg29}\par\pard\ql \li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\par
d\ql\li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb19\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 29 \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1439\
sb216\sl-560\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 t
hese differences. Future research can explore the human (salesperson) versus obj
ect (price tag) \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 construct in more depth. \par\pard
\ql \li2159\sb235\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Second, these fin
dings further our understanding of consumers\u8217? perceptions of price \par\pa
rd\ql \li1440\ri1299\sb34\sl-555\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 unfairnes
s and how these are shaped. In particular, this contributes to existing research
on price \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 fairness by proposing and supporti
ng an important role of affect; these findings indicate that \line \up0 \expndtw
-4\charscalex100 consumers\u8217? emotional reactions to pricing situations infl
uence their perceptions of price fairness. \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 T
his is especially important because prior research on price fairness has focused
on cognitive \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 influences. In two studies wit
h two different approaches, this research provides strong evidence \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 that affect can be an antecedent of fairness perceptions
both when processing resources are and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 are n
ot constrained, thus bolstering the importance of the role of affect in fairness
perceptions. \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Affect is quite different from
other variables that have been proposed to influence perceptions of \line \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 price fairness and adding this to our understanding of
how price fairness perceptions arise opens \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 m
any new directions for research. One potential implication offered by this resea
rch is that the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 important role of affect may
be one way in which perceptions of fairness differ from other types \line \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 of perceptions. That is, further research should explor
e whether a difference between a \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 perception
of something as unfair as opposed to a bad deal is the extent to which it evokes
\line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 negative affect. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri127
3\sb0\sl-556\slmult0\fi719 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 To our knowledge, this
is not only the first research to demonstrate the influence of affect \line \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 on perceptions of price fairness, but also appears to
be the first research to demonstrate the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 inf
luence of affect on fairness perceptions more generally. Thus, this can contribu
te to the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 fairness literature beyond price f

airness. For example, this offers a potential contribution to the \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 literature on moral psychology. Most of the research in th
is tradition has examined moral \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 evaluations
from a rational perspective, examining the role of reasoning and inferences in \
par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg30
}{\bkmkend Pg30}\par\pard\ql \li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb0\
x100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 30 \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1286\sb220\sl-555\slm
ult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 perceptions of fa
irness and other moral judgments (see Haidt 2001 for a review). Recently, Haidt
\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (2001) has proposed the social intuitionist
approach, suggesting that affect has the primary role \line \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 in moral judgments. In this model, it is proposed that reasoning is us
ually post hoc to provide \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 rationale for a mo
ral judgment that has already been reached by an intuitive, emotions-based \line
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 process. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1319\sb7\sl-553\s
lmult0\fi719\tx2159 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The research presented here sp
eaks to the rational vs. intuition debate. Specifically, by \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 manipulating processing resources in study 3 and getting differe
nt patterns of perceived price \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 fairness when
processing resources are constrained versus unconstrained, this shows that, in
this \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 case at least, reasoning is not just a post h
oc construction for an affect-based perception. Rather, \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal
ex100 these results suggest a dual process model of fairness judgments. This sug
gests that both \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 reasoning and emotions are i
mportant antecedents of fairness and that the role played by each \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-2\charscalex100 depends upon specific conditions. A fruitful area for new
research is then to explore conditions \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 other
than processing constraints that influence the causal roles of cognition and af
fect. \line \tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 While fairness is an important ty
pe of moral judgment, the price fairness situations \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 studied here are surely less fundamental moral issues than those, such a
s incest or betrayal, often \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 studied in moral psych
ology. Thus, while the dual process model supported here may apply to \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 moral judgments more generally, it may not. It is poss
ible that reasoning is not an antecedent for \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 some
types of more fundamental moral judgments that could instead be based solely on
affect \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 and intuition. This also offers areas
for additional research. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1354\sb7\sl-553\slmult0\fi719 \
up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Modern business has increasing opportunity to repla
ce human agents with inanimate \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 ones. Markete
rs and retailers employ both humans and \u8220?machines\u8221? to interact with
customers. \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Consumers now learn prices from a
variety of inanimate sources in addition to more traditional \line \up0 \expndt
w-4\charscalex100 human sources. For example, computer interfaces are becoming m
ore prevalent as a means for a \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840
\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg31}{\bkmkend Pg31}\par\pard\ql \li9861\sb0\sl-241\
slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb19\sl-241\s
lmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 31 \par\pard\ql
\li1440\ri1286\sb220\sl-555\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupers
ub\cf2\f3\fs24 company to interact with and provide information, such as prices,
to consumers. Many marketers \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 appear to consider a
nimate and inanimate sources to be interchangeable. However, our research \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 clearly suggests that this is not the case. Consumers ca
n react differently to these two types of \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 sources
and marketers should not assume that human and inanimate sources of the same \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 information will elicit equivalent consumer res
ponses. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1247\sb6\sl-554\slmult0\fi719 \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 At least since Sophocles, the strong negative evaluations of messenge
rs bearing bad news \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 has been noted. Perhaps
this may arise, at least in part, because of a human tendency to make \line \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 inferences of negative motive for the person who tells
bad news. This may be further exacerbated \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 b
y the likelihood that the human evokes negative affect. Our research begins to s
hed light into \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 differences that may arise wh
en marketplace information is presented by a human agent as \line \up0 \expndtw2\charscalex100 opposed to some inanimate communication. This shows that the sou
rce can influence perceived \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 price fairness a
nd suggests that bad news, such as price increases, may lead to more negative \l
ine \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 evaluations of firms when presented by human r
ather than inanimate representatives. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\pape
rh15840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg32}{\bkmkend Pg32}\par\pard\ql \li9861\sb0\
sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb19\s
l-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs22 32 \par\
pard\ql \li5755\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5755\sb175\sl-276\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 Table 1 \par\pard\ql \li42
43\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4243\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\cha
rscalex100 Study 2: Models for Testing Mediation \par\pard\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slm
ult0\par\pard\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\p
ard\li1440\sb22\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx5875\tx7540 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \
ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs24 Variables\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 F statist
ic\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Probability > F\par\pard\li1440\sb12\sl-276
\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Model A\par\pard\li1440\sb2\sl-276\sl
mult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 Dependent Va
riable: Inferred Motive\par\pard\li1440\sb12\sl-276\slmult0\fi4545 \up0 \expndtw
-3\charscalex100 F(1, 93)\par\pard\li1440\sb12\sl-276\slmult0\fi300\tx6038\tx754
0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Price Change\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1
13.22\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 p < .0001\par\pard\li1440\sb7\sl-276\slm
ult0\fi300\tx6158\tx7540 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Source\tab \up0 \expndtw3\charscalex100 5.18\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 p < .03\par\pard\li1440\s
b12\sl-276\slmult0\fi300\tx6158\tx7540 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Price Chang
e X Source\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 3.72\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex
100 p < .05\par\pard\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1440\sb24\sl-276\slmul
t0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs24 Model B\par\par
d\li1440\sb3\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx5923 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf2\f3\fs24 Dependent Variable: Affect\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 F(
1, 112)\par\pard\li1440\sb7\sl-276\slmult0\fi300\tx6100\tx7540 \up0 \expndtw-3\c
harscalex100 Price Change\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 242.1\tab \up0 \expn
dtw-3\charscalex100 p < .0001\par\pard\li1440\sb12\sl-276\slmult0\fi300\tx6158\t
x7540 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Source\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 3.8
0\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 p < .05\par\pard\li1440\sb12\sl-276\slmult0\
fi300\tx6158\tx7540 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Price Change X Source\tab \up0
\expndtw-3\charscalex100 5.26\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 p < .02\par\par
d\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1440\sb24\sl-276\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndt
w-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs24 Model C\par\pard\li1440\sb2\sl-276
\slmult0\fi0\tx5985 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 De
pendent Variable: Price Fairness\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 F(1, 92)\par\
pard\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0\fi300\tx6100\tx7540 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
Price Change\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 30.94\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charsc
alex100 p < .0001\par\pard\li1440\sb12\sl-276\slmult0\fi300\tx6244\tx7540 \up0 \
expndtw-3\charscalex100 Source\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 <1\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw-3\charscalex100 n.s.\par\pard\li1440\sb12\sl-276\slmult0\fi300\tx6158\tx75
40 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Price Change X Source\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\chars
calex100 1.53\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 p > .20\par\pard\li1440\sb12\sl276\slmult0\fi300\tx6100\tx7540 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Inferred Motive\ta
b \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 20.94\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 p < .000
1\par\pard\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1440\sb19\sl-276\slmult0\fi0 \up
0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs24 Model D\par\pard\li1440\s
b2\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx5985 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f
3\fs24 Dependent Variable: Price Fairness\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 F(1,

92)\par\pard\li1440\sb12\sl-276\slmult0\fi300\tx6100\tx7540 \up0 \expndtw-3\cha
rscalex100 Price Change\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 14.72\tab \up0 \expndt
w-3\charscalex100 p < .0002\par\pard\li1440\sb12\sl-276\slmult0\fi300\tx6211\tx7
540 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Source\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 < 1\t
ab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 n.s.\par\pard\li1440\sb12\sl-276\slmult0\fi300\
tx6158\tx7540 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Price Change X Source\tab \up0 \expn
dtw-3\charscalex100 1.53\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 p > .20\par\pard\li14
40\sb7\sl-276\slmult0\fi300\tx6100\tx7540 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Affect\t
ab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 11.54\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 p < .00
1\par\pard\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1440\sb24\sl-276\slmult0\fi0 \up
0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs24 Model E\par\pard\li1440\s
b3\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx5985 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f
3\fs24 Dependent Variable: Price Fairness\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 F(1,
91)\par\pard\li1440\sb12\sl-276\slmult0\fi300\tx6158\tx7540 \up0 \expndtw-3\cha
rscalex100 Price Change\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 8.36\tab \up0 \expndtw
-3\charscalex100 p < .005\par\pard\li1440\sb12\sl-276\slmult0\fi300\tx6244\tx754
0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Source\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 <1\tab
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 n.s.\par\pard\li1440\sb7\sl-276\slmult0\fi300\tx62
44\tx7540 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Price Change X Source\tab \up0 \expndtw3\charscalex100 <1\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 n.s.\par\pard\li1440\sb12\s
l-276\slmult0\fi300\tx6100\tx7540 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Inferred Motive\
tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 12.97\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 p < .0
005\par\pard\li1440\sb12\sl-276\slmult0\fi300\tx6158\tx7540 \up0 \expndtw-3\char
scalex100 Affect\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 4.31\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\char
scalex100 p < .05
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e \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Donald R. Lichtenstein for helpful comments.

12 \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1508\sb216\sl-560\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10

a human versus inanimate source on perceived fairness is expected regardless of

riment is to present an initial examination of the \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1327\s

here was \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 either a price increase or decrease

ar\pard\ql \li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li9861\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \pa

ersub\cf3\f4\fs24 p\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 < .02). The source of the price

\line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 additional evidence of a source bias in perc

2\f3\fs24 < .05). \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840\pard\sb0\sl

of source on \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 price fairness. In combination

te to the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 fairness literature beyond price f

3\fs24 Dependent Variable: Price Fairness\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 F(1,

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