THE USE OF NON-FLINT RAW MATERIALS BY PALEOINDIANS IN EASTERN SOUTH AMERICA: A BRAZILIAN PERSPECTIVE

Astolfo Gomes de MELLO ARAUJO

Escola de Artes, Cincias e Humanidades EACH / USP, Associate Researcher at the Laboratrio de Estudos Evolutivos Humanos LEEH / USP, Universidade de So Paulo, Brazil, Email: astwolfo1@yahoo.com.br

Francisco PUGLIESE
Laboratrio de Estudos Evolutivos Humanos, LEEH, Instituto de Biocincias, Universidade de So Paulo, Brazil, Email: pugliesefrancisco@yahoo.com.br
Abstract: In recent years, Brazilian archaeology has seen a major increase in data regarding Paleoindian sites. In this paper, we will demonstrate the importance of non-flint raw materials in the earliest lithic industries of Eastern South America, and also contribute to the discussion of the Clovis First paradigm, that is the assumption that all Paleoindian groups in the Americas were derived from a single large mammal hunting population (Clovis culture). In Brazil, lithic industries from 11.000 BP- 8.000 BP are usually considered to cluster into two main Traditions: Umbu, in Southern / Southeastern Brazil, and Itaparica, in Central / Northeastern Brazil. We will present their main characteristics and discuss the use of non-flint raw materials by these early settlers. Keywords: Paleoindian, Lithic Industries, Brazil, Umbu, Itaparica Rsum: Durant les dernires annes, archologie brsilienne a vu le nombre des sites paloindiens augmenter considrablement. Dans ce papier, nous tenterons de montrer limportance des matires premires lithiques alternatives dans les plus anciennes industries de la faade Est de lAmrique du Sud, et discuterons du Clovis first paradigme, qui propose que tous les groupes paloindiens drivent dune mme population de chasseur-ceuilleurs (Clovis culture). Au Brsil, les industries lithiques dates entre 11.000 et 8.000 BP sont habituellement considres comme dcoulant de deux traditions: Umbu, dans le sud / sud-est du Brsil et Itaparica dans le centre et le nord-est du Brsil. Nous prsenterons successivement les caractristiques de ces industries et discuterons de lusage des roches alternatives par ces premires populations. Mots Cls: Paloindiens, Industrie Lithique, Brsil, Umbu, Itaparica

INTRODUCTION In recent years, Brazilian archaeology has seen a major increase in data regarding Paleoindian sites related to both, academic and contract archaeological projects. New dates for new and old excavations are now available and a better understanding of the chronology, the definition of cultural traditions, and the technological characterization is possible. This paper has two major aims: (1) to show the importance of non-flint raw materials in the earliest lithic industries of Eastern South America and (2) also to contribute to the discussion of the Clovis paradigm, that is the assumption that all Paleoindian groups in the Americas derived from Clovis hunters. We present data gathered in recent decades from Paleoindian sites. The majority of these are published in Portuguese and therefore not accessible to a wider audience (but see Schmitz 1987; Kipnis 1998; Prous and Foaa 1999 for synthesis in English).

Americas, is still under debate (e.g. Dixon 1999, 2001; Kelly and Todd 1988; Mandryk et al. 2001; Steele et al. 1998). Although some evidence of an older human occupation in South America exists (Parenti 2001; VilhenaVialou 2003), we will restrict our analysis to the interval of 11.000 BP 8.000 BP,1 in which the abundance of archaeological data allows a better interregional comparison. In addition, we are fortunate to have a significant collection of human remains dating from the Early Holocene (a conservative estimate places this figure at 250 individuals, 81 of which could be subject to cranial measurements; in comparison, there are only five human remains from the same chronological interval in North America). Craniometric data indicate that this population was not linked to present-day mongoloid indigenous peoples (Neves and Hubbe 2005, 18313-18314). Formal characteristics and geographical dispersion of Paleoindian lithic industries in Brazil Paleoindian lithic industries in South America vary significantly. The strong variability observed at around 10.000 BP coupled with the absence of technological or stylistic traits linked to North American lithic industries suggests that a short chronology (i.e. a very rapid Clovis migration southward) is very unlikely (Araujo 2004, 117).
1

PALEOINDIANS AND LITHIC INDUSTRIES IN BRAZIL The timing and expansion routes taken by Paleoindians, the first human groups to disperse throughout the

This interval is in uncalibrated radiocarbon years.

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NON-FLINT RAW MATERIAL USE IN PREHISTORY / LUTILISATION PRHISTORIQUE DE MATIRES PREMIRES LITHIQUES ALTERNATIVES

Fig. 17.1. Location of Archaeological Sites and Regions (numbers) cited in the text.
1= RS-C-43 and RS-S-327; 2= PR-FI-124; 3= PR-FI-138; 4= Capelinha; 5= BA-RC-28; 6= Serranopolis region; 7= Lajeado region; 8= Lagoa Santa region; 9= Lapa do Dragao; 10 = Abrigo do Pilao; 11= Lapa do Boquete

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A.G. DE MELLO ARAUJO & F. PUGLIESE: THE USE OF NON-FLINT RAW MATERIALS BY PALEOINDIANS IN EASTERN SOUTH AMERICA...

In Brazil, lithic industries in the 11.000 BP 8.000 BP interval are usually considered to cluster into two main Traditions: Umbu, in Southern / Southeastern Brazil, and Itaparica, in Central / Northeastern Brazil. Considerable portions of the country are poorly known in archaeological terms and the geographic distribution of these traditions is not a settled matter. Lithic assemblages which do not fall within one of these two traditions are known as regional industries. In addition, there are major problems related to the definitions of these traditions (see Bueno 2004; Dias 2003; Hoeltz 1997), but we will not address them here. For the purposes of this paper, a brief overview of their main characteristics based mainly on Dias and Jacobus (2003), Etchevarne (2000), Martin (1997), Noelli (2000), Oliveira and Viana (2000), and Prous (1992) will suffice. Bifacial points with characteristics that could be considered Early Paleoindian (e.g. fishtail points) have been found in many parts of Brazil, but usually lack any archaeological context (Prous 1992, 148; Walter 1958, 51). In Southern Brazil, the oldest dates, approximately 10.000 BP, are related to the Umbu Tradition. The main characteristic of this industry is the presence of bifacial points including very diverse forms (leaf-shaped, triangular, with or without tangs, serrated, etc.), but showing very little variation across millennia. The area covered by this tradition reaches from Rio Grande do Sul to central So Paulo State (Fig. 17.1). In contrast, lithic industries occurring in Central Brazil around 11.000 BP, known as the Itaparica Tradition, are mostly unifacial with a strong presence of limaces and virtually no bifacial points or cores. This tradition includes the states of Gois, Mato Grosso, Piau, Pernambuco, Bahia, Minas Gerais and Tocantins (Fig. 17.1). As we stated earlier, some industries do not fit into either the Umbu or Itaparica tradition. One such case is the lithic industry of Lagoa Santa in central Minas Gerais which shows a very simple technology lacking formal artefacts. At Lagoa Santa, the main purpose of flaking rocks appears to have been the procurement of small flakes and perhaps rock splinters to be used for the grinding of roots or tubers. This industry shows very little variation between 10.000 7.500 BP. The Northeast region also presents a predominantly unifacial industry related to the Itaparica Tradition with the occurrence of some bifacial points, whose characteristics could potentially be considered older. In the Amazon, the only published site within the chronological range under consideration is Pedra Pintada Cave (Roosevelt et al. 1996). This site is securely dated and the industry in the older levels between 11.200 and 10.000 BP showed both, bifacial (points with peduncles) and unifacial artefacts (limaces).

PATTERNS OF RAW MATERIAL USE AT PALEOINDIAN SITES One of the most striking characteristics of the Paleoindian lithic industries in Brazil is the low frequency of flint use, even in the manufacture of bifacial points and other formal artefacts. This can be observed in both, the southern (Umbu Tradition) and in the central (Itaparica Tradition) assemblages. We will use the term flint generically to designate all cryptocrystalline siliceous rocks. The terminology used by many authors to refer to these rocks both, in Brazil and elsewhere is confusing and such rocks are also known as chert and chalcedony (Araujo 1991). In dealing with a bibliography written by different authors across many decades, some standardization of nomenclature was necessary. In the Southern region, archaeologists often refer to cryptocrystalline siliceous rocks as chalcedony. In the Central region, a wide range of raw materials, many of which are sedimentary and therefore, best called silicified or cemented sandstone, are generally called quartzite (a metamorphic siliceous rock) in the literature. Whenever possible, we assigned the authors terminology to our raw material classes. Another difficulty is that some authors presented frequencies of raw materials by count, others by weight and in some cases, the method is not even clear. Even so, we believe that frequencies do not vary considerably and that the data can be regarded as a good indication of the intensity of raw material use. For the Umbu Tradition, there are relatively few sites within the 11.000 8.000 BP range (see Dias and Jacobus 2003), but most authors agree that the technological characteristics of the lithic industries do not change significantly until the Late Holocene. Table 17.1 shows frequencies of raw materials in some of the Southern sites (assigned to numbers in Fig. 17.1), whose older strata were either dated or assigned by the authors to the Early Holocene (Chmyz 1978, 1979, 1980; Dias 1994, 2003; Lima 2005). Flint appears in low frequencies (less than ten percent) in four of the five sites. At the Capelinha site (Fig. 17.1, no. 4), interpreted as a projectile point workshop (Lima 2005, 28), 912 bifacial artefacts were found (including whole and broken projectile points and preforms), 807 of which were made of a fine-grained volcanic rock and only 105 of flint. Table 17.2 shows frequencies of raw materials for sites in Central Brazil for the levels dated or considered to be Paleoindian (Bueno 2005; Prous et al. 1997; Schmitz et al.1996; Schmitz et al. 2004). Paleoindian sites from this region show a mean frequency of flint use of approximately ten percent. Importantly, formal tools (mainly unifacial artefacts or limaces) are made from quartzite or silicified sandstone on most sites. However, exceptions to the overall pattern exist. Paleoindian industries in which flint was predominant occur on at least two sites: one is Lapa do Drago (Fig. 17.1, no.9) with an industry comprised of 68 percent flint (Prous et

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Tab. 17.1. Counts and frequencies of raw materials for some Paleoindian sites from Southern Brazil (after Chmyz 1978, 1979,1980; Dias, 1994; Lima 2005). S.S. = Silicified sandstone; F = Flint; Qz = Quartz; Volc = Volcanic; Qt =
Quartzite. Numbers in parenthesis are related to Figure 1 Site (no. in map) RS-C-43 (1) RS-S-327 (1) PR-FI-124 (2) PR-FI-138 (3) Capelinha (4) S.S. 4459 1794 21245 265 0 % 82.0 32.34 83.42 34.01 0.0 F 363 155 2465 222 1833 % 6.68 2.79 9.68 28.49 3.3 Qz 72 227 1271 270 24711 % 1.32 4.09 4.99 34.65 44.48 V 497 3358 224 13 26147 % 9.14 60.53 0.88 1.66 47.07 Qt 0 0 3 0 0 % 0.0 0.0 0.01 0.0 0.0 Other 47 14 258 0.0 2860 % 0.86 0.25 1.01 0.0 5.15 Total 5438 5548 25466 779 55551

Tab. 17.2. Counts and frequencies of raw materials form some Paleoindian sites from Central Brazil (after Bueno 2005; Prous et al. 1997; Schmitz et al. 1996; Schmitz et al. 2004). S.S. = Silicified sandstone; F = Flint; Qz = Quartz;
Volc = volcanic; Qt = Quartzite. Numbers in parenthesis are related to Figure 1 Site (no. in map) BA-RC-28 (5) GO-JA-01 (6) GO-JA-02 (6) GO-JA-03 (6) GO-JA-20 (6) GO-JA-26 (6) Capivara 5 (7) Mares 2 (7) Miracema 1 (7) Lajeado 18 (7) Miracema 2 (7) Lapa das Boleiras (8) Lapa do Santo(8) Lapa de Taquarau (8) Santana do Riacho (8) Lapa do Drago (9) Abrigo do Pilo (10) S.S. 0 0 0 0 0 0 60 27 931 352 103 0 0 0 n/a 82 0 % 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 28.04 37.50 89.61 69.29 53.09 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.59 0.0 F 35 4359 120 987 1948 138 18 12 72 72 45 89 58 40 n/a 1566 177 % 11.22 11.36 3.73 1.12 17.12 0.73 8.41 16.67 6.93 14.17 23.20 4.7 12.3 12.61 1.14 68.53 19.03 Qz 0 0 0 0 0 2 67 21 10 44 20 1728 378 243 n/a 0 235 % 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.01 31.31 29.17 0.96 8.66 10.31 91.2 79.9 76.7 79.67 0.0 25.27 Qt 9 33100 3083 87355 9410 18790 68 11 25 40 26 32 17 27 n/a 0 313 % 2.88 86.27 95.8 98.85 82.71 99.23 31.78 15.28 2.41 7.87 13.40 1.7 3.4 8.52 14.64 0.0 33.66 Other 268 908 15 31 19 5 1 1 1 0 0 46 20 7 n/a 637 205 % 85.9 2.37 0.47 0.04 0.17 0.03 0.47 1.39 0.10 0.0 0.0 2.4 4.3 2.21 4.55 27.88 22.04 Total 312 38367 3218 88373 11377 18935 214 72 1039 508 194 1895 473 317 n/a 2285 930

al. 1997); the other case is Lapa do Boquete (Fig. 17.1, no.11) at which flint accounts for 90 percent of the recovered pieces (Fogaa 2001, 327). In the Lagoa Santa region (Fig. 17.1, no. 8), where our work has been carried out since 2001, Paleoindian sites differ from those in other areas in two respects: first, there are no formal artefacts in the industry, not even the limaces found elsewhere;2 second, the lithic technology is heavily based on quartz and the products are mostly small flakes, probably used unmodified or with limited retouch. Three of these sites, Lapa das Boleiras, Lapa de Taquarau and Lapa do Santo, are listed in Table 17.2. While flint frequencies at these sites are similar to those
2

of other site locations, quartz frequencies are extremely high, between 91 percent and 76 percent. DISCUSSION Unsurprisingly, the data presented above show an overall pattern of raw material use in the Early Holocene strongly linked to local geological environments (Byrne 2004). In Central Brazil, in regions such as Serranpolis (Fig. 17.1, no. 7) where quartzite is ubiquitous, mean frequencies of this raw material are above 90 percent. In other areas, several authors have reached similar conclusions. In Tocantins sites (Fig. 17.1, no. 7), silicified sandstone and quartzite together3 occur on an average of 71 percent of
3

In five years of excavation and prospection, we found only two limaces, one as a surface find and the other in the basal level of Taquarau rockshelter dated ca. 9.600 BP.

We combine these two raw materials because other authors may consider both to be quartzite.

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Tab. 17.3. Ratio between formal and generalised artefacts in Paleoindian lithic industries
Tradition/Area Itaparica Site Miracema 1 Lajeado 18 Capivara 5 GO-JA-01 GO-JA-02 GO-JA-03 GO-JA-20 Umbu RS-S-327 PR-FI-124 PR-FI-138 Capelinha Lagoa Santa Lapa das Boleiras Lapa do Santo Santana do Riacho Formal artifacts 10 4 4 482 18 136 39 38 634 31 973 1 0 139 Generalized artifacts 9 0 1 708 3 476 27 8 297 25 290 156 29 170 Raio F/G 1.11 n/a 4.0 0.68 6.0 0.28 1.44 4.75 2.14 1.24 3.36 0.0064 n/a 0.82

sites and raw material choice is also linked to local availability (Bueno 2005). Similarly in Lagoa Santa (Fig. 17.1, no.8), quartz is locally abundant and frequencies of quartz use are exceptionally high. More importantly, the data presented here do not support generalizations linking mobility to technological organization (e.g. Kelly and Todd 1988; Odell 1998; Parry and Kelly 1987). Unless we classify the Paleoindians from Lagoa Santa as sedentary, the mobility/technology model does not explain such a generalized technology without formal artefacts in an area where good raw material (hyaline quartz) is available. Models linking the organization of lithic technology to raw material availability, such as the model proposed by Andrefsky (1994), would explain the trends observed more sufficiently. A third point which is indirectly related to raw materials also addresses technological organization. There are at least two different and contemporaneous Paleoindian traditions in Brazil, Umbu and Itaparica and a third industry that does not fit into either tradition (exemplified by the Lagoa Santa sites). These industries differ not only in their formal aspects (bifacial, unifacial and entirely generalized), but also in the ratio of formal to generalized artefacts. Table 17.3 shows this variability for some sites from Southern and Central Brazil. Itaparica lithic industries show a formal to generalized tool ratio between 0.28 and 1.44, with a mean of 1.36. The outlying value of 6.0, obtained for site GO-JA-02 has been discarded because this site is a small rockshelter situated only 500 m away from GO-JA-01 and was probably used for a very specific task or as a cache for limaces. Sites related to the Umbu Tradition show much higher ratios ranging from
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1.24 to 4.75, with a mean value of 2.87. Lagoa Santa sites show the lowest ratios by far: 0.0064 at Lapa das Boleiras and a ratio approaching zero at Lapa do Santo, where no formal artefacts have been collected. The ratio at Santana do Riacho was higher (0.82), despite having an industry similar to that of Lagoa Santa. We do not believe these differences are related to issues concerning raw materials, mobility or differences in subsistence. Rather, the differences observed appear to be simply three different ways of meeting basic needs, rooted in a variation that developed much earlier. Zooarchaeological data from Southern and Central Brazilian Paleoindian sites (Jacobus 2004; Kipnis 2002; Schmitz et al. 1996; Schmitz et al. 2004) indicate very similar faunal contents in the Umbu and Itaparica traditions. Both groups relied strongly on cervids (Mazama americana, Ozotocerus bezoarticus) and peccaries (Pecari tajacu, Tayassu pecari) as well as terrestrial gastropods (Mega-lobulimus oblongus, Drymaeus sp.); thus, subsistence-based explanations for differences between these groups should be revised. It is very unlikely that these differences represent only regional variations within a recently split hunter-gatherer population directly derived from Clovis, whose industries happen to have been modified over a short time interval through mobility strategies and / or raw material availability. Rather, these industries differ so significantly because of distinct founder effects, operating over a long time frame.

CONCLUSIONS Paleoindian lithic industries in Brazil are definitely not synonymous with flint. Flint-like raw materials represent

NON-FLINT RAW MATERIAL USE IN PREHISTORY / LUTILISATION PRHISTORIQUE DE MATIRES PREMIRES LITHIQUES ALTERNATIVES

a small percentage of raw materials used at most sites; mean values are around ten percent for southern sites and fourteen percent for central sites. The implications of this fact are manifold. First, an understanding of chanes opratoires must take into account physical characterristics of raw materials that are generally neglected, such as quartzite, hyaline and milky quartz, and sandstone. Second, contrary to some models and expectations, Brazilian Paleoindian industries may lack bifacial points and even formal artefacts of any kind. The understanding of function and even an assessment of human agency in the manufacture of pieces is sometimes completely dependent upon use-wear analysis. Use-wear studies, however, still heavily focus on flint and flint-like materials. This trend should be reversed. Third, the use or choice of flint as raw material is not linked to better flaking techniques or results. Even sites with higher frequencies of flint use such as Lapa do Drago (Fig. 17.1, no. 9) do not show a refined industry (Prous et al. 1997, 162-171). In some regions such as Lajeado (Fig. 17.1, no. 7), no formal artefacts made of flint have been recovered, all limaces were made of fine-grained silicified sandstone (Bueno 2003, 193) and flint was used to produce retouched flakes and other non-formal artefacts. In discussing lithic variability in the Paleoindian period in Brazil, it is important to remember that we are dealing with a narrow time interval (3.000 years at most), and that the differences between Paleoindian lithic industries were pronounced as early as 10.000 BP. Human occupations from the Early Holocene in Brazil already show very well defined traits that persisted with little variation for the next three millennia in Central Brazil, and even for longer in Southern Brazil. At the same time, subsistence systems were apparently very similar. We believe the variability can best be explained by a long chronology, a scenario in which coastal routes and resources were exploited for a long time before the colonization of inland portions of the continent took place (Araujo 2004; Dixon 1999, 2001; Mandryk et al. 2001). This could also explain the subtle appearance of humans in rockshelters around 10.000 BP in Central Brazil. Rather than representing evidence of the first human settlers in South America, such inland sites represent only the more visible component (perhaps due to demographic increase) of a social system that had been in place since a much earlier period.

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