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Premiere Publicationno''71-l: Coordinationde l'isc-rlement. principeset rdgles. partie: Termes,dfinitions,

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- 3 -

CONTENTS
Page

Fonrwonp Pnnrlce

5 5
SscrroN ONs pusucATroNs

ScopB AND REFERENcE To EXrsrrNG IEC

Clause 1. Scope 2. Reference to existing I EC publications SrcnoN Two Vorrace srRESsEs rN sERVrcE

7 7

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

General . Power-frequencyvoltages Temporary overvoltages Switching and lightning overvoltages Determination of expectedovervoltagelevels SncnoN TnnBn INsur.q,TroNwrrHsrAND

9 1l ll l5 l9

8. General . 9. Insulation behaviour at power-frequencyvoltagesand temporary overvoltages of insulation under impulsevoltages 10. Probability of disruptivedischarge ll. Apparatus with windings SncrroN Foun 12. General . 13. Non-linear resistor-typesurge arresters 14. Expulsion-type surge afresters 15. Spark gaps 16. Application of different protective devices BETwEEN SecnoN FtvB - Co-onprN.q.TroN sTRESSES AND wrrHsrAND CoNsroBnmoNs coMMoNTo RANGes A, B nwo C 17. Insulation design to power-frequencyoperating voltage and temporary overvoltages.Problems of pollution and ageing 18. Pollution 19. Ageing SncrroN Srx Co-onorNarroN BETwEEN srREssEs AND wrrHsrAND IN voLTAcE naNcs A PnorrcrrvE DEVrcEs

. 2 3 . 2 5 . 2 5 . 3 1

3l 31 33 35 37

39 39 4l

20. Selectionof the rated power-frequencywithstand voltage 21. Selectionof the rated lightning-impulse withstandvoltage SecrroN SeveN AND wrErsrAND IN voLTAGE, Co-onorNATIoN BETWEEN srREssEs uNcr B

4l 4l

22. Selectionof the rated power-frequencywithstand voltage and the rated lightning-impulse withstand voltage SBcrroN Ercnr Co-onorNATroN BETwEEN srREssEs AND wITHsTANDrN voLTAGEruNcB C

5l

23. Insulation design with respectto power-frequencyvoltage and temporary overvoltages 24. Insulation designwith respectto switching and lightning overvoltages. 25. Block-diagram of the insulation design and co-ordination of an electrical installation ApprNox A AppsNDrx B Appnwox C AppBNox D ApprNox E TlnrBs Frcunrs Surge transferencethrough transformers . Validity of the testsin Clauses52, 53 and 54 of I EC Publication 7I-l . Statistical evaluation of the protective effect of spark gaps Examplesof application . Clearancesin air between live conductive parts and earthed structures to secure a specified impulse withstand voltage for dry conditions . . 9

53 53 6l 67 77 83 89 93 5

106

- 5 INTERNATIONAL ELECTROTECHNICAL COMMISSION

INSULATION

CO-ORDINATION

Part 2: ApplicationGuide

FOREWORD l) The fomal decisions or agreementsof th IEC on technical matte$, prepared by Technical Committ!s on which all the National Comnittees having a spocial interest thercin are reprcsented,exprcss,as Dearly a.spossible, an internatioDal constrsusof opiniotr on the subjects dalt with. 2) They have the form ofrecomnndations for intemational us and they are acceptdby the National Committrs itr that sense. th wisb that all National Cofunittes should adopt the txt ofthe I E C 3) In order to promote i[temational unifcation, the I E C expresss recommetrdation for thir trational ruls in so far as national conditions will permit. Aay divergencebetweel the I EC rcomnrendation and ihe corrsponding national rules should, as far as possible, be clarly indicatd in the latter,

PREFACE by IEC TechnicalCommitteeNo. 28, InsulationCo-ordination. This publicationhasbeenprepared the secondpart of IEC Publication71, InsulationCo-ordination,and supersedes It constitutes IEC Publicafor insulation co-ordination. Application tion 71A (1962): Supplementto Publication 71, Recommendations Guide. Work relating to the Application Guide was f.rst begunduring the meetingheld in Milan in 1971;the drafts of the text werediscussed duringthe meetingheld in Athensin 1972. the varioussections As a result of concerning this meeting, the draft, Document 28(Central Ofrce)42, was submitted to the National Committees for approval under the Six Months' Rule in November1973. voted explicitlyin favour of publication: The following countries
Argentina Australia Austria Belgium Denmark Finland France Germany Israel Italy Netherlands Norway Poland Romania South Africa (Republic of) Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Union of Soviet Socialist Republics United Kingdom United Statesof America Yueoslavia

for publication,modifications stemming from changes in the text ofthe draft Whenthe final text wasbeingrevised in the wording suggested ofIEC Publication71-1wereincluded.Moreover,modifications by the National Committeeswereintroduced,Thesedo not affectthe meaningof the original text.
Othet IEC publicationr quoted in this publicariot: Publications Nos. 60: 7l-l'. 99-l: 99-1Ar gg-2r 28L1t High-voltage Tst Tcbniqus. InsulationCo.ordination, Part l: Terms, Definitions, Principles and Ruls. LightningAr.esters, Part l: Non-linear Rsistor Typ ArrsteN for A.C, SystefiE. First Supplement to Publication99-1. Part 2: Expulsion-rype Lighhing Aresters. High-voltageFuses, Part l: Currentlimiting Fuses.

- 7

INSULATION

CO.ORDINATION

Part 2: ApplicationGuide

SECTION ONE

SCOPE AND REFERENCE TO EXISTING IEC PUBLICATIONS

1. Scope This publication provides some guidanceon the selectionof the electric strength of equipment, of surge arresters or protective spark gaps, and on the extent to which it will be useful to control switching overvoltages. The object of this publication is not to give strict rules for insulation co-ordination and design,but to provide guidancetoward rational and ec6nomical solutions.

Therefore it is intended to consider only a few basic casesin this publication, it being evident that installations constituting exceptionsto normal design,or included within systemshaving exceptionalcharacteristics, will require special study by experiencedengineers. This Application Guide is based on apparatustypes and ratings in use at the time of publication. As new equipment and equipment characteristics are developedand proved, this guide should not be interpreted as a limit to their adoption. Like Publication 7l-I, PublicationTl-2 coversonly phase-to-earth insulation. Like Publication 7l-1, PublicationTl-2 dealsseparatelywith the three following rangesof the highest voltage for equipment: range A: range B: range C: above 1 kV and lessthan 52 kV; from 52 kV to lessthan 300 kV; 300 kV and above.

It covers installations of all kinds and in all situations involving voltageshigher than I kV, whether or not thel' are exposedto lightning, with the exceptionof overheadlines. However, the test proceduresapply also to the latter.

2.

Reference to existing IE C publications

Several IEC publications give standards which deal respectivelywith the withstand and protective levels consideredseparately.Thus: a) IEC Publication 71-I, Insulation Co-ordination, Part 1: Terms, Def,nitions, Principles and Rules, contains the definitions of terms to be found here; it gives the seriesof standard values of the rated lightning and switching impulse withstand voltage, the rated withstand voltages of short duration at power frequency, as well as the tables of the recommendedcombinations between the highest voltage for equipment and these rated withstand voltages. b) IEC Publicationgg-I, Lightning Arresters, Part 1: Non-linear Resistor Type Arresters for A.C. Systems, gives the protective characteristicsunder lightning impulses of non-linear resistor type surge arrestersfor ratings up to 198 kV. Standard ratings above 198 kV are not included in IEC Publication 99-1. However, values for guidanceare given up to 396 kV. Valuesfor srvitching impulsesare under consideration.

- 9 given in IEC Publication 99-l refer to surgearrestersin generaluse. However, surge arresters The characteristics with better protective characteristics are available and their standardization is at present under consideration. IEC Publication 99-14, First Supplementto Publication 99-1, givesguidanceon the selectionof surge arresters.

c) IEC Publication 99-2, Lightning Arresters, Part 2: Expulsion-type Lightning Arresters, gives the impulse characteristicsof expulsion-typesurge arresters.No referenceis made in IEC Publication 7l-1 to this type of particularly for voltagesin range A. arrester,but it is still being used on some supply systems,

d) IEC Publication2S2-1, High-voltage Fuses,Part 1: Current-limiting Fuses,lists the maximum overvoltages permitted during the interruption of fault current by a high-voltage fuse.

e) IEC Publication 60, High-voltage Test Techniques,describes the methods for generationand measurementof test voltages and currents and the appropriate test procedures,and recommendsmethods for calibration and checking of measuring devices. There is no IEC publication for the protective characteristics of spark-gaps.

SECTION TWO

VOLTAGE STRESSES IN SERVICE

3. General Dielectricstresses on insulationmay be classif.ed as follows: power-frequency voltages, under normal operatingconditions; temporaryovervoltages; switchingovervoltages; lightning overvoltages.

In IEC Publication71-1,overvoltages with reference are classified to the shapeof the voltagewave uhich dctermines their effecton insulationand on protectivedevices, without reference to the cause of the overvoltages. The term "temporary overvoltages" refersto sustained overvoltages, or to oveNoltages havingseveral successive peaks,with a decrement of amplitudesuchasto be corrparable with a sustained overvoltage at powerfrequency or at harmonic frequency. The terms "switching overvoltages" or "lightning overvoltages" refer to overvoltagesfor which only the highest peakvaluehasto be considered with regardto their effects andwhichcanbe represented, on insulationand protective devices, by the long-frontedstandardswitchingimpulses or short-frontedstandardlightningimpulses usedfor test purposes.The foregoing nameshave beenchosenbecause such overvoltagesoften-but not always---originatefrom switching operations or lightning discharges. For example,the energizationof a transformer-terminatedline givesrise to an overvoltagethat may be regarded as a "switching" or temporaryovervoltage peaks(i.e. depending depending on the decrement ofthe successive on the circuit parameters).As another example: a phase-to-earthfault, although actually a switching operation (the phenomenon same may give would ariseif a phase conductorwasconnected to earthby a circuit-breaker operation), rise to steep-front overvoltages, similar to thosedue to lightning; on the other hand, a lightning surgetransferred through a transformerby inductivecoupling between windingsmay produceon the secondary side of the transformer long-frontedwaves,similarto thosedue to switchingoperations.

4. Power-frequencyYoltrgs

1 1-

In insulationco-ordinationprocesses, sinceovervoltages and impulsevoltages are definedin termsof their peak valuesto earth, it is also convenientto make use of the phase-to-earthpeak value of the systemvoltage, which is voltage. \/21 \/T :0.816 timesthe usualr.m.s.phase-to-phase Under normal operating conditions, power-frequencyvoltage can be expectedto vary somewhatin magnitude and may be describedby meansof a probability distribution about the averageoFrating value. The parametersof this distribution will differ from one point of the systemto another. For purposes of insulation design and coordination, power-frequencyvoltage should howeverbe consideredas constant and equal to the highest voltage for equipment, which in voltage range C does not materially differ from the highest systemvoltage, with a phase-toearth peak value ot V^,'r/21 1/T In range A and in range B up to 72.5 kY, the highest voltage for equipment may be susbtantially higher than the highest system voltage,asindicated in the note underClause5 ofIEC Publication71-1.For the sakeof standardization, it is however assumed that equipment insulation will always be able to operate satisfactorily at the highest voltage for equiprnentimmediately above,if not equal to, the highestsystemvoltage.

5.

Temporary oYerYoltages

'

The severity of temporary overvoltages is mainly characterizedboth by their amplitude and duration. The importance of temporary overvoltages in insulation co-ordination is twofold: on the one hand, the characteristicsof temporary overvoltages at the surge arrester location are of great importance in surge arrester selection; on the other hand, the repetition of successive overvoltagepeaks of opposite polarity, even if of lower amplitude than some other overvoltages, may determinethe design of both the internal insulation of equipment as well as the external insulation (surfacesexposed to contamination). Temporary overvoltages generally arise from: a) earth faults; D/ sudden changesof load; c) resonanceand ferro-resonance.

5.1 Earth faults The overvoltage at power frequency on the sound phaseswhen another phase is accidentally earthed depends,at a given point of the system, on the treatment of the system neutral with respect to earth, as characterized by its earth fault factor at that point. Note. In theevaluation of earthfault factors, the followingremarks shouldbeconsidered:
In general,in order to evaluatethis factor at a given location it is assumed,for simplicity, that the fault is located at the point for which the factor is desired; but, in some specialcases,it may be desirableto investigatethe effect of other fault locations on this factor. In principle, there are as many particular valuesof the earth fault factor at a given location as different possibleconfigurations of the system.The factor which characterizes the location consideredis the highest of the valuesthat correspondto the different systemconfigurations which may occur in practice. The systemconfigurationswhich have to be consideredare thosewhich exist during a fault; thus one should take into consideration thosechanges in the systemwhich may be produced by the fault itself, for example,on account of the operation of circuitbreakers. For many systems,it will be sufficient to consider only one value of the earth fault factor which covers all possible fault locations on the system. Attention is drawn to the fact that the highest voltage at power frequencywhich may appear on a sound phaseduring a particular earth fault does not depend only on the value of the earth fault factor, but also on the value of the phase-to-phase voltage at the time of the fault. This phase-to-phase voltage will generally be taken as the highest systemvoltage, as given in

-13Defuitioa 4 of I EC Publication 71-1; but, in sorne cass,i[ order to predict the operation of Fotctive deeicsand sperify their charapteri$tiG, it is ncessaryto take into account the incrqsd value of the phas-to-phasvoltage that may appe{ at the selctedlocatioD utrder abnormal operating codditions not covered by the defnition referred to above.

Within range A and in some caseswithin range B, many systemsor installations are operated with their neutral coil or with their rieutral isolated. For the purpose of insulearthedthrough a high impedance,an arc-suppression to the earth fault factor. ation co-ordination, particular attention must therefore be paid in thesecases Independently of the earth fault factor, particularly high overvoltagesmay arise in range A and range B systems in the caseof: coil when the circuit is aJ earth faults in a systemthe neutral of which is earthed tbrough an arc-suppression under-compensated ; b) arcing earth faults in a systemthe neutral of which is isolated and in some casesin a system the neutral of coil. which is earthed through an arc-suppression

of load 5,2 Swldm changes

voltage doesnot exceedthe value of the highestvoltage of the In usual conditions of operation, the phase-to-phase systemas given by Clause4 concerningdefinitions of IEC Publication 7I-I; but higher values may temporarily be reached in the case of sudden disconnection of large active and reactive loads; these values depend on the system layout after disconnection and on the characteristics of the sources (short-circuit power at the station, speed and voltage regulation of the generators, etc.). This voltage rise may be especiallyimportant in the caseof load rejection at the remote end of a long line (Ferranti effect). It affects mainly the apparatus at the station connected on the source side of the remote open circuit-breaker.

Note. -

shouldbemadebetween various typesof system a distinction layouts. As extreme From the point of viewof overvoltages, cases powerat theterminal of theshort-circuit those with relatively shortlinesandhighvalues stations; wecanconsider: andthose power at thegenerating site.With thelatterlayouts, of theshort-circuit asareusualin an extrawith Ionglinesandlow values in its initial stage, muchhigherovervoltages at powerfrequency may resultwhena largeload is suddenly high-voltage system
disconnected.

Due to the characteristics of the systems, overvoltages of this kind are more severein voltage range C than in voltage range B; overvoltagesof this kind, in voltage range A, occur in generator-transformer circuits.

5.3 Resonanceand ferro-resonance Temporary overvoltages due to these causesgenerally arise when circuits with large capacitive elements (lines, lines) and inductive elements (transformers, shunt reactors) having non linear-magnetizcables, series-compensated ing characteristicsare energized, or as a result of sudden changesof load. These situations are generally found for systemsin ranges B and C in the following cases: a) A lightly loaded line, fed or terminated by a transformer, can show for example harmonic oscillations and pronounced overvoltages if the natural frequency of the linear part of the system corresponds to one of the harmonics of the transformer magnetizing current. compensated by seriescapacitorsand termincan occur in systems b/ Subharmonic oscillationsand overvoltages ated by lightly loaded power transformers or shunt reactors if the impressedvoltage, the effectivecircuit resistance, which is strongly influenced by synchronous machines,and the circuit capacitancefall between certain limits.

c) If harmonic filters are connected to a system containing saturable elements, oscillations due to resonances between these elementsand the fllter capacitors can develop.

,f 7-

- 1 5 These ferro-resonanceeffects following energization processescan either be sustainedor last several cycles of the power frequency depending on the time constant of transformer inrush currents.

Causesof resonanceand ferro-resonancein systemsof range A are: d/ Resonance between inductive and capacitive components, e.g. when capacitors are used for power-factor correction e) Ferro-resonancewhich can occur in non-simultaneous closure or disconnection of the phasesof a transformer the secondary of which is loaded by a small capacitanceonly. f) Ferro-resonanceoccurring on a transformer having on the secondary side an iron-cored inductive load such as a voltage transformer, particularly when being switched in. g/ Ferro-resonance which can occur when one phase of a circuit supplying an unearthed primary transformer is opened particularly if the circuit is a cable. At the highest end of range A, transformer bushing capacitance may be sufficient to cause ferro-resonanceunder these conditions.

6.

Switching and lightning overvoltages

For the purpose of this Guide, switching overvoltagesare, as stated above, of a type which can be simulated by a standard switching impulse, i.e. an aperiodic wave with a front duration of the order of hundreds of microseconds and a tail duration of the order of thousandsof microseconds. They stress the various parts of an insulation in about the same proportions as power-frequency voltages, but are not repetitive and only one peak of either polarity is normally significant.

Lightning overvoltagesare those which can be simulated by a standard lightning impulse, i.e. an aperiodic wave with a front duration of the order of one microsecondand a tail duration of the order of several tens of microseconds. Due to the front steepness, they stressmore than the former the longitudinal insulation of inductive windings, and becauseof their shorter duration, a generally somewhat higher stressat equal amplitude can be withstood by a given insulation. The magnitude of this effectdependson the type of insulation being considered.

These overvoltages generally arise from: a) line energization and re-energization; b/ faults and fault clearing; c/ switching of capacitive currents and of small or moderate inductive currents; d) loadrejections; e) Iightning strokes (first or subsequentcomponents of a lightning flash). Note. Theovervoltages in cases a) to d) depend on thecharacteristics of theequipment, especially of thecircuitbreakers, transformers andshunt reactors. They maygenerally bereduced by suitable choice of these characteristics, i.e.in case a) by usingpre-insertion resistors or shuntreactors, andin case c) by using surge arresters connected thecircuit-breaker between andthetransformer.

6.I

Switching overvoltages due to line energizationand re-energization

Overvoltages due to closing and to single-phaseand three-phasereclosing are of great importance in the selection of system insulation in range C. Theseovervoltages, exceptin specialcases, are not of particular importance in the other rangesof voltages. 6.2 Switching overvoltagesdue to faults and fault clearing In range A and in relatively few casesin range B under the conditions listed in Items a) and, b) of Sub-clause5.1, high switching overvoltagescan arise at the initiarion oi .:,rault.

,/-

high overvoltages may arisedue to faults to earth in composite In all the voltageranges, circuitsincluding overtransformers. head lines and cable-connected At the highestvoltagesof rangeC, a high degree of control of overvoltages caused by line energization and reenergization is normally attempted. For this reason, switchingovervoltages due to faults and fault clearing(single and doublephase-to-earth faults, and iheir clearance) needcarefulconsideration.

6.3 Switchingotervoltagesdue to switchingof inductfueand capacitiyecurrents In range A, the switching of inductive or capacitive currents can give rise to overvoltages,which may require distributionsystems attention,both in high-voltage and in industrialinstallations and powerstations. In the caseof the former, high overvoltages may ariseifthe circuit breakerdeionizes so rapidly asto forcethe currentprematurely to zero, so-called currentchopping. In particular,the following switchingoperations shouldbe taken into consideration: a, interruption of the startingcurrentsof motors; bJ interruptionof inductivecurrents, e.g.wheninterruptingthe magnetizing currentofa transformeror reactor; c) switchingand operationofarc furnaces and their transformers which may leadto currentchopping; dJ switchingof unloadedcables and of capacitorbanks; e, interruption of cumentsby high-voltage fuses. In range B, overvoltages due to the interruption of capacitive currents(switchingotr unloadedlines, cablesor capacitorbanks) may be particularly dangerous sincethe use of restrike-freecircuit-breakers cannot alwaysbe assumed.

6.4 Switchingotervoltagesdue to suddenchanges of load Overvoltages due to suddenchanges of load may start with a high switchingsurgefollowed by a temporary overvoltage. Overvoltages of this kind are particularlyimportant at the highestvoltagesin range C wherea high degreeof control of reclosing surges is attempted.

6.5 Lightning ottervoltages Lightning overvoltages are caused eitherby direct strokesto the phase co ductors,back-flashovers, or as a result of strokesto earth very closeto the line which produceinducedlighlning surges. The overvoltages by which substationinsulationis stressed are a function ofthe line construction and the system configuration. The configuration of the stationitself hasa greatinfluence if the travellingtime of surges within the stationis not negligible in relation to the front time of the surge. Dependingon the system configuration, overvoltages with time parameters in the rangeof switchingsurges may also arise as a result of lightning strokes. Lightning discharges which producesignificant overvoltages in rangesB and C are confinedto direct strokesto phase conductors or strokes to towersor earthwireswith subsequent back-flashovers.
In range A, induced lightning surges must also be considered. Furthermore, in this range, surges transferred through transformersfrom a higher voltage slstem needcare:ul "-onsideration.

- 1 9 Ievels 7. Determinationof expectedoYerYoltage 7.l RangeA

For voltagesofless than 52 kV, swirchingovervoltagesdo not generallyconstitute a seriousproblem for overhead and insulation co-ordination is basedon lightning overvoltages' supply systems Switching overvoltagestransferred from an overheadline into a plant through transformers or lengths of cable can, in general,be ignored for ttre samereason.An exception is the caseof an installation connectedto the lowervoltage terminals of a high-voltage transformer feeder, particularly if resonanceoccurs between the two systems during one- or two-phaseenergizing' generatd within ofswitching overvoltages In industrial plants and power stations,the amplitudesand waveshapes in great are innocuous; some cases, of cases they majority the installationvary ovr a very wide range.In the when a serious overvoltage amplitudes and rates of changecan occur. Thus sudden voltage swings can be caused switching devicre-strikes; the resulting rate-of-changeof voltage can equal that causedby a severeclose lightning strike. A very large amount of practical operational experienceis available from diferent industrial plants and power stations, and tle most severeovervoltagesor voltage swingscan usually be avoided by eliminating resonanceand by correct choiceof the switching deviceto be employed. Detailed representationof the systemunder consideration on a digital computer or transient network analyser at thesevoltage levelssinceaccuraterepresentationis neededto can only be economicallyjustified in particular cases obtain accurateresults and a complex plant frequently consistsof many piecesof equipment and electrical connections. Furthermore, the operation of sometypes of switching devicesand arcing earthsis difrcult to sirnulatewith a deliberate switching te3ts sufficient degteeof accuracy.Exlrrience is often the best guide and, in exceptional cases, information so that produce most valuable will the (both low-speed) high-speed and recording with simultaneous calculations and confirmatory tsts. can be taken as the result of subsequent remedial measures and frequency of occurrenceof lightning overvoltageson systemsin range A can be The amplitudes,waveshapes lines voltageofinsulatorsusedon overhead As the impulseflashover of accuraoy. degree with a reasonable estimated stroke, the lightning a line by a direct on such voltage imprdssed with the quite low as is compared in this range construcofline the type primarily by are determined to be subjected is liable equipment to which substation stresses tion. Thus careful protection of substation equipment is required if it is connectedto a wood-pole line with unearthed cross-arms.Reducedprotection is permissiblewherethe lines are erectedon steelmasts,reinforced concrete poles or where metal cross-armsare otherwiseearthed. are also affectedby the following factors which characterizethe constitution of the Amplitudes and waveshapes systemand arrangementof the station: a) Surgeimpedanceofthose lines or cableswhich are connectedto the station. For example,when only one line is connectedto a terminal transformer, the surgeis reflectedat the termination and is doubled in voltageamplitude; of a station,and if the lightningstroketo to the busbars are connected whenn linesofthe samesurgeimpedance the line doesnot oc.curcloseto the station, the voltage at the busbarsbecomes2 ufn, where z is the amplitude of the surgevoltage transmitted along the line on which the lightning surgeoriginated; in the caseof lightning in the may proveto be necessary. must be taken into accountand calculation wavereflection vicinity ofthe sub-station, 6) Cableswith an earthedmetallic sheathwhich are in serieswith the line or connectedbetweenthe station busof the waves enteringthe station,but the steepness Any cabletendsto reduce to be protected, barsand apparatus effecton the surgeamplitude.In the case the cablelengthmustbe at leastI or 2 km long beforeit hasa significant line and station section between overhead a station, a cable in front of last span to the of a directlightningstroke given 21.4. arc in Sub-clause More details afiordspracticallyno reliefto the stationequipment. from the station;theseare efectup to a few kilometres linesextending c) Protective earthwireson the overhead uhich This pre-supposes dangerous. are the most near the station line strikes to the ive againstcloselightning

-21

that shielding by the earth wiresis sufficiently well designed to preventdirect strokesreachingthe phaseconducof the tower is sufficiently tors, and that the earthingresistance low to reducethe risk of back flashover, as given in Item e) below. d) Prctectivespark gapsor protectiveearth wiresextending over one or two spansin front of the station; these can materiallyreducethe amplitudes of incomingsurges on lineswith high insulationto earth,e.g.on fully insulated wood-polelines. e,) Earthingresistances and inductances of the down leadsof towers,particularlyolose to the station.In the cases of high valuesof earthingresistance or the inductance of the down lead of the tower or pole, a lightning strike to sucha tower or pole or to an earth wire may cause high overvoltages on the phaseconductors by back flashover across the line insulatorsto one or more phaseconductors. In range A, lightning surgestransferred through transformers are also important. Analytical expressions for the electrostatic and electromagnetic termsof the transferfed voltages are derivedin AppendixA.

7,2 RangeB In rangeB, as well as in rangeA, the insulationlevelsare generally suchthat switchingovervoltages are seldoma major problemand that insulationco-ordinationis still mainly based upon lightningovervoltages occuningin overheadline systems. Furthermore,also in this voltagerange,thereis usuallyno decisive economic incentivetowardsa detailedstudy of oYervoltagestresses. Thus the considerations in Sub-clause 7.1 continueto apply.

7.3 RangeC For this voltagerange,the inportance of the switchingovervoltages in insulation co-ordinationbecomes predominant,all the more so as the voltagelevelincreases. This is whatjustiflesthe substitutionof a switchingimpulse test,considered more representative, for the traditional 1-minpowerfrequency test. The high cost of equipment then compelsconsideration of more economical designs of insulationco-ordination. while, in turn, the serious consequences of a failure necessitate a more preciseestimationof the overvoltages to be expected. These haveto be evaluated for eachtype of significant overvoltage in the particularsystem considered. Because ofthe extensive computational requirements, virtually all practicalovervoltage predictions mustbe made using transientnetwork analisers or digital computers. Experience with studies of a wide varietyof systems hasshownthat development of generalized formulaefor overvoltagesis difficult because of the large number of parametersaffecting the overvoltagevalue. Both analogue and digital techniques of transientsolution requirea high level of skill in problern-solving. These skills are principallyusefulin the selection (it beingimpracticalto studyall possibilities), of significant cases in the reductionof the systemto a reasonable number of busbarsand tines (it is not practicalto represent the entire system on eitherTNA or digital solutions)and in the description of system constants and apparatus characteristics. possible, Whenever f.eld teststo checkthe validity of the parameters usedare recommended. In the sophisticated approaches to insulationco-ordinationnow becomingmore and more usual for the highest valuesof voltage,the amplitudes of the overvoltages to be expected at a givenlocationdue to a giventype of event cannotbe definedby a singlevalue(seeFigure 1, seepage106).It is only possible to statethe probabilityf.(U) dU

-23

that an overvoltage value comprised between U and U + dU may occur,f"(tJ) being the overvoltage probability density.The probability F"(U') that the value U' may be exceeded is then givenby:

F o ( U ' ) :I f " ( q d a
U'

(1)

SECTION THREE 8. General 8.1 Self-restoringand non-sef-restoringinsulation

INSULATION WITHSTAND

Clauses 10and 11,concerning definitions ofIEC Publication71-1,subdivideinsulationinto self-restoring and nonself-restoring insulationaccording to its behaviourin the caseof occurrence of a disruptivedischarge during a dielectric test. On the former kind of insulation, it is possibleto carry out testsunder conditions that imply an appreciable risk of such discharges, e.g. by applying a large number of impulsesat the rated impulse withstand voltage, or evenin conditions with deliberately applied discharges as in a 50olo disruptive dischargetest carried out at voltages above the rated impulse withstand level. On non-self-restoring insulation,a disruptivedischarge destroysthe insulatingproperty of the insulationand a largenumberof impulses at ratedwithstandvoltagemay resultin a gradualdeterioration ofthe insulation.Non-selfrestoring insulation is for these reasonstested by application of a limitd number of impulses at rated withstand voltage. The degree of information on the dielectric strengthofthe equipment directlyobtainable canthusbe much higher for self-restoring insulation.However,in the caseof non-self-restoring insulation,the economic importancefor the manufacturer of the risk of havingthe equipment rejected tendsto compelhim to designthe equipment for a very low probability of failure under test. Taking these two factors together,no difference is made in IEC Publication 71-l between impulsewithstandlevels, in relationto the kind of insulationor the natureofthe test. While self-restoring insulationdoesnot loseor rnodify its insulatingability following a disruptivedischarge in a dielectric test, it should not be inferred that damagemay not occur in serviceifthe disruptive dischargeis followed b1 an intensepower arc. Furthermore,possible damage to equipment is not the only consideration to be introducedin the selection of an acceptable risk of discharge in service, asthe effecton continuityof supplyalsohasto be considered. For example, a nuch lowerprobabilityofinsulation failureis requiredin the case ofbusbarsthan on individuallines. It must be emphasized that the insulating structuresof a pieceof equipment are always made up of self-restoring and non-self-restoring parts. Generally it cannot therefore be stated that the insulation of an apparatus is selfrestoringor non-self-restoring. But tlte probability that discharges may occur across or through non-self-restoring parts in the presence of self-restoringparts can,for diferent typesofequipment, be negligibleor otherwise.Due to the diferent voltage-time sparkovercharacteristics of solid and air insulations, this probabitity tendsto increase with increasing impulsevoltageamplitudes; thus it may be negligible at the rated withstandvoltage, but may become appreciable around the 50% disruptive dischargevoltage.

8.2 Selectionof the type of test For some types of apparatus, within the range of overvoltagesthat tests have to simulate, the probability of a dischargeoccurring across a non-self-restoring part is negligible. In this case,the dischargeprobability coincides

-25pats of th apparatusand its insulationmay be called "essentially with that of the self-restoring self-restoring" switches may be considered an exampleof this type; or, for the sakeof simplicity,"self-restoring".Disconnecting well abovethe 50% discharge voltageduring a 507odischarge in fact, venwhenapplyingimpulses test, sparkover takesplaceusuallyin air without any punctureof the porcelain.For this type of equipment,the test of Clause52 and recomnended. of IEC Publication71-l is possible insulation,the high cost of this part of with mainly or a large part of non-self-restoring For tl,psof apparatus apparatus at higherthan ratedwithstandvoltage.The testvoltageis theretestsofthe complete insulationexcludes fore limited to the rated withstand voltage asthis already implies an overinsulation of the non-self-restoringparts so probability of discharge up to ratedwithstandvoltage. as to give negligible part ofinsulation that cannotbe testedseparately Sucht)?es of apparatus that alsohavea self-restoring from the part, e.g.bushings and sometypesof instrumenttransformers, would requirea large numberof non-self-restoring insulation. The numberof impulses of the self-restoring must howeverbe restricted impulses to provethe adequacy parts of insulation.Insulation of this because of the possibilityof gradualdeteriorationof the non-self-restoring type of equipment, that can be calledcombined,shouldbe testedaccordingto Clause53 of IEC Publication71-l, insulation,e.g.powertransformers, For sometypesof equipment with mainly non-self-restoring the self-restoring insulation(e.g.bushings) can be testedseparately accordingto Clause52 of IEC Publication71-1.This kind of non-self-restoring" or, for the sakeof simplicity "non-self-restoring". Insulation equipmentis called "essentially of this kind is verifed by meansofthe testin Clause54 of IEC Publication71-1. 52,53 and 54 of IEC Publication71-1are given in AppenConsiderations on the validity ofthe testsin Clauses dix B.

yoltagesrnd temporary oyervoltags 9. Insulation behaviourrt power-frequency voltage in normal operating conditions and under temporary In general,sparkoverunder power-frequency ofthe insulatingpropertiesofthe equipment or by excepwill be caused by progressive deterioration overvoltages in insulation withstand due to severe ambient conditions. tional reductions 4). to the degree ofcontamination(see Clause In the latter case, the conceptof probabilityis applicable of insulation Because concepts will be madein this Guidein respect ofthe difrcultiesinvolved,no useof statistical (seealso Clauses 17 and 18). voltages and temporaryovervoltages behaviourat power-frequency

10. Probability of di$uptive rlischrrgeof insulation under impulsevoltages causedby the application of an impulse of The ability of a given insulation to withstand the dielectric stresses givenwaveshape a randomphenomenon, evenif we considera time interval so and peakvalue U is, in most cases, small (suchasthat needed to carry out a dielectric test on equipment)that the ambient and insulation conditions may be consideredconstant, at least with respectto parameterssuch as pressure,temperature,humidity, etc., which can be measuredand which are usedto definethe ambient and insulation conditions during tests. and polarity, and for a peak The disruptive dischargeprobability of insulation for an impulse of given waveshape test)can be determined, if the insulationis selfvalue U in a short time intervalas definedabove(e.g.in a dielectric within this time interval,and countingthe numberNl of restoring, by applyingthe impulseU N timessuccessively . N l discharges. From the fraction , a numericalvalue can be obtainedfor this probability which will be the more accuratethe greater is the valu; of N.

-27 The discharge voltages of a populationof non-self-restoring insulationcan be described statistically by meansof a distribution curve that gives the relation betweenthe amplitude of the dischargevoltage and the fraction of the populationthat will break down at that voltageamplitude.For the determination of this distributioncurve.tests must be performed vrith Yoltageamplitudes increasedup to breakdown on a sampleof piecesfrom the population. The accuracyin the determination of the curve will be increasedby increasingthe number of piecesin the sample. Because a disruptive dischargenormally resultsin the destruction ofthe test piece,the number ofpieces in the sample must be limited for reasonsof economy. No method is at presentknown for the determination ofthe probability of disruptive dischargeofa singlepiece of non-self-restoringinsulation. If we consider either switching or lightning impulsesof different peak values U, we shall be able to assoctate with every possiblevalue of U a dischargeprobability P,, thus establishinga relafionship pr(U) for a given insulation in a short time interval At or, for the sakeof simplicity, at a time t (seeFigure 2a, page 107). The valuesofP,(LQ increasefrom near 0 to near 100% probability in a more or lessnarrow band ofvoltage values. In general,the resulting curve can be definedby a biparametric law, one paraneter being associated with the position ofthe voltageband and givingan indicationof the withstandlevel,and the otherassociated with the bandwidthand giving an indication of the scattering of the voltage values which give appreciableproportions of both discharees and non-discharges. Generally, in a laboratory, the parameterthat definesthe position of the probability curve is taken as the voltage Ur uo which conespondsto the 50% discharge(or withstand) probability. The standard deviation of the distribution (o), defined by the squareroot of the sum of the squaresofthe deviations with respectto the mean is usualty taken as the parameter which expresses the scattering. For a Gaussiandistribution, it correspondsto half the difierence betweenthe voltagesthat give dischargeprobabilities of 16Voand 84vo. In service, the ambient and insulation conditionsdo not remain constant.Thereforethe discharge probability curve of insulation, as defi.ned above for the time t, is bound to changefrom one moment to another (.pr, pr.. . .) (seeFigure 2a). The variations are determined,as regardsexternal insulation, mainly by atmospheric conditions. Taking the ambientand insulationconditionsas random,it will be necssary to considerfor eachinsulation,in addition to the dischargeprobability P,(t/), as defi.nedabove, a dischargeprobability of insulation p1({/) to overvdltagesof amplitude U liable to occur at any instant of a long time interval z of operation.For the purpose of insulation design,it is this seconddistribution which is of interest (seeFigure zc, pageiol). Similarly to Pt(U), P(Lf can be defined by the voltage (U1 50)which coruesponds to the 50% discharge(or $.irhstand) probability and by the standard deviation of the distribution oa. The variations of Pt( t/) within the time interval AZ may beconvenientlydefinedby the probability densitypo([.'.,01 where Ut 60is consideredas a random variable (Figure 2b, page 107).This latter function in turn may be charactcrized by the 50olo dischargevoltage Ua 50and by its standard deviatiou oo. On the simplifying assumption that the standard deviation ar of Pr(U) is constant within the time interval A2. the following relation holds:

o, -- ll o?+ o? v

1l-=__---

(2)

In IEC Publication71-1,the parameterthat definesthe position of the probability curve p(Lf is taken as the voltagewhich comesponds to a withstandprobability of90% (seeClause26 ofIEC pultication il-l), atthoughthe 50% dischargevoltage which was referred to aboveis a convenientmeasurefor piecesof insulation that can be submitted to a 50% disruptive dischaxge test. The reasonfor this choiceis that the 50% disruptive dischargetest cannot be generally applied to all kinds of insulation. Thus, in order to have the samevalues of the rated impulse withstand voltages foi all tylrs of equipment, whatever its insulation, and to use these values directly in the definitions of statistical distributions, it has been appropriate to refer to a higher value (90%) of the withstand probability, the rated impulse withstand voltage !3em9d Uav being identical with the lowest perrnissiblevalue of the statistical impulse withstand voltage under specifed tst conditions 4 eo.

-29

For risk-of-failureevaluations, it is however convenient to express the probabilitycurves ofinsulation discharge in termsof their 50% discharge voltagesand standarddeviations. Assumingfor Pr(U) a Gaussian distributionwith standarddeviationor, the difference between the 50"/odischarge (or withstand)voltageand the statistical (or 90%) withstandvoltageis givenby:
utso:
tr Ut so

r-l-3

o,

(3)

o, depends upon numerousparameters (waveshape, polarity, confi.guration of the object,dielectricnature,etc.). However,on present info nation, and for equipment of rangeC in air, ot is taken as 0,03or 0.06depending on the type of impulse,lightning or switching, unlessanother value has beenspecifiedby the relevant Apparaius Committee (seeClause52 of IEC Publication71-l). The probability of dischargeP,(Lf of a piece of equipment which during the test conforms to what is specified in IEC Publication71-1 can then be definedin terms of its 50% discharge voltageand its standarddeviation,as follows:

(Jrro:*r-r r#a

(4)

The probability of dischargeP,(U), defined by the above parameters,refers to the most severetest conditions for the equipment,sinceUis, is the rated switchingor lightning impulsewithstandvoltage.Thercfore, if impulse tests haveto be madein both wet and dry conditions, the probabilityP,(tr) refersgenerally to wet condifions. The probability of dischargein servicep1((/) of a given piece of equipment can only be deduced from field tests, dependingon the site of insiallation. However,as a broad indication,the probabilityPa(Lf of a pieceof equipment conformingto the specifications of IEC Publication7l'1 can be defined, recallingequation(2), in termsofits 50% discharge voltageand its standard deviation,as follows: Un* Lhso > k-----l-1.3 o,

o,-ll ,?+ol v
where/c is the ratio between the 50% discharge voltageof a givenequipmentin service during a time interral lI and the 50% discharge voltageunderthe mostsevere impulsetestfor the equipment (wet or dry, positiveor negatrve polarit . For switchingimpulsesU of positivepolarity, the valuesof k and oo relevantto time intervals AT of fine dry weatheror variousbad weatherconditionsdo not show appreciable differences. The samemay be said concerning the degree of atmospheric pollution, at leastin the rangefrom cleanconditionsto lightly pollutedconditions. switching impulses Lr of negativepolarity, the valuesof /<and o,, are highly dependenton the type of weather .For within the time intervalA? under consideration. Concomitance ofbad weather(rain, snow,fog, misi, erc.; and not negligible pollution leadsto a low value of k ; bad weather also increases the value of oo. Valuesof k : I and oo : 5olo are suggested in this Guide for normal conditionsand a time intervalAZ equalto the seasonal cycleto coverthe worsepolarity impulse.This valueofoo results in a valueofar a little lower than g%. The same values of ft and oo are also suggested for lightning impulses. This gives a value of aa equal to 6% approximately.
The information given above is to be consideredmerely as broadly indicative and it is recommended that use should be made of more detailed data derived from field and laboratory tests,if available.

-t

/-

(s)

11. Apporetuswith windings An apparatuswith high-voltage windings, such as a transformer or reactor, designedto withstand only full-wave tests,is vulnerable, to a certainextent,to a surgeof high amplitudechoppedin its vicinity because higherinternal stresses than underfull-waveconditionscan be developed across adjacent turns and coils.All flashovers to earthin a substation resultin choppedwaves ofvarious degrees of amplitudeand steepness. If because of the useof protective spark gaps, flashoversare liable to occur frequently in service,the withstand strength of the windings against surgesmust be determinedby testingwith a suitablechoppedwave.The provision for such a test is left to the relevant apparatus committee. Where non'linear resistor-type surge arresters are used for the protection of transformers, chopped wave tlpe surgestend to be lesssevereand they are lesslikely to arise; in practice,choppedwavetestsare not usually required. For all typesof apparatus havingwindings, suchasrotatingmachines, transformers and reactors, rapidly changing voltages dueto the restrikingofswitchingdevices may alsoproducenonJinearvoltagedistributionssimilarto those caused by lightning overvoltages. For this reason, it is recommended that suchequipment, irrespective of whether or not it is to be usedin installations subjected to lightning overvoltages, shouldbe testedwith a lightning-impulse voltageto sheckthe winding insulationfor voltagewithstandacross turns and coils.

SECTION 12. General These devicesfall under three classes: non-linear resistor-type surge arresters;

FOUR

PROTECTIVE

DEVICES

expulsion-type surge arresters (range A only); spark gaps.

The choice betweenthesethree devices,which do not provide the same degreeof protection, dependson various factors, e.g. the importance of the equipment to be protected, the consequences of an interruption of service, etc.

Their characteristics will be considered belowfrom the point of view of insulationco-ordination.

13. Non-linear resistor-typesurgeanesters Theseprotectivedevices should be designed and installedto limit t}re magnitudes of overvoltages againstwhich theyprotectequipment so that the total surge-arrester voltageduring operationdoesnot exceed an acceptable value. Surgearresters are deflnedand their characteristics are givenin IEC Publication99-1.Their rating is definedas the specifiedmaxirnum permissibler.m.s. value of power-frequencyvoltage betweentheir terminals at which they are designedto operate correctly; this voltage may be applied continuously to surge arresterswithout changing their operatingcharacteristics. 1 can successfully In addition to this definedcapability, sometypes of surgearresters withstand either aJ higher than rated voltage for a specifiedshort duration, or D) a specifiednumber of successive discharges. In eithercase, a controllingfactor in the selection of the surgearrester is its ability to interruptfollow current at its ratedvoltageor in the case of temporaryovervoltages, exceeding its rated voltage.

I Thesetypes of surge arresters are currently available onl)' for range C.

the terminals ofthe arrester Aprimary point is that thevoltageproducedacross at anymomentprior to and during in the determination of the switchingimpulseprotectivelevel and the lightning imoperationmust be considered pulse protective level.
13.1 Lightning impulseprotective level The lightning impulse protective level of a surge arrester is characterizedby the following voltages: a) the sparkover voltage for a standard full lightning impulse (seeTable VI of IEC Publication 99-1)1;

6,) the residual (discharge)voltage at the selectedstandard nominal current (see Table YII of IEC Publication 99-1); c) the front-of-wavesparkover voltage(seeTable VI of IEC Publication99-1). The protectivelevel under lightningimpulses is taken for insulationco-ordinationpurposes as the highestof the three following values: maximumsparkover voltagewith 1.2/50impulse; maxinum residual voltage at the specifledcurrent; maximumfront-of-wavesparkover voltagedividedby l.l5 (seeClause33 of IEC Publication71-1).

This evaluationof protectivelevel givesa conventional valuerepresenting a generally acceptable approximation. For a better definition of wave-frontprokction by a surge arrester,referenceshould be made to IEC Publication99-1. 13.2 Switching impulseprctective level impulseprotectivelevelof a surgearrester is characterized The swirching by the following voltages: a) the maximum sparkovervoltagefor the standardwave-shapes specifled in Sub-clause 61.4 of IEC Publication 99-1; ,) the total surge-arrester voltage exhibited by the surgearresterwhen dischargingswitching surges. The protectivelevel for switchingimpulses is the highervalueof a/ or 6). Until a standardtest for D) has been specifled by IEC Technical CommitteeNo. 37, LightningArresters,reference should be madeto the surge-arrester manufacturers,

14. Expulsion-typesurge arresters Theseprotective devicesoperateto limit overvoltagesand interrupt follow currentswithin their ratings. They have low residualvoltages. The characteristics of thesedevices are givenin IEC Publication99-2. The impulse sparkover characteristicsresemblethose of protective spark gaps,but are in generallower and flatter for the samesparkover distance. Thesearresters may not appreciably limit the amplitudeof the follow currentbeforeinterruptingit and may have current-interrupting ratingswhich mustbe compared fault currentand the prospective with the prospective transient recoveryvoltageat the point of installation.
I The tables mentioned here give for each surge arrester voltage rating the upper limit for each of the above voltags. If bettei characteristics than those specified in I EC Publication 99-1 are available, the actual voltages for the specific sulgp arester will be obtainable from the manufacturers. Thus, it is recommended that the actual voltages for the surge arrester prctectiv chaRcteristics be used foi co-ordilation studies.

-3515. Spark glps The spark gap is a surge-protectivedevicewhich consistsofan open air gap betweenan energizedelectrodeand an earth electrode. On supply systemsoperating at voltages up to 245 kV, spark gaps have proved satisfactory in practice in some countries with moderatelightning aotiyity. The adjustment of the gap settingsis often a compromise betweenprotection and servicecontinuity, but this difficulty can be largely overcomeby the useof rapid automatic reclosing. The sparkover voltage and the time-to-sparkover ofthe gap dependessentiallyon the distanc between the electrodes; they are influenced by the shapeof the electrodesand also by their disposition and distsnce relafivd to the neighbourilg live and earthed parts. In order to improve the operation of a spark gap under steep-fronted surgesand to provide a flatter impulse sparkover-voltag time characteristic,the geometricalconf.guration ofthe simple rod-rod electrodearrangementcan be modified,for instance by appropriateshapingofthe electrodes and by provisionof a centralauxiliary electrode. In range A, duplex-type spark gaps have also proved advantageousin regions where birds or small animals are troublesome. ls,L Prctective characteristicsof a spark gap

Becauseof: a) the dispersion of the sparkover voltage of an air gap, ,, the increasein the sparkovervoltage with increasingamplitude ofthe applied wavewhen sparkovertakesplace on the front of the wave, the protection obtained by meansof spark gaps is lessprecise and the protective level cannot be given asprecisely as the protective level of non-linear surge arresters. The performance of a spark gap under impulse (switching or lightning) is characterizedby the 50olo value and the standard ddviation of its dischargevoltage under standard laboratory conditions. Since spark gaps constitute insulation,the contentsof Clause10 apply also to them. Furthermore,because typical self-restoring of the reasons givenin Iten b) above,knowledgeof the times-to-sparkover of the spark gap for valuesof the appliedimpulses well above the 50% sparkover value is often needed(seeAppendix C). 15.2 Limitations of protective spark gaps c) When the spark gap operates on a voltagesurgeand a power-arcresults,this arc frequentlypersists until disconnected by a fault-protective deviceof the system; this constitutes a phase-to-arth fault in the caseof a system with directly earthed neutral, entails mechanicalstresses on the various parts of the systemequipment and may causedisturbancesto users.The location of the spark gap should therefore be consideredin relation to its efect on the systemprotection aud operation. b) The spark gap is unacceptablefrom the point of view of servicecontinuity if its presence noticeably increases the number of circuit outages,provided theseflashoversare neither self-extinguishingnor interrupted by means of high-speedtripping circuit-breakersfollowed by high-speedreclosing. c) Spark-gapoperation causes ohoppingof the wave, thus increasing the probability of producing chopped waves closeto the terminalsof protected apparatus, This hasto be takeninto consideration for insulationofhighvoltagewindings(seealso Clause11). d) Damage to the equipment may be causedby the power-arc acrossthe spark gap if this is not installed in a suitableposition. For instance, if a spark gap is fitted to the bushingof a transforrreror circuit-breaker, its distance from the bushing surfacemust be sufficiently large to prevent a power-arc being blown againstthe insulator. e) The relativearrangement ofthe spark-gaps ofeach ofthe phases must be chosen so asto minimizethe risk of phases, an arc spreading which would transforma single-phase to neighbouring fault into a tfuee-phase fault.

-37 16. Application of different protective devices l6.l Protection with non-linear resistor-typesurge arresters

The distance separating the objectto be protectedfrom the surgearresterreduces the efficiency of the latter. In fact, when the surgearresteris separated from the object to be protected,the latter is subjected to an overvoltage exceeding the protectivelevelof the arrester. This increase is due, in the first place,to the inductivevoltagedrop in the arrester connections and in the link between arrester and apparatus to be protected;secondly, ifthe duration of propagation between arrester and apparatus is not negligible ascompared to the durationofthe incoming wavefront, due to an increase of short duration of the voltageat the terminalsof the apparatus with respect to the protective level of the arrester. Thus, it is a generalrule to locatethe arresteras closeas possible to the apparatus to be protected.In particular,surgearresters shouldpreferably eitherbe installedon the transformer tank or its high-voltage and earthterminalsshouldbe connected possible to the transformerby the shortest connections. Similarly, surgearresters should be fi.ttedcloseto cableterminationsif they needprotection,with the shortest possible connectionsbetween the terminals of the surge arrester and the phase conductor and the cable sheathrespectively.
Note. In rhe caseofsurge afieslersclo6eto theapparaluslo be protected,the followingsafetyfadors are recommended. a, Range A, - A safety factor of approximately 1.4 should be provided for Series I equipment between the rated lightning impulse withstand level of the apparatus 10 be protected and the impulse protective level of the surge arrester (see Clauss4l and 42 of I EC Publication7lJ). For Series II equipment,factorsdown to 1.2are accpted for spcific cases. 6., RangesB and C. - Saftyfactors ofat least 1.2a.e normally provided for lightning overvoltags. c, RangeC. - Safety factors of at least l.l5 for switching overvoltagEs and 1.25for lightning overvoltagesare normally adopted. The considerations in I EC Publication99-lA shouldalso be taken into account.

The installationof surgearresters closeto the apparatus to be protected can be achieved more easilyin voltage rangeA than in voltageranges B and C. The increase due to both thesefactorsdepends on a numberof conditions:distance of the surgearresterand its locationahead of, or behind,the apparatus to be protected, characteristics of the line, capacitance of the apparatus to be protected, arrangement of the stationand steepness of the incomingwave.This increase can be limited by all arrangements which limit the steepness of the surgearriving at the station (extension of shieldingwires,localized capacitance, cable(evenshort),largenumberof connected lines). 16.2 Protection tuith expulsion4ype surgearrestefs Thesearresters are sometimes usedon high-voltage distributioncircuits whereshieldingagainstlightning is nor provided(rangeA). The impulsesparkovervoltage-time characteristic of suchan arrester is flatter than that of a rod gap of the same sparkover distance, but not quite asflat asthat of sometypesof equipment, $ inding or a for example a transformer cable. For this reason, an adequate margin of safetyis required,not only for the lightning-impulse voltageof sparkover the arrssterand of the equipment to be protected, but also for the corresponding front-of-wavdsparkover voltage. Theseconditionsare assisted by the usualpracticeof installingthesetypesof arrester closeto the equipment to be protected. For further information concerningthe applications of thesedevices, reference should be made to IEC Publication 99-2. 16.3 Prctection tith spark gaps The impulsesparkover voltage-time characteristic of a sparkgap is usuallymuch morecurvedthan thoseof some of the typesof apparatus to be protected, particularlythoseof transformsrs and cables. Due to the curvedshapeof the voltage-time characteristic of a spark gap, the distance over which protectionis ensuredfor all surgesis very small, usuallynot more than a few metres.If a spark gap is appliedfor protection

-39(considerablylower than the steepness of the standard lightning-impulse against surgesof a limited front steepness test voltage wave), a distanceof severaltens of metresbetwenthe spa.rkgap and the object to be protected does not appreciably modify the conditions for the protection provided against such surges. A spark gap is therefore liable to operate not infrequently when stressedby lightning surges,and occasionally when stressedby switching surges,the amplitudes of which are below the lightning-impulse withstand voltages of the operation of the spark gap causes a circuit outage if the the apiaratus to be protected.In a large number of cases, gap is on the supply side of the opening switch. If the supply can be restored quickly by high-speedautomatic reclosing, the setting of the spark gap can be adjusted so as to provide an acceptabledegree of protection to the number of supply interruptions troublesometo consumers. apparatuswithout causingan excessive
Note. Safety fa.lors of tlre order of thos gived for su!8p arrsteE gcoerally ensure satisfactory protction provided the occurren of wry stp fro ed surgs is excluded (se AppeDdix C).

SECTION FIVE _ CO-ORDINATION BETWEEN STRESSES AND WITHSTAND CONSIDERATIONS COMMON TO RANGES A. B AND C

orary oyeryoltrge, hoblems of pollution 17. Insulation design to F)wer-frequency operating yoltage anrl temtr and rgeing to prescribe the long Clauses 38 and 39 of IEC Publication71-1leaveit to the relevantapparatuscommittees the behaviourof equipmentwith respect to ageingof intests,intendedto demonstrate duration power-frequency it is indicated only is givento the apparatus committees; ternalinsulationor to externalpollution. Generalguidance that as regardsthe voltage under normal operating conditions, the insulation shall withstand permanentoperation at the highestvoltagefor equipment.

18, Pollution For insulation susceptible to contamination, the problem of specifyinga suitabletest method and pollution severity present testsare established, in variousapparatus committees. When contamination levelsis at under consideration in relaiion to the pollution of the it is anticipated that the systemengineerwill specifya degreeof pollution sevGrity environment in which the equipment is installed. Table I, page 95, gives a provisional basis to the systemengineerfor establishing a classification of pollution severity levels. A scale defined in quantitative terms with referenceto a test method should be associatedwith each of these qualificative levelsof natural pollution severityfor various tytrrs of insulator. of validity, i.e. ofa satisfythe requirements Besides beingreproducible, the testmethodshould,asfar aspossible, saiisfactorysimulation of the natural conditionsin which the equipmentis to be installed.Therefore,the most satisfactorytests,among those at present adopted, may vary from caseto case. that Table I does not cover some environmental situations, such as desert areaswhere It should be emphasized long dry periodsare followedby condensation or light rain. As an example,Table II, page 97, givesthe relationship betweenthe levelsofnatural pollution and their simulation distance, in laboratories according to two types of tests.The table also gives an indication of the requircd creepage although it is recognizedthat the performanceof surfaceinsulation is greatly affectdby insulator shape.Moreover, type insulators. at the presentstageof research, theseindicationsare valid only for pin-and-cap

\."..!

-41 voltage, The data in Table II are intendedto cover the behaviourof equipmentat the appropriatesingle-phase these i.e. U^l t/l However,in the caseof a systemwhich may operatewith a phaseearthedfor long durations, phase-to-phase voltage U-. are valid for the f.gures it may be necessary to take them into account in specifyingthe If temporary overvoltagesare frequent and severe, pollution test. In the case of stations with a high degreeof pollution, when it may be impossible or extremely expensiveto performance under pollution conditions, the alternatives of greasing requirethe necessary of equipment or washing the insulating surfacesshould be considered.

19. Ageing For insulation susceptibleto ageing,the problem of specifyingsuitable test methodsis also at presentunder consideration in various apparatuscommittees.

AND WITHSTAND SECTION SIX - CO.ORDINATION BETWEEN STRESSES IN VOLTAGE RANGE A

20. Selectionof the roted lnwer-frequencywithstandvoltage valuesfor Series I and II in IEC Publication71-1 indicate only one value of rated The tablesof standardized power-frequencywithstatrd voltage for each systemvoltage (/-.

21. Selectionofthe rated lightning-impulsewitlstand yoltage two rated lightTableI of standardized values for Series I in IEC Publication71-l leaves the choicopenbetween yalues ning-impulsewithstand voltages,correspondingto list 1 and list 2. Table II for Series II indicatesrepresentatiye of rated lightning-impulse withstand voltage dependingupon whetherthe power of the equipment is below or equal to 500 kvA, or above. The reducedrated lightning-impulse withstand voltagesof SeriesI, list l, wereintroduced with the avowedaim to make thesevaluesacceptable to all apparatuscommittees.Reducedrated lightning-impulse withstand voltageshave beenusedwith good resultsin many countriesand for a wide rangeof equipment over long periodsof time. Comprehensivetests have also beenperformed on different types of equipment for this voltage range to determinetheir inpulso withstand voltages,both for standard lightning impulsesand representativeswitching impulses.It has been found, in particular, that the breakdown voltage of insulation under typical switching impulsesis alwayshigher than the peak of the power-frequency to introduce a separate test voltage.This is onereasonwhy it wasnot found necessary switching-impulsewithstand test in voltage range A. The choicebetween list I and list 2 is to be madein accordance with Clause42 of IEC Publication71-1and tbe following considerationsrelevant to the equipment installations: a, equipment line; with no connection to an overhead D,/ equipment connected line through a transformer; to an overhead c, equipment line eitherdirectly or through a cable, connected to an overhead
i

* :

;'il

_43_ 21.1 Equipmentwith no corneclion to ot overhead line A wide variety of installations is covered by this category, e.g. large underground cable networks in cities; many industrial installations;power stationsand ship installations. Equipmentin suchlocationsis not subjected to any external (lightning) overvoltages,but may be subjectedto switching overvoltages(seeSub-clause 6,3). Clause42 of IEC Publication71-1specifies the conditionsfor the use of equipmentaccordingto list 1 in such installations. In all other cases, equipmentaccordingto list 2 should be usedand, with few exceptions, no surge protection is required. One suchexceptionis an electric arc-furnaceinstallation wherehigh overvoltagesare liable to developdue to current chopping by a circuit-breaker. Protection by specialsurgearrestersmay be required in such a caseboth betweenphasesand betweenphasesand earth.

21.2 Equipmentconnected to an overheadline througha transformer A) GENBRAL coNsrDERATroNs Equipment connectedto the lower-voltageside ofa transformer supplied on the higher-voltageside from an overhead line is not directly subjectedto lightning or switching overvoltagesoriginating on the overheadline. However, du to electrostatic and electromagnetictransferenceof such overvoltagesfrom the higher-voltage winding to the lower-voltage winding of the transformer, such equipment can be subjectedto overvoltageswhich, in certain circumstances, can exceed its withstandvoltage. Analytical expressionsfor the electrostatic and electromagneticterms of the transferred voltage are given in Appendix A. For a given transformer, the magnitudesand waveshapes of thesetransferred overvoltagesare mainly dependent on the natureof the lower-voltage circuit and, for this reason, it is convenient to consider the selection ofthe rated lightning-impulse withstand voltage of the equipment and its protection separatelyfor the two basic categoriesof installation as follows : Category 1. - Equipment connectedthrough transformers to higher-voltage overheadlines, and incorporating connections of moderate length,sayuP to 100m, between the lower-voltage sideof the transformerand the equilF ment, such a8the main supply switchgearof a cable distribution netlvork or an industrial installation. Category2, Generator-transformerinstallation.

B) BAsrc cnrDANcB a) Category 1 equipme t Factors which tend to increasethe magnitude of transferred overvoltagesfor such equipnent are: i) a transformer having a high-voltage ratio and high capacitancebetweenwindings; i, a transformer disconnected from its load on the lower-voltage side; lr) low-capacitanceconnectionsbetweena transformer and its associatedequipment; rv, a higher-voltage winding which is not earthed (e.g. delta or unearthed star) or having a star point which is earthedthrough a high reactance (e.g.arc-suppression coil); v) surgeshaving steepwavefronts and surgeshaving long durations; yt switching surgesdue to energizing a transformer from a remote point on an overheatlline system(i.e. energizing a transformer-feeder). Seealso note below. Estimatesof the magnitudesof transferred overvoltagescan be made,and methodsof calculation, with examples, are describedin Appendix A.

-45Category 1 equipment can usually be protected by surge arresters, and where such protection is provided as For other cases, to makethese calculations. basicguidance it is not necessary is givenbelowon the normal practice, general the influence of circuit conditions and the voltages, criteria which can be usedto nature of the transferred determinewhetler precautions are necessary'
Note, Resorunt orerrolrage: A, c..ndition ofrsonance between two systemscoDnctedby a traDsfornrer cantcauseabtromally large voltagEsto be tlansferd through thc traosformer. It is reaonunended that an examin4tioo of the clruits for possible lesonance should be ruade. atrd modifications should be made as ncessaryto avoid resonance.

rising,voltagesurges to the higher-voltage windingofthe transformer, The applicationofshort duration,or steeply line very closeto the transformer can,throughcapacitive coupling,give a e.g.a lightning stroketo the transmission winding. This may "spike" on the lower-voltage exceed the impulse givenin voltage test voltages short duration Table I, lists 1 and 2, or Table II of IEC Publication7l-1. On the other hand, the shortestpossiblefront time, is often so long that the capacitively of the line and transformerinput capacitance, determined by surgeimpedance voltagecan be ignored. transferred the most severe condition ariseswhen the load circuitsare disconnected, i.e. on the For CategoryI equipment, switchgear, sincwith the load connected its capacitance is usuallysufficient transformersideof the lower-voltage to reducthe amplitude of the initial voltage "spike" to a safevalue. the transformerand lower-voltage of the connections between switchgear is not sumcientto If the capacitance canbe connected between reduce the amplitudeofthe initial voltage"spike", eitheradditionalcapacitance the transwith Table I, list 2, or Table II of IEC Publication7l-1, former terminalsand earth,or equipmentin accordance may be used. addingsurgearresters. Attention is also drawnto the possibilityof increasing It may alsobe desirable to consider by additional capacitance. This increase can be reducedby a seriesdamping inductivelytransferredovervoltages adjusted resistance valu. resistor of carefully winding of the transformer,e.g. a lightThe applicationof a longerdurationvoltagesurgeto the higher-voltage from the transformer or a switchingsurge, ning stroketo the transmission line somedistance will, through inductive winding of the transformerhaving a longer duration and an coupling,give a voltagesurgeon the lower-voltage testvoltagegivenin TableI ofIEC Publication71-1. amplitudesimilarto the peakvalueof the power-frequency to the lower-voltage windingofa transformer Dangerously high temporaryovervoltages canbe transferred through on the higher-voltage capacitive couplingfrom the higher-voltage windingwhenan earthfault exists system and when the neutral of the lower-voltage systemis earthedthrough an arc-suppression coil or when it is isolated.In such cases, the connection of additionalcapacitances between the low-voltage terminalsof the transformer and earthis a protection widely-used method. b) Category2 equipment Recommendations installations and on the choice on the needfor overvoltageprotection of generator-transformer of suitable types of protective equipment need to be basedon consideration of overvoltagesof atmosphericorigin only sincestudieshayenot revealedmore severe conditionslikely to arisefrorn transference of switchingsurges, Corresponding to the front of an incidentlightningsurge,or to the collapse of voltagedue to wavechopping,there can be a capacitively transferred voltageofshort duration(initial voltage"spike"). This is independent ofthe longerduration voltage surgewhich is usually transferredby the combinedefect ofinductive and capacitivecouplings. The maximum amplitude of the initial voltage "spike" is highly dependenton details of the design of the installation. Where theseare such as to assistcapacitivetransference, there may be justif.cation for making a low-voltage surge-injectiontest on the installation or on the generator-transformer connectedto a circuit simulating the generator and its external connections. Factors which tend to increasethe magnitude of transferred overvoltagesfor such equipment are: l'J high capacitancebetweenthe transformer windings; fi,) low-capacitanceconnectionsbetweentransformer and generator;

,rr, high-voltage ratio of transformer;

4't -

iy, lower-voltage transformer winding not connectedto a generator; vJ surgeshaving steepwavefronts and surgeshaving long duration. Ifthere are indications that the amplitude ofthe initial voltage spike should be reduced,this can be done effectively by connecting non-inductive capacitors betweeneach phase and earth, preferably at the transformer terminal, by means of low-inductance connections. Attention is drawn however to the possibility of increasing inductivelytransferred overvoltagesby additional capacitors. The longer-duration transferencgenerally takes the form of a unidirectional voltage with superimposedoscillations having a frequency of severalkilohertz and if reduction of this is necessary,consideration should be given to the addition of surge arresters. However, voltage division between the reactancesof the generator transformer and the generator normally ensures that the amplitudeof the longer-duration transference doesnot warrantthe useof surgearresters. For large generator installations, surgearresters on the generator are not generally acceptable and checkcalculations should be made.In so far as surgearresters can be readilyappliedto smallinstallations, thereis no necessity in these cases for calculations of transference to be hade. If the generator transformercan be energized from the high-voltage systemwhen the generatoris disconnected, voltage division betweengenerator and transformer doesnot occur and consideration should be given to the higher amplitude of the longer-duration transferenceaffecting that part of the lower-voltagecircuit which remains connectedto the transformer. The etrects ofthe applicationof longer-duration voltagesurges to the higher-voltage windingofa transformer and their transference to the lower-voltagewinding when an earth fault existson the higher-voltagesystemand when the neutralofthat system is earthed throughan arc-suppression coil, or ifit is isolated, are subjectto the sameconsiderations as describedfor Category I equipment. C) Srr,ecnor oF TNSTJLATToN LB\tsL The choiceof whetherto uselist I or 2 of Table I of IEC Publication71-1and whetheradditionalovervoltage protectionis necessary shouldbe based in the flrst placeon service experience with similarinstallations. It may also be useful to make neasurementson a similar existinginstallation, using a low-voltage impulse-injectionmethod. For a large generator-transformerinstallation, for which the necessary data concerningthe transformer and the protective equipment are available, it will be useful to calculate the overvoltagesliable to be transfered and to comparethe resultswith the appropriatewithstandvoltagesof the equipmentto be protected.This is normallladvisableonly for direct connectionsbetweengenerator and transformer and for low-voltage tertiary windings on largesystem transformers. If a circuit-breaker is installedbetween a generator-transformer genand its associated erator,consideration shouldbe givento the two cases of whenthe breakeris closedand whenit is open,althougha load is usually connectedto the lower-voltagewinding of the transformer wherebytransferred overvoltagesmay bc reducedeven in the latter case. Severalmethodsof calculation havebeenpublished and, on the whole, theseseemto give similar results. Although no absoluteaccuracycan be claimedfor any method of calculation,comparison between calculationand experirrental results on a variety of installations has shown satisfactory agreement.It is therefore deemedappropriate to illustrate a nethod of calculation by referenceto two numerical examples,covering CatgoriesI and 2 respectively. Theseexamplesare given in ClauseA'2 of Appendix A.

21,3 Equipmmt connected directly to an overhead line Equipmentinstalledin a substation connected directlyto an overhead line is subjectto direct or indirectlightning overvoltages. Suchequipment should,as a general rule, complywith the rated lightning-impulse withstandvoltages specified in list 2 (TableI) or Series II (TableII) in IEC Publication?l-1. All equiprrentand, in particular,transformersin such locationsrequireprotection by surgearresters or spark gaps'Taking into accountthe flat impulsesparkovervoltage-time characteristic of a transformerwinding, trans-

-49surge arresters in areasof intenselightning formers should preferablybe protectedby non-linearresistor-type lightning arresters can be used.Where lightning activity. In areasof moderatelightning activity, expulsion-type particularlywherethe transformeris connected activity is slight,protectivespark gapshaveproved adequate, to a line with earthedcross-armsor wherethe transformer is designedto withstand steep-frontedchoppedwaves. The bushings of circuit breakers, instrument transformers and substation insulators having curved impulse sparkover voltage-time characteristics,can be effectively protectd by existing protective devices on the transformers. Considerationsrelative to the distance between protective device and protected apparatus developedin 16.1are alsovalid here. Subclause In areasof moderate or low lightning activity, equipment having rated lightning-impulse withstand voltages in acrordance with list I of Table I of IEC Publication71-1may be usedbut, in that case,carefulattentionmust be paid to adequateovervoltageprotection. In a systemthe neutral of which is earthedthrough a low resistance,surge the neutral of which is earthedthrough an arcarresters or spark gapscan be usedfor this purpose.In a system provided. protectionmust be If surgearresters are used,those which can suppression coil, adequate overvoltage of ficing earths are recommended. withstand repeatedoperations during the persistence device,lightning surges impressed on an overhead ln the absence of any overvoltage-protective line are limited pointswhich the surges meetduringtheir propagation. only by sparkovers on the line at the weakest If not correctly to equipment as a result ofsurge reflections point localized, suchspa;kovers cancause damage between the of sparkover and a vulnerable apparatus,such as a transformer winding. In the caseof a substation with a number of lines normally connectedto the busbars,the surgevoltage arising at apparatus in the station(see the busbars is likely to be sufficiently reduced so asnot to overstress Sub-clause 7.1).
However, such a solution (no overvoltage-protective device) may be acceptable in practice on overhead supply systemsin regions of very low lightning activity, at least if equipment according to list 2 of Table I of IEC Publication 71-1 is used.

2L.4 Equipmmt connected to an overhead line througha cable is not only concerned with the protectionof the substation equipmentbut Insulationco-ordination,in this case, also with that of the cable. When a lightning surgepropagatedalong an overheadline impinges on a cable, it breaks up into a reflectedwave and a transmitted wave. The amplitude U, ofthe surgeflowing along tlle cable is given by: 2Zz ., : u' z, +z; u' The amplitude Lrr,ofthe reflectedwave is given by:

z, a " : ,z"niu ,
where: Ur : ZL : Zg : amplitude of surgevoltage on overheadline surgeimpedance of overhead line; in practice,400O to 500O surgeimpedance of cable;in practice25O to 50O, but for sometypesof cableit may be aslow as 5 C)

This initial surgeis reflected at the station end of the cable in accordancewith the effective surge impedanceat with by the aboveequations the stationbusbar.Subsequent at the cableterminals continueto be governed reflections due regardto the fact that 4 and Z, invariabll refer to the wavewhich impingeson a point of reflectionwhile Ut and Z, refer to the transmitted wave and UE refers to the reflectedwave.

5l -

Provided at least one further cable of a few hundred metres in length is permanently connected to the busbar, the surgevoltag to which the cable and the station equipment are subjectedis notably lower than that on the line on which the surgeoriginated and this reduction is all the greater,the lower the surgeimpedanceofthe cable. a decisionon the adequacy For a stationto which at leasttwo cablesare connected, of equipmentaccordingto protectioncan be determined list 1 of Table I of I EC Publioation71-l or the needfor overvoltage from the above equation. However, in the caseof a terminal station, the ultimate surge-voltageamplitudes developedat the cable terminreflectionsare a function of the amplitude and duration of the original lightning-surge ations asa result of successive length of the cable and, if the stroke is fairly close to the cable, also the reflections from voltage on the line, the the resultingvoltageamplitudes are so high that, even the point of strike.For lineswith fully insulatedcross-arms, using substation equipment and a oable with lightning-impulse withstand voltages according to list 2 of Table I junction. As an example,the maximum ,nrrt be used at the line/cable of IEC Publication71-1, surgearresters cablelengthsare plotted in Figure 3, page108,for which the cableand the substation equipmentcan be protected junction at the line/cable only; the figure demonstrates the considerable benefitof the useof a by surgearresters against impedance. The protectionis fully eflective directand indirectlightningimpulses cableoflow surge and back junction. If the cablelength exceeds providedtheseoriginatea few spansdistantfrom the line/cable flashovers the valusindicatedin Figure 3, additionalsurgearresters are requiredat the substation end of the cable.If surgearin IEC Publication99-1 are used,the cable lengths resterswith sparkovervoltageslower than those specified in proportionto the differences indicated indicated in Figure3 canbe increased by comparing, for example, a 10.5kY with a 12 kY surgearrester. the incidentwaveis doubledin amplitudeat the transHowever,ifthe cablesupplies only a terminaltransformer, reflections at both cableterminations, this yoltagebuild-upincreases former. As a resultof successive towardstwice th amplitude until no further energy is supplied by the original surge. For lines with earthed cross-armsfeeding a cable with terminal transformer, the impulse flashover voltage to value in list 2 of Table I of IEC Publiearthof the line insulationis only slightly higher than the corresponding junction and it may also be necessary mdl be requiredat the line/cable cation 7l-1. ln sucha case,surgearresters to use theseat the station end of the cable. The foregoing considerationsapply to direct strokes a few spansdistant from the cable termination. Full protection against very close strokesis generally not possible. In areasof moderate or low lightningactivity,protectivesparkgapscan be usedin placeof surgearresters. Howjunction gaps (the at ever,if the spark the line/cable are earthed througha low resistance usualcase) and ifthe cable is terminatedin a transformer,dangerous surgevoltagescan be developed acrossthe transformerwindings.The spark gapsat the line/cablejunction should thereforebe earthedthrough a resistance of severaltens of ohms. equallingideallythe surgeimlxdance of the cable.Greatly improved protectioncan be achieved by installing adpolesin front of the line/cablejunction and, ditional spark gapsacross the line insulatorson the fust and second in this case,the e4rthing resistaoces of theseadditional spark gaps are immaterial.

SECTION SEYEN _ CO-ORDINATION BETWEEN STRESSESAND WITHSTAND IN VOLTAGE RANGE B

ysithstand yoltsge and the rated lighhing-impulse witlstand yoltrge 22. Selectionof the rated power-frequency

Many considerations concerning voltages in rangeA alsoapplyto rangeB. However, the varietyofequipmentand locationsis not as great as in rangeA.

-53In Tablc III of IEC Publication71-1,one to three valuesof the rated lightning-impulse withstandvoltageare associated with eachvalue of U-. For eachof thesevalues,there is a corresponding singlevalue ofthe rated powerfrequencywithstand voltage. Thereforethere will be one choicefor the rated power-frequencywithstand voltage and the rated lightning-impulse withstand voltage. The choice betweenthe possiblealternativesfor U- above 72.5 kV must take account of: the neutral earthing conditions; the existenceof protective devices,their characteristicsand their distancefrom the equipment considered.

The safety factors normally employed in the application of surge arresters in range B are to be found in Subclause16.1.

SECTION EIGHT -

CO.ORDINATION BETWEEN STRESSES AND WITHSTAND IN VOLTAGE RANGE C

23. lrsulation designwith rspctto power-ftequency voltagernd temp,orary oyervoltrges For this range of voltage, power-frequencytests are to be specifiedby the relevant apparatuscommittees,in accordancewith the considerationsin Section Five, and taking into account that the temporary phas-to-earthovervoltageswill not usually exceed1.5p.u. for I s on eachoccasion.

24, Insulation dsignwith respectto switchingrnrl lightning overvoltages IEC Publication7l-1 proposes two methodsfor co-ordinationof insulationin respect of srvitching and lightning overvoltages:a conventional and a statistical method. 24.1 Conventionalmethod The conventional method is basedupon the establishedconceptsof maximum overvoltagesstressinginsulation and of minimum strengthofthe insulation(deflnitions in Clauses Z and 27 ofIEC Pubtication 7l-l). The notion of rrinimum strength and that of maximum overvoltage are rather arbitrary since a rigorous rule can seldom be followed in the evaluation of the upper and lower limits of the insulation strength and overvoltage value, which are intrinsicaLly random variables. Insulation is selectedin such a way as to achievea sufrcient margin betweenthe maximum overvoltageand the minimum strength. This margin is intended to cover the uncertainties of the designer in the evaluation of the maximum overvoltageand of the minimum strength, and no endeavouris made to assess quantitatively the risk that insulation may break down. The safety factors normally employed in the application of surge arresters in range C are to be found in Sub-clause 16.1. 2.4.2 Sratistical merhod The statistical method attemptsto quantify the risk of failure for useas a safetyindex in insulation design.

-55systemought to be basedon the minimum of the installationcost Rational insulationdesignof a transmission yearly operationalcost and yearly cost of failure, the latter being calculated plus the capitalized as the estimated cost of failure of insulation rrultiplied by the averageexpectednumber of insulation failures per year. In order to evaluatethe aveiageexpectednumber of failures per year of a piece of insulation located at a given giving rise to overvoltages all the events which may afect insupoint ofthe system in consequenoe of overvoltages, lation design should be taken into consideration. Then for each type of event considered, the yearly frequency of occurrenceand a statistical distribution of the relevant overvoltageamplitudes are required.l and co-ordination,asoutlinedabove,involvestoo many difrculties.The of insulationdesign However,a process here is therefore restricted to checking that the risk of insulation failure due to any approach considered statistical in is within acceptable limits. Theselimits dependon the foreseeable type of eventcausingovervoltages the system of the failure of the piece of insulation under frequenoyof occurrenceof the type of event and on the consequences consideration. Fortunately, the types of eventwhich are signif.cantin insulation designare generallysumcientlyfew in number as the insulationlvithstandto srvitchingsurges of many piecesof into allow an analyticalapproach.For instance, sulation of equipment in a systemis, in general,determinedprimarily by reclosing overvoltages, lf the frequency distribution of overvoltagescausedby a given type of event and the corresponding insulation numerically, as will be shown below. strength are known, the risk of failure can be expressed Lt the withstand strength of a given piece of insulation within a given time interval AZbe definedby the probability PT(LDof disruptive dischargeof the insulation when it is subjectedto an overvoltage of value U (Figure 4, pieceof insulationfor the specific the same page109).Furthermore, let the distributionof the overvoltages stressing probabilitythat probability Then the an overvoltage defined by the density/o((D. ofvalue type of eventconsidered be comprised betweenU' and U' f dUmay occuris/.(U') dU. The probability densityof failure ofthe insulationdue to an overvoltage of value U' is therefore the product of the probability density that an overvoltage of value U' may occur and the probability that the insulation may fail under an overvoltageof value u'. Thus:

dR : f,(u,). Pr(U,)du

(o

The probability of failure for a value of U taken at random, i.e. the risk of failure R for an event of the type will then be: considered.
u - |
0

f,(u) . Pr(u).du

(7)

principleofthe methodby which the probability of failure may be assessed. It This expression showsthe general assumes that/o(y) and P1(Lr) are uncorrelated.
lVole, In principle, formula (7) applies to a siele-phase piece ofinsul,atiotr only. If several piecs of equipmedt, coDncteditr parallel on the same phase, are subjected to the same overvoltage thn it can be assu{red that the overall risk is equal to that of a single pic. of equiplnett multiplied by the number of pieces io paralel. This is valid if we take hto consideration the fact that the accptablerisk offailure for substation iDsulatioD is lrually very low.

I It is evident that the amplituds ofall the overvoltages oc.uring in a system cainot b combined in ode distdbutior, but that ody ovrvoltages identified by the samelocatioD and causecan be considered as statisticslly homoggdeous.Actually, siDcethe overvoltage sverity differs for wavdhaps which are companble respctivlywith a lightding impulse and with a switching impuls (sNote to Clauses2l and 22 ofl EC Publicatiou 7ll), tl overvolrage amplitude can be said to be homogpneousonly ifidentifed by the sarF locatio!, cause and shape. However, ovrvoltags due to the same cause at a given location have broadly a similar shapeand, thercforc, those identified by the samecauseand location may, for the sake ofsimplicity, b rgarded as homoggneous.Ifproblefi$ ofstandardizatioo ofthe equipmcnt of atr efltirc network are to be dealt with, an extensioo of the con@pt of a homogeneous group of overvoltags 4eds to be considered. In this cas,a group ofovervoltagps rnay be said to be homogenousif tie overvoltagps occur in similar locations of the system due to the of say subBtation of the systEnrmay be coNidred as a samecause.For exaErple,the reclosing overvoltages on the busbars (seoding.Nrd) horDogeoeousgroup of overvoltagEs.

Sonretifires it is trecssaryto evaluate the risk of failure of at least on phas of a thre-pbas section of the system followitrg a switchiqg opratioo (e.9. a closiDg operatioo), This risk may be obtained by multipllng by three the risk evaluatd according to formula (7) ifthe probability deqsity/o(U) of the overvoltages rnay b assuned to be equal oo all three phass. An altemative nrethod is to ctablish the overvoltage probability density /o(Lr) by considering only the highest valu ofthe overvoltagEscausdotr the tfuee phasesby a swirchi4 opemtion. Thed the dsk of failure is evaluated by makiog use of forrnula (7). The formr approaph gives risk valus higher than the aptual ones; the latter lowcr. Obviously the two approaches give resultJ ditreling by lss than 3: 1.

The mathematical model choset for deflning the severity of an overvoltagein formula (7) is based upon a few simplifications. In fact, the following assumptionsare made: of overvoltagesare disregarded. a) Peaksother than the highest one in the waveshape of all of the lightning impulses and the switching impulses belonging to the distribution 6/ The waveshapes of the highest ovenoltage. to be identical to the waveshape defined byl.(Lf are assumed to be all of the samepolarity, although, during switching,a balanced cJ The highestovervoltagepeaksare assumed in practice;this assumption, which leadsto the calculation distributionduring the two polaritiescan be assumed of greaterrisk than the actual risk, makesit possibleto take all of the piecesof insulation into account, regardless of the differenoes of performancebetweenthe two polarities. To be on the safeside, the more severepolarity will be used. As regardsswitching overvoltages,which are the transient overvoltagesof predominant importance in the insulation designof EHV systems, assumptiona, is. such as to give a calculated risk of failure lower than the actual risk. Assumption c) results in a calculated risk higher than the actual one for the reasonalreadyindicated and since are so chosenasto establishthe lowest withstand of apparatus(seeClause51 of I E C Publithe standard waveshapes cation 71-1). In general,considering the opposite effectsof the assumptionsmade, the risk of failure calculated by means of formula (7) grves risk values greater by about 0.5 to 1 decade (3 to 10 times) than the actual values. Norrrally formula (7) is therefore conservative. As said above, fornula (7) can be applied for all the specifictypes of event signiflcant in insulation design. Furthermore, it is clear that the accuracyin the calculation of the risk failure greatly dependson the accuracyin probability of insulation(seeAppendices and the disruptivedischarge C and the determination of the overvoltages ofthe calculated risk offailure canbecorrespondingly oftheseis seldomsatisfactory, the accuracy D). Since accuracy poor. However, the risk of failure has a precise physical meaning (contrary to the safety factor). By making use of statistical methods,it is therefore possibleto co-ordinate the security levels of the various parts of the systemaccor(e.g.the effectof a to carry out sensitivityanalyses ding to the consequences ofa fault. Furthermore,it is possible methods change in the overvoltage severity or insulationwithstandcapabilityon the probabilityoffaults). Statistical do therefore enablethe engineerto take a decision on a rational basis. According to the statistical method, insulation is selectedin such a way as to obtain a calculated probability of failure lower than, or equal to, a pre determined value that characterizesthe required safety level. Referring to Figure 4, page 109, a changein the insulation level shifts the curve representingthe dischargeprobability of the insulation Pr(t/) along the U axis with a consequentmodification of the shadedarea,{ which representsthe probability of failure R for a random value of U. seriesof tentative designsand evaluationsof risk, until a solution The statistical approach may require successive is found that correspondsto the predeternined risk. Formula (7) can also be applied to determine the probability of failure of an insulation protected by spark gaps probabilityof the insulationin presence device. of the protecdive or surgearresters, ifPl(Lf is takenasthe discharge If the time-to-dischargeof the protective devicecan be consideredalways shorter than that of the insulation to be probability protected, an equallyvalid and simplermethodis to useformula (7) and to take/,(t/) asthe overvoltag densitymodifiedby the protectivedevice(seeAppendixC).

-59facilitates evaluationof the risk of failure, ard thereforethe insulationdesign, The useof digital computers once probabilitycurveof insulationare known. distributionand the discharge the statistical overvoltage

24.3 Simplifed stqtistical melhod Sensitivity aialyses and ready evaluations of the risk of failure can be made on the basis of simplified statistical methodsin which the cirlculations are performed onceand for all by making somegenerallyacceptableassumptions lawsby which the actualdistributionsofthe overvoltages concerning the mathematical and the discharge probability of insulationare represented e.g.by assuming them to be Gaussian with known stardard deviations. distributionof overvoltage probabilitycurveofinsulation With these assumptions, the cornplete and the discharge probabilityand called,in IEC Publication71-1, to a givenreference can be defi:red by onepoint only corresponding "statisticalovervoltage"(Clause 23) and "statisticalimpulsewithstandvoltage'' (Clause 26), respectively. The risk of failure can be correlated with the margin betweenthesetwo valuesso that the approach becomes rather similar to that of the conventional method. of the method.Figure 5a showsfrequency Figure 5, page111,givesa graphicalexplanation distributionsof overwherethe statistical is indicatedby ys and the statistical voltageand insulationstrength, overvoltage withstandvoltIn Figure 56, the overvoltage distribution and the electric ageby Lr,p. strengthdistribution are superimposed for threevalues1.0, 1.2and 1.4 of the statistical safetyfactor ), taken as equalto the runo Ualu,n.The correlationbetween the statistical safetyfactor 7 and the risk of failure R is given in Figure 5c. The referenceprobability of the overvoltagesis chosenin this guide asequal to 20lo.The reasonsfor this choiceare givenbelowin this clause. probability of the withstandvoltage,the 90% valuewaschosen As regards the reference in IEC Publication71-1for the reasons ouflinedin Clause10 of this guide. As regards switching surges, Figves 6,7 and 8, pages 112,113and I14, illustratethe relationship between the risk of fai.lure and the statistical safety factor for air insulation in different cases. probabilitycurveof insulationis assumed The discharge to be Gaussian asstated in Clause10with /c(Formula (5) in Clause10)equalto I andor (formula(2) in Clause10)equalto 6%o,8Yo and 10%(Figures 6, 7 and 8 respectively). : given Ifft is takenas differingfrom 1, the statistical safetyfactor for k 1 shallbe multipliedby l/k, Figure 6 is applicableto laboratory conditions,while Figure 7 is generallyapplicableto serviceconditions. Figure8 may be usedfor particularlysevere conditions(high valuesofon in formula (2)).In all threecases, the overvoltagedistributions areassumed to be Gaussian truncatedat threeand four timesthe standarddeviation06,or not truncatedand with standarddeviationo" equalto 10o/o, l5To znd 20Vo. Figurs6 to 8 givethe average correlation between the statisticalsafetyfactor and risk of failure as well as the upper and lower envelopes of the correlations obtainedwhenconsidering the nine overvoltage distributionsresultingfrorr all the possible combinations of values of standard deviation and upper truncation point. The choiceof a Gaussian distributionto definethe overvoltage severitydoesnot meanthat other disFibutions (e.g.extremevaluedistributions)may not give betterapproximations, distributions match but simplythat Gaussian actual distributions reasonablywell over the range of interest. The correlation between the statistical safety factor and risk of failure appearsto be only slightly atrectedby changesin the shapeof the overvoltagedistribution. This is due to the fact that the zyo value chosenas a reference probability ofthe overvoltagesfalls in that part of the overvoltagedistribution which givesthe major contribution to the risk offailure in the rangeofrisk considered. the If, on the contrary,a much lower or highervaluewerechosen, influenceofthe shap ofthe overvoltagedistribution would be very pronounced. Figures6 to 8 give the risk of failure of a pieceof single-phase equipment(e.g.a post insulator).If the risk of failure of severalpiecesof equipmentis required,reference 24.2above. shouldbe madeto the noie to Sub-clause For example, pieces if the numberof single-phase ofequipmentat a line entrance is equalto 2l (7 on eachphase) and the risk of failure of eachfor a three-phase reclosing is 10a,then the risk of failure for the whole line entrance

-61 This simplifi.ed will be closeto 2.1 ' 10-8. calculationis only valid under the condition of low risk (see note of Subclause24.2) and if the number of parallel piecesof equipment is not too great. Extension of this method to overheadlines is possiblebut presentsproblems particularly for long lines, with which this guide doesnot attempt to deal. This method may be appliedlo IEhtnW szrges,keepingin mind the practical limitations indicated in Appndix D. In faot, it is not usedat the presenttime. Analogous correlations betweenthe statistical safetyfactor and the risk of failure are givenin Figures9, l0 and 11,pages115,116and 117,for comparisons purposes only, for air insulation submitted to lightoing surges. Assumptions similar to those of the previous sub-clauses have been made as regards the dischargeprobability curve of insulationto lightning surges. The lightning overvoltage distributionsare assumed to be Gaussian and not truncated,with standarddeviations equalto 40% a'Jid 60V,.It is thought that suchdistributionsapproximate actuallightningovervoltage distributions quite well around the 2% value. Figures 9, 10 and I I give the correlation betweenthe statistical safetyfactor and the risk of failure for borh overvoltage distributions and for standard deviationsof insulation strengthequal to 3To respectively. , 5o/oand7o/o
lvore' The corrlations between tie statistical safty factor ard the risk of failure givea above apply to self-rettoring insulation oDly. Howver, they can be considered acceptablefor th entirc equipmetrt io most cassfor the following reasons: The testsdescribedin Clauses52 and 53 of IEC Publication 7l-l areintended to ascertainthe impulse withstand strength of selfrestoring equipment and combined equipment respectively.Such testsdo not altow any dischargeon the non-self-restoringparts of the apparatus. Consequently,when both the self-restoringand non-self-restoringparts of insulation of the same apparatus are designedon the basis of the samerisk of failing the test, the non-self-restoringparts will have an inherently lower discharge probability than the self-restoringparts in respectof overvoltagesof the sameamplitudes as those of the impulsesapplied during the tests. Consequently,it can be stated that risk of failure of the non-self-restoringparts of self-restoringequipment (testedaccording to Clause 53) is lower than that of the self-restoringparts if the major contribution to the overall risk of failure is given by overvoltagesin the range of U56'tr t 2 o. For combined insulation equipment, the non-self-restoringparts will be designedfor a low risk of failure at test voltage. In the cases where the major contribution to the failure risk (calculatedon the basisof the statistical withstand voltage) is given by overvoltagesaround the test voltage, the evaluation of the risk of failure can be carried out as for self-restoringinsulation. The foregoing considerationsnaturally presupposethat wave chopping during sparkover by a self-restoringpiece of insulation doesnot causeseriousstresses in the non-self-restoringinsulation of equipment and doesnot accelerate ageingof insulation.

25. Block-diagran of the insulation designand co-orrlinationof an elechical installation Most predictions or analyses of system overvoltage levelsassume that a pieccofequipment(e.g.a circuit breaker, etc.)will operate asdesigned. In othercases, an arbitrarylimit shallbe ptacedon the "credible" severity ofsurges,as is often done in the caseof lightning. It is obvious that surge levels based on such assumptionswill sometimesbe exceeded. Whether or not it is necessary to take this into account dependslargely on the consequence of failure resulting from such abnormally high overvoltages. For example,the consequences of transformer or reactor failure are so seriousthat their insulation co-ordination must usually provide for evenextremecontingencies. This is achievedby applying surgearrestersat their terminals. There are other types of equipment such as post insulators, disconnecting switches,etc., wherethe consequen@ offailure is not so seriousasto warrant the application of surgeaffesters. In developing a sequence of insulation design and co-ordination of an electrical systemin the form of a blockdiagram,it is convenient to differentiate between a case I (surge protection)and a case arrester II (no surgearrester ot remotesurgearrester protection).A block-diagram illustratingthe methodto be adoptedis shownin Figure 12, page119.

-63The first stepin insulationco-ordination(block 5),commonto all tlpes ofequipment,hasthe purposeof ensuring voltageunder normal operatingconditionsand during temthe ability of equipmentto withstandpower-frequency porary overvoltages. The systemengineershall specifyan equivalentpollution severitytest level for insulation will be given for insulationsusceptible to contamination;howevgr,no specialspecif.cations to ageing susceptible (seeClause23). (block 3) are more severe phase-to-earth temporaryovervoltages than the overvoltages If the expected taken into consideration by the relevant Apparatus Technical Committee in specifyingthe power-frequencytests discussed in it will be necessary to specify diferent voltagelevelsor durationsof the test or Clause39 of IEC Publication71-1, to reducetemporaryovervoltages (feedback in the system to adopt suitablemeansor operationalprocedures from line). block 5 to block 2, dashed leadsto a certainwithstandof the Insulation designas regardsoperatingvoltagesand temporaryovervoltages given For instance, if a withstandsalinityis requiredfor a post to both switchingand lightningimpulses. equipment in air is obtrined which variesaccording to the post insulatortype. The equipment insulator,a minimum distance dueto requirements imposed by the operatingvoltages will therefore exhibit a certainwithstandto switchingsurges influences are indicatedin Figure 12by dottedlines(e.g.from block 5 to block 7 These and temporaryovervoltages. and block 8). Examples of selection of the rated switchingand Then it is necessary to considercaseI and caseII separately. lightningimpulsewithstandvoltageare givenin AppendixD. I), choiceof the rated switchingand lightningimpulsewithstandvoltAs regards apparatus of the first type (case agesis usuallymadeas follows: (block 6); thus the on the basisof the temporaryovervoltages 1) Choose the ratedvoltageof the surgearresters protectivelevelsof the arresters under switchingand lightning impulseswill also be determined at leastwithin crtainlimits. 2) Choosethe rated switchingand lightning impulsewithstandvoltagesof the apparatuson the basisof safety (seeSub-clauses 15.1and 16.1). factorsdictatedby experiences suitableoperatingprocedures 3) Adopt suitablemeansin systemdesignor suggest to reducetemporary overincentive existsto reduc insulationlevels(start againfrom block 2). voltages if an economical the rated switchingand lightning impulsewithstandvoltageof the apparatusdisThis procedureof selecting of the actualswitchingand lightningovervoltages by which the apparatus connected in parallel regards the severity may be stressed sinceit is based on the protectivelevelofthe surgearresters only. with the surgearresters of case II are usuallychosen according to the following steps: The insulationlevelsof the apparatus risk s hich withstandvoltageof the apparatus on the basisof an acceptable 1) Choose the ratedswitching-impulse lohages directlyon the basisofthe expected distributions of the overvoltages and ofthe discharge canbe estimated given failure and the (statistical means of the correlations in Sub-clause 24.3 between the risk of method),or by insulation method).Actually, these correlations applyto self-restoring statistical safetyfactor (simplifiedstatistical (seenote in Sub-clause 24.3). acceptable for the entireequipment only, but normallythey can be considered
lvore. ProtectioD against switching surgesafforded by surge arresters installed close to quipnrent in case I and spark gaps installed at the line-ntraoce can often be discounted as regards caseII apparatus for the following rasons: a, Most of the types of quipmot belooging to case II (especially lin-ento4ce appantus) c4n at times be isolated ftom the surgp a$esters installed in the station to protct caseI appantus. ,, With the present technology ofsurge arresters,the protective level against switching impulses is often gre3ter than, or equal to the highest switching overvoltags which cad occur with corect behaviour of system apparatus. Insulation must therefore b dsigned to withstaod these ovrvoltages. c) Spark gaps cannot provide a substantial degree of protection against switching surgps if undesircd spa.ko!N are to be avoided, This point is given in Appendix C. In Figu! 12, th block bet\reen block 4 and block 8 is therefore iodicated by dashedlioee.

-6 52) Adopt suitable means in system design to reduce switching overvoltages,if this is possible and if an economical incentive existsin reducing the rated switching impulse withstand voltage of apparatus. No economical incentive may exist in reducing insulation; for instance, if the withstand. to normal operating voltages and temporary overvoltages calls for "higher insulation" than switching surges(dotted line between block 5 and block 8).

3) Verify that the rated lightning impulse withstand voltage,corresponding(in Table IV of IEC Publication 71-1) to the rated switching impulse withstand voltage determined above (Items I and 2), guaranteesa satisfactory performance of the apparatus under lightning overvoltages. This should be done on the basis of the expected distribution of the lightning overvoltages and of the discharge voltages or by means of the correlation given in Sub-clause24.3, but for the sake of simplicity it is often done on a conventional basis (seeAppendix D).

Consider that only the highest value of rated lightning impulse withstand voltage of each line should be used for apparatusnot effectivelyprotected by a surgearrester(seeClause49 of IEC Publication 71-l). 4) Provide meansto reducethe amplitude of lightning surges1 (feed-backfrom 12 to 10 on the block-diagram of Figure 12) or choose a rated lightning impulse withstand voltage higher than that determined on the basis of Table IV of I E C Publication 7 L-l if too high a risk of failure to lightning overvoltages resultsfrom Item 3. In the latter case, the value of the rated lightning impulse voltage shall be selectedfrom the series given in Item b ) of Clause46 of IEC Publication 7l-1.

1 Consider possiblechangesin line design such as tower footing and shielding wires, install surge arrestersother than those intended to protect case I apparatus, make use of protective spark gaps. The actual degreeof protection provided by spark gaps is discussedin Appendix C.

-67 -

APPENDX A
SURGE TRANSFERENCE THROUGH TRANSFORMERS

A1. Derivation of expressions 41.1 Initial mpacitive voltagespike During the initial period ofabout I prs under the conditions of a lightning surge,thc transformer can be approximatelyrepresented as shownin Figure 13a,page120,as a capacitance voltagedivider of ratio s whereJ < l. ff q is the sum of the capacitances of the higher-voltage and lower-voltage arms of this divider, the initial transference can be simulated as in Figuresl3b, l3c and 13d,page120,by a series circuit comprisinga source[/o : rq, a capacitance C, and the capacitanceor resistanceof the external lower-voltage system. Ur is the surge voltage on the higher-voltageterminal during the initial period. The sourcevoltage Uois the open-circuit transferred voltage. If tho extemalsystem can be represented by a capacitance C", asin Figure 13c,the equivalent circuit is a voltage divider having the ratio:
Ct Ct* C"

(8)

If' duringthe initial period,the impedance ofthe externalsystem is the surge impedanc ofa cableor the resistance ofthe load,this system can be represented R asin Figure l3d. Typical valuesare from 10O to a few by a resistance hundredohms.The transferred surgevoltageis then dependent on the steepness as well as on the amplitudeof the surge.For high valuesof R, the initial voltage is approximately Uoand for low valuesof R, it is given approximately by Ur" : s,9RC,,where ,Sis the maximum steepness of the surgein volts/second. The aboveexpressions do not take into accountthe effectof superposition of the surgevoltageon the powerfrequency voltage. Allowance can be made for the power-frequenry voltage by substituting for 4 the actual peak voltage y! and by introducingthe factor p. For a star/deltaor delta/starconnected transformerthe value ofp is typioally about 1.15.For a star/staror delta/deltaconnected transformer,the value ofp is truically about 1.05. However,slightlyhighervalues than these may be encountered. For switchingsurges, the valueofp can be taken as unity. The amplitude Un will be limited to the front-of-wave sparkover value of the lightning arrester or spark gap on the higher-voltage sideof the transformer(seeIEC Publication99-1). The amplitude ofthe initial voltage "spike" on the open lower-voltageside is given by: Uw : sPUo (9)

For a transformer without eiternal connectionsto the lower-voltageterminals, the value of factor s can rangefrom 0 to at least0.4, depending on the winding arrangement. The valueof J can be measured in a low-voltage impulse responsetest (e.9. with a recurrent-surgeoscillograph). Values of C, generally lie in the range of l0-8 to l0-e F.
.iYole. The values ofx and ct arc difrcult to cilculate for new dsigds of transfomer, atrd the maDufacturer caE oDly be expcted to givc a rough stimate without guarantee.

The value of Ur" should be comparedwith the appropriate impulse test voltage of Table I, list I or 2, or Table II of IEC Publication71-1. The amplitude of the transferred surgemay be reducedby: l) using a surgearrester with a lower front-of-wave sparkover voltage on the higher-voltageside; 2) addingcapacitance between eachphaseand earth on the lower-voltage side; 3) addinga surgearrester on the lower-voltage sidebetween eachphaseand earth. For numericalexamples, seeClauseA2.

-69A1.2 Inductively transferredvoltage transformer or bank of transThe transferencof e.m.f. by inductive couptng betweenwindings in a three-phase alternating formers can be evaluatedfor any winding connectionsby consideringthe surgevoltage as a single-phase voltage. component of the single-phase voltage should be taken The efrect of delta windings on the zro-phase-sequence into account. the resultsfor eight differentconnections of the transformer,assuming Figure 14, page 121,.shows the system voltage ratio is unity. As in the analogouspower-frequencyconsiderations,the transferred voltagesat the terminals are determined by of the transformer and the extemal circuit the e.m.f.'sand by voltagedivision betweenth internal impedance have the same waveshayr as the surgeon the higher-voltage to The e.m.f.'scan be assumed system, if impedance. the effects of internal oscillations in the windings are neglected.The responseof the lower-voltage systemto these to the incidentsurgewith a superimposed oscillation. e.m.f.'sis usuallyin the form ofa voltageof similarshape The.arnplitude of the inductively-transferredvoltage dependsalso on the voltage ratio and three-phaseconnecof the lower-voltagesystemand the transformer. tions of the transformer and on the relative impedances The voltage on the lower-voltage side of the transformer which, as is shown in Figure 14, can be a phase-to-earth voltage,is givenby: or phase-to-phase Uz : pqrUnlN where: 4 : : r (,Ie : if : responsefactor ofthe lower-voltagecircuit to the transferred surgee.m.f, factor dependingon the transformer connections(seeFigure l4). fpak voltage to earth on the higher-voltageside ratio of the transformer systemvoltage (phase-to-phase) (10)

parameters ofthe surgeand on the electrical on the waveshape ofthe lower-voltage The valueof4 depends circuit. For lightning surgeson a transformerhaving Category1 equipment(seeSub-clause 21.2),without appreciable side,the valueof q is generally not greaterthan about 1.3althoughthis value load connected to the lower-voltage For switohing surgeson a similar systemwithout appreciable load, the value of 4 is not grealer may be exceeded. than about 1.8. load is connected Generally, lower valuesof 4 apply if an appreciable due to voltagedivision between the load impedanceand the leakageinductance of the transformer (seenote below). For Category 2 equipment (see Sub-olause21.2), voltage division takes place between the leakage inductancc of the transformer and the subtransientinductance of the generator, and if these are about equal, 4 has the value of about 0.9 for lightning and switching surges. Values of r for a surge on one phase only (e.g. a lightning surge) and for equal surgesof opposite polarity on two phases(one type of switching surge) are shown in Figure 14 for eight different three-phaseconnectionsof the transformer. The calculated value of U, is an estimate of the longer-duration transferred voltage, which in practice includes longer-term effects of capacitive transference and transferred voltages corresponding to oscillations within the windings. Its amplitude will be linited by the protective level of the surge arrester or protective spark gap. In the caseof the former, this will be the higher of the standard lightning impulse sparkover value and the residual voltage value for the lightning surges(seeIEC Publication99-l). For switchingsurges, exceptwhen the transformeris highly-inductive load, such as an induction motor, connected to a overvoltages on the higher-voltage side may provoke overvoltage be assumed exceeding not to generally 3 p.u. (seenote).

The value of Lr, should be compared with the peak values of the appropriate power-frequencytest-voltagesof Table I or Table II of IEC Publication 71-1.Ii may be found necessary to reducethe value of the lightning or switching surge on the higher-voltage side of the transformer. Adding extra capacitance to the lower-voltage side has little effect upon the amplitude of the inductively-transferred voltage, but it may be desirableto consider the addition of surgarresters. Numerical examplesare to be found in Clause42.
Nor?. Wheo the circuit is switched off on thc higher-voltagc side of a traDsfomer which may be loaded on the lo!r-voltage sidb by leactors or any other inductive load, then dangerous overvoltages may be attained under the most unfavourablc conditions of operatioo but, in genral, U! does not exceedthe peak value ofthe power-frquency tst voltage since 4 is lssthao 1.0 on account ofvoltage division betwen thc transformer and the load hductanoe.

A2. Numerical examples A2.l Exatnple A: Category l installation

145kY stax/l2 kV delta : 145kV side 550kV 12 kY side 60 kV (assuminglist I of Table I of IEC Publication71-l) : Power-frequency test voltage 12 kV side 28 kV Surge arrester on higher-voltageside of the transformer: : rated voltage 120kV : front-of-wave sparkover voltage 463 kY : 1.2/50impulsesparkoverand residualvoltage 400 kV

Transformer. Lightning impulsewithstandvoltage Impulsetest voltage

a)

Lightn@ surgeon onephase Initial voltage "spike" for transformer disconnectedfrom load: Uzo: spUo: 0,4 x 1.15x 463 : 213 kV

Assuminga ratio of 1.25beiweenthe impulsetest voltageand the serviceovervoltage, i.e. for a value no1exceeding - -II60

t-zi

: 48 kV, the cable connectionsfrom the transformer would have a capacitanceof not lessthan C.

suchthat: 48 : o'23 < c,+ c" 213

hence C, > 3,44 Ct, Having obtained from the transformer manufacturer a value of Ct : 10{ F, the cable capacitancper phase shouldbe at least3.42 x 10{ F. If the load is connected,then this will reduce further the peak voltage od the lower-voltage side. Due to inductive transference: Uz : pqrUllN _ 1.15x 1.3 x 0.577x 400: 2g kV

c,

t2.r

145 wherelr-_:12.1 t2

28 kV givesa ratio of 1.4 with the 39.6kY peak test yoltage(28 {2j of IEC Publication71-l is satisfactory. b) pohrities on two phases Switchingswges of opposite

so that the insulationto list 1 of Table I

p : l.O, lt : l.S andr : -] Assuminga p.u. switchingovervoltage on two phases of 2.5, and, \/)

:1.15, then:

Uz:

1.0x 1.8x 1.15 x 145 x lT x I2.I 1/l

x2.5

:50kV In this case, the voltagepeak exceeds the peak of the test voltage(39.6kV) of Table I (IEC Publication7l-l). To allow for this, eitherinsulationoflist 2 of TableI (IEC Publication71-1)shouldbe used(i.e.havingtest voltages of 75 kV lightning impulsewithstandand 28 kV power frequency(r.m.s.)or 39.6 kY peak), or switchingsurges betweenphases on the higher-voltage transmission systemshould be limited, in which casea surgearrestermay be selected on the higher-voltage sideofthe transformerhavinga lower protectivelevel or alternativelyconsideration may be given to fitting a surge arrester on the lower-voltage side of the transformer.

422

Example B: Category2 installation 300 kV starlA kY : 300kV side : 24 kV side : 24 kV side 1050 kV 50 kY 125kV (assuming list 2 of Table I of IEC Publication7l-l 240 kV 900 kV 785 kV

Delta generator transformer Lightning impulsewithstandvoltage Power-frequency test voltage Impulsetest voltage

Surgearrester on higher-voltage sideof transformer: rated voltage front-of-wave sparkover voltage 1,2/50impulsesparkoverand residualvoltage a) Lightning surgeson onephase

: :

Initial voltage"spike" for transformerdisconnected from Z kV system: Uu : . : sPUo O.2x 1.15x 900 : ZO7kY (maximum)

(the value for s having been obtained from the transformer manufacturer). This valuewould obviouslybe too greatfor insulationon the lower-voltage side. Assuminga ratio of 1.25between overvoltage, i.e. a valuenot exceeding the impulsetest voltageand the service : 100kV, would requirethe addition of externalcapacitance. 12511.25 In this case:

c, 100 c"+c,(-:o'48
hence C" > 1.07Cr, The value of C, is obtained from the transformer manufacturer for a wave steepness ,S : Publication99-l). I 200 kv/p.s (seeIEC

The other methods listed in this Appendix for reducing the capacitive peak (use of surge aresters) may also be considered.

_ 75 _ The overvoltage due to inductivetransference is: U2 : pqrUllN : 1.15x1.0x0.577x785 ---l2J : 41 kv peak testsvoltage, and this gives a ratio of 1.7, which can be

41 kY is less than the 70.7 kv (50 1/f) considered adequate.

b)

pola ties on two phases Switchingsurgesof opposite Assuming a p.u. switching ovenoltage on two phasesof 2, then the inductive transferenceis : 1 . 0x 1 . 0x 1 . 1 5x 3 0 0 x 1 / T x 2

L't2

ff

-45kV pi : whete 1 . 0q ,: 1,0 a n dr : + : 1 . 1 5 .

\/J

45 kV is about equalto the inductivetransference of lightningsurge(41 kV).

-77 _

APPENDIX B
VALIDITY OF THE TESTS IN CLAUSES 52, 53 AND 54 OF IEC PUBLICATION 7I-I 81. Confidence limits of the test Tests can provide only estimatesof varying accuracyof the true values of the withstand strength of equipment. An increasein accuracycan be obtained by an increasein the extent of the test. The extent of testsmust however be limited for reasonsof cost, the diminishing return of gain in the accuracyand possibledestructive eflectson the equipment.For thesereasons, IEC Publication7l-l prescribes three diferent test methodsin Clauses52,53 and 54 according to the type of equipment. Inrtem a) of Clause 52 dealingwith the 50% disruptive discharge test,the note states that ,.There are a numberof procedures available, and any of thesemay be usedprovidingthat the accuracy of the determination is within onehalf of the standard deviationwith a conf.dence levelof 95% . " It canbe saidthat thereshouldbe a 95% probabilitl. that the 50% discharge voltageof the equipment at the time of the test is within the boundaries givenby the value estimated from the test,plus or minus one-halfof the standarddeviatron. A test procedure fulfilling this requirement is the "up and down" test with 30 impulses. The accuracy of the 15impulses withstandtestis considerably less.The 95% confdencelimits for the probability of discharge in this test are: for for for for for for 0 discharge I discharge 2 discharges 3 discharges 4 discharges 5 discharges approximately 0 to 0.213 approximately 0 to 0.32 approximately 0.015to 0.40 approximately 0.045to 0.4g. approximately 0.0g to 0.54 approximately 0.12 to 0.61

Based on 957oconfidence limits, it canbe seen that from a testwith 15impulses only it is not possible to conclude that the discharge probability is lessthan 0.10,or than the probability of withstandis higherthan 0.90, evenfor 0 discharge. When the number of discharges exceeds 4, the test is significant to prove the hypothesis that the probability of withstandis lessthan 0.90.

82. Examination of difrerent mthodsof tst Accepting the abovebasislimitationsof testswith a smallnumberofimpulses,the following examines the validity of diferent methodsof discharge testingand the balancebetween the risk to the manufacturer and the customer, bearingin mind the practicalnecessity for a limited number of impulses and, for the manufacturer, to designhis products to have an economically acceptablerisk of failure on tests. For the sakeof simplicity,it is assumed in this appendix that the discharge probabilityp,(U) of the diferent pieces of equipment in a givenpopulation(same type of equipmenton which an impulsetest is to be carriedout) follows a Gaussian law with a constantstandarddeviationo, equalfor all the pieces of equipment. In this case,ono parameteronly, ( givenin p.u. of or*see Figure 15, page122)is sufrcientto determine the deviationof the insulation .,i,, at strengthofone pieceof equipment the time , (4 o0) from the specified value(Up111) Tbe 90% withstand strengthof a piece of equipmentin a population varies from one specimen to another. Figure 16, page 123,showshow this can be described statistically in termsofK. The valueofon is very small for thosetypes of equipment(e.g. disconnectors) which may be considered essentially air insulatin! structures, slnce tolerances in dimensions are alwaysvery small. To ensurethe repeatabilityof tests,ambient and insulationconditionsshould be kept as constantas possible during tests(or correctionfactorsshouldbe used)and standardized testingtechniques shouldbe adopted.In principle,therefore, the discharge probabilityof a givenpieceof insulationundertestconditionsshouldnot be exDected

-79to change.In other words, the curve P'(Y) (seeFigure 15) should be the samefor diferent tests of pieces of equipment of the sametype. However, the value of the 90% withstand strength of insulation may show variations from the averagevalue derived from severaltests carried out by the same methods in the samelaboratory at diferent times or in different laboratories, dueto differences in the ambientand insulationconditions, or in the testcircuits.Figure l6D,page123, shows how laboratory inaccuracy can be described statistically considering the averagevalue of the insulation strength of one specimenas the "true value". Assuming that the distributions of Figures 16a and 16b, page 123, are Gaussian with known standard deviations and that the design value of LIp has been chosen by the manufacturer, the probability density of the deviation of the rreasured 90% withstand strengtl of the population of a piece of equipment can be calculated (seeFigure l6c, page 123). An ideal test should be such as to prevent equipment having, at the time of the test, either an insulation withstand lower than that specifledto pass the test or a dischargevoltage higher than that specified. Self-restoring insulationhaving,at the rated impulsewithstandvoltageappliedduring the test, a probability of withstandequal to, or higher than, the reference probability (90%) shouldhave a probability of passingthe test equal to 1, while insulation having a probability of withstand lower than the referenceprobability should have no chanceof passingthe test. The probability of passingan ideal test, i.e. for which the selectivity would be perfect for an apparatus whose withstand during the test ditrers by 1(o, frorr the specifred value, is represented in Figure l?, page 124,as a function of K by the solid line. Actual tests,however, depart from the ideal test and follow in the (Q, rK) plane curvessimilar to the dashed line. Figure 17 showsthe curvesfor the testsproposed in Clauses 52, 53 and 54 of IEC publication?l-1 and for the test recommended ]n Item d) of Clause27 of IEC Publication71 (fourth edition).l As far as the test of Clause52 is concerned,an "up and down" test basedon 30 impulses was taken into consideration. The probability density of the deviation of the measuredwithstand strength (Figure l6c) of a given population is representedin Figure 18, page 125, by curve 1. By taking into account the probability of passing a given test procedure as a function of K, along with the deviations betweenlaboratories, curve 2 is obtained.r The half-plane of positive ordinates of Figure 18 is thus divided into severalsectionsfor which the areas have the following signif.cance : 1) Area (B + c) located to the left of the axis of the ordinates included betweencurve I and the two half-axes of co-ordinates, is equal to the proportion s of equipment of the population presenting a withstand probability lower than 90% (failure during tle ideal test). 2) Area (A + D) located to the right of the axis of the ordinates, included betweencurve 1 and the two halfaxesof co-ordinates, is equal to the proportion of equipment of the population presenting a withstand probability equal to or greater than 90% (successful ideal test). - Thsumofthese Ivore. twoarea.s, or I +, + C + D, is equal to udty. 3) Area C is equal to the proportion of equipment of the population which, although presenting a withstand probability lower than 90olo,is satisfactory under actual testing; consequently,it is the customer's risk R.
r This latter test is defiDedas follows: a sed't of five impulses is applied. If Do discharg occurs, the quipnFdt is coDsideled good. If t$o discha!8ps occur, th equipment is considered,bad, If a single discharge occu$, ten rew impulsas are applied. Duriag - this new attempt, if !o discharg occuN, the equiprneot is considered good. If one dischargp occurs, th equiprneN is coDsiAerea UO. I In the case where dr : O,thc combination would be reduced to th multiplicatio' of tbe ordiaates. s A rigorous fo.mulatiotl would irtoduce herc the probability that an apparatus of the populatiod would have a withstand probability lower than 9O%.

81-

4) Area B is equal to the proportion of equipmentof the population which presents a withstand probability under actualtesting. lower than 90% and which is not satisfactory 5) Area D representsthe proportion of equipment of the population which has a withstand probability equal to or greater than 90''/o and which is satisfactory under actual testing. the proportion of equipmentof the population which has a withstandprobability equal 6) Area I represents to or greater than 90o and which none the lessis not satisfactory under actual testing; consequently,it is the manufacturer's risk R-. The sum of areasA I B is equalto the proportion of equipmentof the populationwhich doesnot prove satisof its withstandprobability.As a rule, the manufacturerdesignsthe insufactory under actualtesting,regardless asthe lation IZ of his product in sucha way as to minimizethe sum of arasI f B, whichcanalsobe interpreted probability P, of failure under actualtesting. By repeatedcalculation of R" and Pr for different values of the intended value of the insulation strength ( I4l), curvescan be constructedwhich show the relation betweenthe risk of the customerof acceptinga deflcient product probabilityPr of his product failing the test. and the manufacturer's Figure 19, page 126, shows such curves on the assumptionthat standard deviations ds, ol a'rrdol are thosestated in the legendsof the figures. risk) and Ro (customer'srisk) for the Figure 20, page127, givesthe correlationbetweenX- (manufacturer's in Figure 19. cases considered populationand no laboratory inaccuracy), It shouldbe noted that if on and o, are equalto zero (homogeneous it is R" (customer's risk) one ofthe two risks is annulled.In fact, if the equipmentconformsto the specifications, risk) which is equalto zero. whichis equalto zero; if the equipment doesnot conform, it is R- (manufacturer's This risk, as well as the In other words,thereis only onerisk eitherfor the customeror for th manufacturer. value of P,, can be obtained directly from Figure 17, page 124.

-83-

APPENDTX C
STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF THE PROTECTIVE EFFECT OF SPARK GAPS

For a given waveshape of the applied impulses,let us call: Pt(A) and Po(U) the disruptive dischargeprobabilities of the insulation and of the spark gap as a function of the crest value U of tle impulse 1; ProI(D the probability that the insulation may discharge before the protective gap sparkover, as a function of the crest value U of the impulse. a"a of the spark gueP:Q) connected in parallel arc

The dischargeprobability curves of insulation rit4 expressed by:

r l l - P"(u)l P,(u): P,(u)11 + Pt(u).pe(u).piry,(u) r l l t l po(a): p!(u)11-p,(u)l I - B'(u)l + pDQ).p{u)l

L l t l Notes1, -

01) (.l,2)

ODthe assumption that times-to-discharge of the iuulation and of thc sparkgapfollow a BaussiaD law, whate\rmay be the crestvalu U of tho appliedimpulsc,thc probabilityPr"(y) is givenby thc formula: (13)

whf,:

Tr@) - T"@) r,ng,):Tffi6 Te(a) - fi7"veJrc of the tin-to-sparkover ofthe sparkgap,asa fudctionofthe cr6tvalueU ofthe applicdimpu.lse Tr\U) : So%valw ofthe tidFto-dischargeof thinsulatio4 asa functiotrofthe crestvalue{,rof the appliedimpuls drly) : stsndird deviationof the time-to-sparkover of the spark gap, as a fuDctiooof the clest valu U of the applied rmpuse dtr(U) : statrda.rd deviatio! of thc tfun-todischargE of the insulation,as a fuoctioo of the oest valueof applidimpuls 2. (t 1) arrd(12),it wasassurned To writ equatiods that th idsulatiodand the spark gapcaDlot strikesimultaqeously.

If, for a particular combination of the insulation to be protected and of the spark gap, there is a negligible probability that the time-to-discharge of equipment may be lower than the time-to-sparkover of the spark gap in the entire range 0 < U < U^ *, Prn((D becomes zero and formula (11) may be written:

niru>:P{u) ft-p"tol L I

(14)

In the case of combinations of insulation and protective spark gaps behaving thus, we shall consider the behaviour of the protectivespark gap as being ..ideal". By making use of yforrrula (7), the risk of failure of a protected piece of insulation can be evaluated by means of the following formula:

x ', :

-r

ay

|ll-p,(u)| p,(u). J " o l - .1" l(u)d " u + I o & ( u ) . p D ( u ) . p r y , ( a ) . f ' ( u ) d u( 1 5 )

.l

a4o

Underthe conditionsof validity of formula (13),it is possible the fault risk by the formula: to express

R, :

Jo P,(u)

Ll

l - fP"(u)l . f,(u)du

(16)

r The formulae given here are generallyvalid for two piecesof insulation in parallel.

-85The ratio of the 50% lightning impulse sparkover voltage to the 50% switching impulse sparkover voltage of a spark gap can be chosenfrom a wide range (l-1.5) by changingthe electrode configuration.It is therefore possible to selectthe dischargeprobability curve qf the gap Pr(U) to switching impulse almosi irrespectiveof the dischargeprobability curve to lightning impulses. Design of a spark gap with a view to switching impulses will make the averageexpectednurnber of flashovers of the spark gap per year, due to switching surges,equal to a value l{" such as not to make systemperformance under switching surgessignificantly worse. Therefore, the probability of sparkover of the spark gap when switching overvoltagesreach the level evaluated on the assumption that equipment operates as designed (see Clause 25) must be made very low. Consequently,even if the spark gap behaveslike an "ideal" protective device, the spark gap will provide no protection against switching overvoltages and insulation must be designedto withstand this type of switching This is evidentif we recallformula (14),(caseof "ideal" spark gap). overvoltage.

P: : P,(u) [t

- P"(4] ! Pi(r/)

(17)

As regardsswitching overvoltagesexceeding the valuesbasedon the assumptionof correct behaviourof equipment, we can assumethat the overvoltagevalue is suchthat a gap sparkover will almost certainly be oaused.Formula (1) then becomes:
Pt(U): and formula (15) P{U)'Ptn(U)

(18)

R,: J

U^ro

Pr(U) . Prn(U).f,(U) . dU

(le)

The protective effect is, in this case,due only to Prn(U),i.e. to the relationship betweenthe time-to-dischargeof the insulation and that ofthe spark gap. It is thereforenecessary to make Pb([/) as closeas possibleto zero over the entire range of interest of U. Design of a spark gap with a view to lightning impulseswill be such as to limit the averageexpectednumber of flashoversper year ofthe spark gap to lightning surgesto an accptablevalu6 Nr, In this connection, it mustbe remembered that in many cases the sparkover of the sparkgap doesnot leadto any supplyinterruption. Let us considerthe exampleof a spark gap installedon the line sideof a circuit-breaker. If the l.ightning stroke causes the line to flashover, a coincidental sparkover of the sparkgapis ofno significance. On the other hand,if the overvoltage amplitude does not reach the sparkover level of the line at the point struck, it is unlikely to causea sparkover of the spark gap, even if the spark gap withstard level is lower than that of the line. This is due to the reduction in surge amplitude at the point of installation of the spark gaps becauseof attenuation during wave propagation as well as the possiblepresence of other lines and surgearrestersat the station. Thus, in contrast to the caseof switching surges,it is possibleto accept in certain casesspark gaps with a 50% dischargevoltage to lightning impulses lower than that obtained basing the design of the apparatus on switching givenin TableIV ofIEC Publication surges and usingthe combinations ofthe ratedimpulse withstandvoltages 71-1. Therefore, it can be concludedfrom formulae (11) and (14) that spark gapsmay ofer a limited degreeof protection in the case of lightning overvoltages of the order of the rated switching impuls withstand voltage of the apparatus. As regards lightningovervoltages muchhigherthan the ratedlightningimpulsewithstandvoltageofthe apparatus, gap sparkoverwill almost certainly be caused.In this case,forrrula (18) and the sameconsiderations as regards previously .Prr(t/.) of switchingsurges apply. madein respect

-87

For air insulation of equipment, the condition Pre(U) - 0 may be fulfilled both for lightning and switching (kv/crn), i.e. sparkgaps voltageto switchingsurges by makinguseof gapshavinga high critical sparkover impulses much shorter than the air distancesof the insulation of the apparatus, for instanceby making use of spark gaps having a conductor-rod confuuration for the electrodes. For non-self-restoringinsulation ofequipment, the checkthat factor Pb((/) is reasonablysmall should be madeby meansof choppedwave withstand tesb carried out at a voltage level basedon the highest overvoltagewhich can be expectedin the systemand with a cut-of time chosenon the basisof the time-to-sparkover of the spark gap. Thesetestsare not laid down in IEC Publication71-1and, if necessary, shouldbe agreed upon between userand supplier.

-89-

APPENDX D
EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION Table III, page98, illustrates the choiceof the insulation level ofa pieceof equipment for caseI (seeClause25), protected against both switching and lightning overvoltagesby surgeanesters mounted at its terminals. Examole 1 refers to a 420 kV transformer and example2 to a 765 kY hansformer. The insulation levels of the transformers dependon the protective levels of surgearrestersagainst both swirching and lightning impulses(block 7 of Figure 12, page 119).The protective level of a particular surge arrester depends, in its turn, on its characteristicsand rating. The rating of surgearrestersin both examplesI and 2 is chosenas the available rating immediately above the temporary overvoltagesanticipated on the system (block 6). Temporary overvoltagesinclude voltage rise during faults, overvoltagesdue to inrush currents, suddenload rejection and other causes. The overvoltageto be expectedis influencedby the earth fault factor, systemconfiguration, the characteristics of systemequipment and operating practices(seeClause5). ' Table lV, page 101,showsthe choiceof the insulationlevel of a pieceof equipmentfor caseII with no surge anesterprotection or with remote surgearresterprotection.Example 1 refersto the line-to-earthinsulationof a 420 kV disconnecting switch on the line-side of the circuit-breaker, no surge arrestersbeing installed at the line entrance.Example 2 refers to a 765 kV disconnectingswitch at the samelocation. The rated switchingimpulsewithstandvoltageis selected frorn TableIV of IEC Publication71-l on the basisof the statistical switching overvoltagelevel at the equipment location and on the basis of an acceptablerisk of failure (blocks4 and 8 of Figure 12). For both examples, it is assumed that the only critical switchingovervoltages are thosedueto line ie-energization (i.e. it is necessary to check the risk of failure due to reclosingoprations only). By making useof the sirnplifiedstatisticalapproach(seeSub-clause 24.3)and choosingan appropriatestandard deviation,it is possible to determine the statistical safetyfactor y corresponding to the maximumadmissible risk of failure; from factor Z, it is possibleto derive the rninimum statistical switching impulse withstand yoltage and then to selectthe rated switching impulse withstand voltage immediately above, In the example,the correlation betweenrisk of failure and the statistical safety factor given in Figurc 7, pageI 13 (or : 8%) is used. Oncethe rated switchingimpulsewithstandvoltagehas beenobtained,a corresponding rated lightning impulse withstandvoltageis selected from the sameline of Table IV of IEC Publication71-1,considering that only the highestvalue ofrated lightning impulse withstand voltage should be usedfor apparatus not effectively protected by surgearresters (seeClause49 of IEC Publication71-1). It is then necessary to verify that this value guarantees satisfactoryperformanceunder atmosphericovervoltages, i.e. a risk of failure not higher than the permissibleone. This can be done in a similar way aspreviously for switching impulses @locks9 to 12in Figure 12), In the caseunderconsideration, an approximate distributionof the lightning overvoltages, at leastfor the case of disconnectingswitchesin the open position, may be evaluated quite sirrply on the basis of the line characteristics and of errpirical or semi-errpirical laws for wave attenuation. However,lightning overvoltagestresses vary from point to point in a substation.In general,it is thereforeextremely difficult and time-consuming to achievethe knowledge of stresses necessary to make use of the statistical or simplified statistical approach. Only the highest overvoltage stressesin the most common contingencies(most common position of circuitbreakers and disconnectors)are therefore evaluated.It is then verified that the rated lightning impulse withstand voltage selectedas stated above, starting from the rated switching impulse withstand voltage, exceeds the maximum

-91

credible atmospheric overvoltages by a suitable margin (: l0%). If a rated lightning impulse withstand voltage higher than that determined on the basis of Table IV of IEC Publication 7l-1 is desirable,the new value shall be from the seriesin Item b) of Clause46 of IEC Publication 7l-1. selected

In Table V, page 103, there is an evaluation of the increase of the risk of failure for a rated switching impulse withstand voltage lower than the selected value given in Table IV of IEC Publication 7l-1.

-93-

APPENDIX E
CLEARANCES IN AIR I BETWEEN LIVE CONDUCTTVE PARTS AND EARTHED STRUCTURES TO SECURE A SPECIFIED IMPULSE WITHSTAND VOLTAGE FOR DRY CONDITIONS In installations which, for various reasons,cannot be impulse tested,it is advisableto take steps to avoid flashover occurring below the impulse withstand level which has been specifiedfor the equipment under test. The condition to be fulfilled is that the statistical switching and lightning impulse withstand voltages in air between live parts and earth should be equal to the rated switchingand lightning impulsewithstandvjtage as specifled in IEC Publication71-1.This resultsin a minimum clearance to be observed which depends on the-configuration of the live parts and the nearby structures (electrodeconfiguration). No distanceis indicated for an equipmentwhich has an impulse test included in its specifcation sincecomputsory clearancesmight hamper the design of the equipment, increase its cost and impede progress. The impulse test, even when only a type test, is sufrcient to prove that the impulse withstand condition is fulfilled. Tables YI A and YI B, page 105,are suitable for generalapplication, providing as a first approximation a clearancto be specifiedin relation to the insulation level. In Table VI A, referencein made in the first column to the rated lightning impulse withstand voltage and in the secondcolumn to the air clearances for unfavourable confi.gurationsof live and earthed parts. In Table vI B, reference is made in the first two columnsto the valuesdefiningthe insulationlevels and i; the third andfourth columns to the air clearancesfor electrodeconfigurations of the "conductor-structure" type and .,rod-structure,, typc. The "rod-structure" conf.guration is the worst eleotrode configuration normally encounteredin practice; the "conductor-structure" configuration covers a large range of normally used configurations. In Tabie vI B. referenceis made to the electrodeconfiguration becauseof its notable influencefor u- > 245 kv. The values of air clearancesgiven in Tables YI are the minimum values dictated by electrical considerations, and do not include any addition for construction tolerances, effect of short circuits, wind effects and safetv of prsonnel, etc.
These values are valid for altitudes not exceeding I 000 m (3 300 ft).

r Thcse indications refer to a simple distance tbrough an air spac,without considf,atio! of the surfaoc sparkover voltage alo1g a le{kagc path of th idsulator relatd to the contarniEatioD Droblem.

-95-

T.q'Bu I Provisional scale of natural pollution levels

Pollution level

Environment

Performance of existing lines

No significant pollution

Areas without industries and with low density of houses equipped with heating plants; areas with low density of industries or housesbut subjectedto frequent winds and/ or rainfalls. All areas must be situated far from the sea or at a high altitude, and must not in any case be exposed to winds from the sea

No faults are observed in high humidity conditions (fog, mist, etc.) on 145 kV lines even when equippedwith lessthan 9-10insulators of the normal type 1, nor on 245 kV lines even when equipped with less than 15 such insulators

Light

Areas with industries not producing particularly polluting smokes and/or with average density of houses equipped with heating plants; areas with high density of houses and/or industries but subjected to frequent clean winds and/or rainfalls; areas exposed to winds from the seabut not too closeto the coast (at least about I km)

Faults occur in fog conditions on 145 kV lini:s with lessthan 9-10 insulators of the normal type t and on 245 kV lines equipped with Iessthan 15 such insulators

Heavy

Areas with high density of industries and suburbs of large cities with high density of heating plants producing pollution; areas close to the sea or in any case exposed to relativety strong winds from the sea

Faults occur in fog conditions, or when the wind blows from the sea, on H.V. Iines equippedwith normal-typeinsulatorsl,unless the number of units per string is exceptionally high: more than 11-12 units on 145 kV lines and more than 18 units on 245 kV Iines

Very heavy 3

Areas gbnerally of moderate extension, subjected to industrial smokes producing particularly thick conductive deposits; areas generally of moderate extension, very close to the coast and exposedto very strong and polluting winds from the sea

Faults occur in fog conditions or during saltstorms on H.V. Iines, even when equipped with antipollution-type insulators 2, unless the number of units per string is exceptionally high: more than 11-12 antipollution units on 145kV lines and more than 18 anti' pollution units on 245 kV lines

r Refereocc is made to norm4l-type insul4tors with the folowiDg charactedstics: spacing; 146 mm; diametgr, 255 rnm; arcepagediltaDce, 300 mtrL r TheJefero@ to adtipollution-tyP itrsulatoN is sorDewhatvague, due to the great variety of antipollution-typ insulators which ar iD srvice at the presnt tirne on H,V. liocs.

s Areasof moderal extersiodvery closto highways,whIea mixture ofsalt atrd bitumeo car!causesvcledepqsitson the insulators may b subjectd to a high pollutiotr lcwl.

-97 -

Lc.nI,r II Provisional relationbetween pollutionlevels, test levels and creepage distances

Type of test Salt fog method Creepagedistance/phaseto-earth voltage (cm/kV r.m.s.)

Pollution level

Solid layer method

Withstand salinity (ke/m3)

Layer conductivity

(ps)
5-10

No significantpollution

<5 to-20
40-80

2.0-2.s 3.0-3.5
4.0-5.0

Light pollution

r0-20 20-40
>50

Heavy pollution

Very heavy pollution

> 160

> 6

Notes 1. -

The valuesreportedin the table were established on the basisof normal cap-and-pininsulators.For other types of insulator and particularlyfor very largeinsulatorsin substations, the correlationwith thesetest methods,between testlivels and creepage distancesand serviceexperience,is not yet sufficient to give more deflnite indications. The creepagedistancesgiven in the table are those recommendedfor the various pollution levelsand do not necessarily agree with the creepage distancesderived from the third column of Table I, which refer to existing overheadlines whosebehaviour under power frequency voltage may or may not be satisfactory.

2. -

-99-

T,c,Br,nIII Choice of the insulation level of case I equipment (e.g. transformerprotected by surge qrresters)

Example I 1 ) Basic data Highest voltage for equipment U^(r.m.s.) Corresponding phase-to-earthvoltage - r.m.s.value

Example 2

KV kv kV (p.u.) KV kV (p.u.)

420 243 343 (1.00) 320 4s2 (r.32) 1.15 1.25

765 442 625 (1.00) 60s 855(1.37). 1.15 t.25

- peak vatue tJ^ft lvt

Determining temporary overvoltage (derived from systemstudies) - r.m.s.value - peak value Minimum safety factor - for switching overvoltages - for lightning overvoltages

2) Characteristics of surge arrester

Rated voltage (r.m.s.) Maximum switching impulse sparkover voltage Maximum lightning impulse sparkover voltage Maximum front-of-wave sparkover voltage Maximum residual voltage at rated dischargecurrent

KV kv KV KV kv

324 765 805 1010 735

612 230 400 660 400

3) Protection level
to switching impulses to lightning impulses1

kv (p.u.) kV (p.u.)

765 Q.23) 878 (2.s6)

I 230 (1.96) | 440 Q.30)

4) Insulation level (phase-to-earth ) Switching impulses: Minimum conventionalswitching impulse withstand voltage Rated switching impulse voltage Ratio of the rated switchingimpulsewithstand voltageto the switching impulse protection level Lightning impulses: Minimum conventionallightning impulse withstand voltage Rated lightning impulse withstand voltage Ratio of the rated lightning impulse withstand voltage to the lightning impulse protective level kV (p.u.) kV (p.u.)

kV (p.u.) kV (p.u.)

880 Q.66) 950 (2.77)

| 4rs (2.26) | 42s(2.28)

t.16

r.24 100(3.20) r1s (3.42) 1.33

I 800 (2.76) I 800 (2.87) t.25

I Maximum front'of-wave sparkover voltage divided by l.l5 (seeSub-clause l3.l).

-101 -

Tenlr

IV

Choice of the insulation level of case II equipment ( e.g. unprotecteddisconnectingswitch)

Example I

Example 2

Basic data Highest voltage for equipment U^ (r.m.s.) Correspondingphase-toearth voltage - r.m.s. value

I I | I I

w kV

420 245 343 (1.00) er0 (2.6s)

l0-3

765 442 625 (1.00) I 255 (2.0)

10-4

- peak varue u^lfr l\t

Statistical overvoltage at the equipment location (value exceededin 2l of cases only) due to reclosingoperations Maximum acceptedrisk of flashover to earth for reclosing operation

I
I I

kv 0.u.)
kV (p.u.)

Statistical safety factor 7 corresponding to the maximum accepted risk of failure (derivedfrom Figure 7, page 113)

1.13

1.24

Minimum statistical switching impulse withstand voltage

I 550

Rated switching impulse withstand voltage selected

I 550

Risk of flashovercorrespondingto the rated switching impulse withstand voltage selected

4.lo'4

Recommended rated lightning impulse withstand voltage to be with the rated switchingimpulse withstand voltage associated

kV (p.u.)

1 42s (4.1s) |

2 400 (3.84)

-103-

TAsrr V Risk of failure of inwlation as a function of the rated switchingimpulsewithstandvoltage of the equipment of TableIV

Example I

Example 2

Alternative a) Rated switching impulse withstand voltage (selectedvalue) Statistical safety factor Risk of failure corresponding to the above statistical safety factor

kV (p.u.)

I 050 (3.06) 1.16 4.10'4

l 550 (2.48) t.24 10-4

Alternative b) Rated switching impulse withstand voltage Statistical safety factor Risk of failure

kV (p.u.)

eso(2.76)
1.05 5.10-3

| 42s (2.28) 1.14 9.10-{

Alternative c) Rated switching impulse withstand voltage Statistical safety factor Risk of failure

l 300 (2.08) 1.04 6.10'8

-105-

T.q.BrrVI A Correlations between insulationlevels phase-to-earth minimum and air clearances

Rated lightning impulse withstand I Minimum phase-to-earth air voltage clearance I (kv) (-tn) |

7s

4 6

o 0

l l

o s

o o

rzs
r4s

e5

tzo
zto

I
I
I

zzo
EZO

too

2so
32s
4s0

t7o

I
|
|

+eo
q00

0ro

550 650

7so

| |

r roo r roo

r soo

T.q.Br,nVI B Correlations between insulation levels and minimum phase-to-earthair clearances

Impulse withstand voltages

Minimum phase-to-earth air clearance (m)

(kv)
Rated switching impulse withstand voltage

Rated lightning impulsewithstand voltage

Conductor-structure

(650) (650) 750 750 850 850 950 050 t75 300 42s 550

750 850 850 950 950 I 050 I 050; I 175 1 7 5 ;l 3 0 0 : 1 4 2 5 300; 1 425;1 550 425;1 550; 1 800

5 5 0 ;1 8 0 0 ;21 0 0
800; 1 95O;2400

1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.6 3.1 3.6 4.2 4.9

1.5 1.7 1.9 1.9 2.4 2.4 2.9 3.4 4.1 4.8 5.6 6.4

-106-

1 Fo (Ul 0,75

0,50 Fo(U'l
0,25

Fo(U'\

u (p.u.)
2t9176

Ftc. la. -

Surtensionsde mise sous tension de ligne. Line energization overvoltages.

0,75 Fo(U) 0,50

0,25
Fo(U) 0

Fo (U'l
Flc. lb. -

Surtensions apparaissant sur une chalne d'isolateurs suite d des coups de foudre sur Ie pyl6ne. Overvoltages across an insulator string due to lightning strokes to the tower.

(rt\ _ densit6de la probabilitd de surtension tro\v ) overvoltage probability density probabilitd (cumul6e) de surtension (rA _ 'Fo\v'' overvoltage (cumulative) probability

Ftc. 1. -

Surtensions. Overvoltages.

-107-

'Pt(J') Py"(U) ,f Py,(lJ) - f - - - - f - -./ --/

t t l I

l l t ' l l

T--T-t 1 l t t

--

- - - r - -t- - r t - !- - / -

, F l t

dPr(U) dtJ

ri

--r2ot

Ur io

Frcuns 2c

Flc. 2. -

i destensions Probabilit6de ddcharge de choc. disruptived'une isolationsoumise Probability of disruptivedischarge of insulationunder impulsevoltage.

-108-

t (m)

I
60

I I

il I
I \\ I

40

lr

\ ,\ \ t \ |' \ \ \
10,5 kV'

N v=
\

7), I
12kV

Tensi on nomi naldu e parafoudre Surge arrester rating

l \

I
36 kV

\-.._
r - - _ _

I \\, \ _ . _ _ {.=.

I
0 10 20 30

I
40

I
50 z(0)

_ impdanced'onde du cAble en ohms -, cable surge impedancein ohms _ longueur du cAbleen mdtres , L cable length in metres

Ftc. 3. -

Longueur de cAblemaximale admissibledans le cas d'un parafoudre i la jonction a6rosouterraine. Maximum permissible cable length with surge arrester of line/cable junction only.

-109-

'ro(r') :f: Pr(r')

F = .[ PrQ) .fou) du
0

ffiA

_ o "

aire hachuree shaded area

Ftc. 4. -

Evaluation du risque de d6faut d'une isolation. Evaluation of the risk of failure of a piece of insulation.

111

Us- Uw foU) fo(U)

Ua Uw Uw = 1,2Ug

Pr(Ul 140%

[1 - Pr(U)] 0%

fo(U\

PrUl 100%

U8 Uw Uw:1,4 U8
226176

U
227176

Frc. 5a. -

Us :

statistical overvoltage placed on the probability density curve (the shaded area (2%) represents the reference probability). statistical withstand voltage placed on the discharge probability curve OO% representsthe referenceprobability).

Frc. 5b. -

Three attempts at determining the risk of failure (arca A) for statistical safety factors. U* i t-z :T :l.o,1.2andl.4 g

Uw :

Rz
F3 Frc. 5c. Relation between the statistical safety factor y and the risk of failure R (measuredby area A).

---t--I

- - - b - - l

f t

l l

y1

y2

Ys

v
228176

Ftc. 5. -

Simplified statisticalmethod.

-ttz-

R I 5 2 10-l 5 2 10'2 5 2 10-3 5 2 10-4 5 2 10-s 5 2 10-6 5 2 10'7 5 ds:10% 2 10-8 5 2 10-e -tronqu6e i Distribution ^ o 6" truncatedat Distribution i Distribution tronqu6e o 6s * Distribution truncatedat nontronqu6e Distribution Distributionnot truncated

\ \

$i..

N
p p e i n f 6 rarrr) Envelc i - Lower e n v e l o p e

NN\*'\.
'\ \.\ ./
p p es u p 6 neure Envelo U p p e re n v e l o p e

N\.'i'

,\N\\
\\\ \ \

\\N,tl'\\x"
d\r
\'

6s:20%

lo" .N...t \

:15%

\i\ ?

N\

\\'l \ \
\ \

tN

\ \ \.\- \ t \tt
t \tt

\
I

\ \

t\\
\\
1'4

tI
\r

''

\r

\r
1'6 1r7 Y
229 I 76

0,7

0,9

111

112

1,3

1,5

d, : 10, 15 et20/" Ecart type de la distribution des surtensions Ecart type de I'isolation or : 6Y Standarddeviation of overvoltagedistribution o, : 10, 15 and 2OY" Standarddeviation of insulation oT : 6y

Flc. 6. -

(y) pour diverses distristatistique de s6curite Corr6lations entrele risquede d6faut(R) et le coefficient butionsde surtensions de manceuvre.
Correlations between risk of failure (R) and statistical safety factor (7) for various switching surge distributions.

1 1 3_ _

10-1

10-2

\ \
10-3 -En

-Iur rp8l el| uelope

\
10-4

veloppr l sup6r teure

v l

N
Envr l l o p p ei nf6rieui .) Lower enveope

10-5

\ \\ \\ \' \

\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \

10-6

\ \ \ \ \

10-7

10-8 5 2 10-e

0,7

0,9

0,9

1,1

1,2

1,3

1,4

1,5

1,6 y
23t176

87o Standard deviation of insulation 6T : 8y

Ecart type de I'isolation or :

FIc. 7. -

Corr6lations entre le risque de ddfaut (.R) et le coefrcient de sdcuritdstatistique(y) pour diversesdistributions de surtensionsde maneuvre. Correlations between risk of failure (.R) and statistical safety factor (y) for various switching surge distributions.

-Ir4-

R 1

10-1

10-2

\ \

'eloppe Ent sup6rieure

10-3

fuo,
\.

perenvelope

10'4

Envel o p p e i nf6rieurr )pe Lower envell

\. \ \ \ \\ \ \ \

10-5

10{

10-7

10-8 5 2 10-e

0,7

1'1

1,2

1,3

114

1,5

1,6 y 232176

Ecart type de I'isolation 6r : lOYo Standarddeviation of insulation 6r :

l0y

Frc. 8. -

Corr6lations entre le risque de dfaut (.R)et le coefrcient de s6curit6statistique (7) pour diversesdistride mancuvre. butionsde surlensions Correlations between risk of failure (R) and statistical safety factor (7) for various switching surge distributions.

-115-

R 1 5 l -

10-1 5

\ \ \ \

o":60%7
\ \

10'2 5

10'3 5

1
\\

oa:40%
10-4 5

A
1r2 1,3 .y
2t3176

10'5

0,5

0,6

0F

0,9

0,9

1,0

1,1

Ecart type de I'isolation oT : 3oA Ecart type de la distribution des surtensions d, : {Q et 60% Standarddeviation of insulation or : 3y Standard deviation of overvoltage distribution o" : 4O and ffiY"

FIc. 9. -

Correlations entre le risque de dfaut (X) et le coefrcient de sdcurit6 statistique(/) pour diversesdistributions de surtensions de foudre. Correlations between risk of failure (R) and statistical safety factor (y) for various lightning surge distributions.

-116-

R 1 5

10'1 5

\ \ \ \

o":UO%7
\ \ .{ \\
6e:40%

10-2 5

10-3 5

/\

10-4 5

10-5

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,9

0,9

1,0

1,1

1,2

1,3

y
234176

Ecart type de I'isolation 6r : 57o Ecart type de la distribution des surtensions 6" : {Q et 60% Standarddeviation of insulation 6T : 5yo Standard deviation of overvoltagedistribution o" : 40 and 607"

FIc. 10. -

Corrdlations entre le risque de d6faut (R) et le coefrcient de s6curit6statistique (7) pour diversesdistributionsde suriensions de foudre. Conelations between risk of failure (R) and statistical safety factor (7) for various lightning surge distributions.

-tt7-

R 1 5

10-1 5

\ \ \ \
.d8 = 60%_7

10-2 5

\ \ \ \ ( /

10-3 5

os:40%
10-4 5

t \
y

10-5 0,5 .0,6 0,7 0,g 0,9 1,0 1r1 7r2 1,3

Ecart type de I'isolation or : 7 7o Ecart type de Ia distribution des surtensions o, - 40 et 600/" Standard deviation of insulation oT : 7 y Standard deviation of overvoltagedistribution o, : 4O and @7.

FIc. 11. -

Corrdlations entre le risque de difaut (.R) et le coefrcient de s6curit6statistique (7) pour diversesdistributions de surtensionsde foudre. Correlations between risk of failure (R) and statistical safety factor (y) for various lightning surge distributions.

-='{*b

1 1 9-

Operating voltage under normal conditlons

Characteristlcs of the system

Calculatlon of temporary overvoltages

Introduction of means to reduce temporary or g overvoltages switchin

Calculation of switching overvoltages

Selection of surge arresterg rated-voltage

Insulationdesign as regards operating voltagesand temporary overvoltages

Selectlon of rated lightnlng and switchlngwithstand impulsevoltage of case I apparatus Introduction of meansto reduce llghtning overvoltages

Selectlon of rated and switchingwithstand impulsevoltage of case ll apparatus

Lightning overvoltage characteristics

Lineinsulation level, n u mb e r of earthwires sparkgaps at the line-entrance

Calculatlon of lightning overvoltages

Selectlon of rated lightningwithstand impulsevoltage of case ll apparatus

Flc. 12. -

Block-diagram of insulation co-ordination and design.

-r20-

"--ll--Ct Uo - sUl
237176

Frc. l3a, -

Transformateur repr6sent6par un diviseur de tension capacitif. Transformer as a capacitive voltage divider.

Frc. 13b. -

Circuit dquivalent pour capacitive.

la

transmission

Equivalent circuit of capacitancetransmission.

-ll-l
U o:sul : sUl

tl

t +

l cg
Uo=

239176

Frc. l3c. -

R6seauextdrieur de capacit6 C". External system having capacitanceC..

Frc. l3d. -

Rdseauextdrieur de rdsistanceR. External system having resistanceR.

Frc. 13. -

Pointeinitiale de tensioncapacitive. voltagespike. Initial capacitive

-t2t-

Cas Case

Couplagc du ttansformcteur Transformer connecuorul

Choc sur une phase sculement Surge on one phase only gr": g Us: l, U":

Chocs dc polarit6s oppos6cs sur 2 phascs Surgcs ofopposite polarity on 2 phases -1, Uc: 0 Us: l, Us:

No No.

Enroulement haute tension Higher.voltage winding

Enroulemcnt basse tension Lower-voltagc winding

Tertiaire Tcrtiary

Enroulement haute tension Higher-voltage winding

Enroulement basse tension Lower-voltagc winding

Enroulemont hautc tension Higher-voltage winding

Enroulemcnt basse tension Lower-voltagc winding

Y(e)

y (e)

(- v)
t

Y(e)

v (i)

(-, y)

x,
)1,
\-tr
0

,'tla
-1ls

,'f-,
)[0

Y(e)

(-, y, O

'<?

-(

-1/3

l-

-l

tr
2

.v.
2

r(t)

y (e, i)

(-, Y, d)

.4.

I 0

v(r)
Y(f)

$r
d (-' Y, d)
0

t
,4.
0

.,'/rr-+1"/, '(i "uru ''

( lve -)-,tvi
s * -1lVs

A ,lvr<'_l;
o + - 1

z (e, i)

(-, y, O

,lv'
-, lv'
rl/;$-nlr'

)(,

y (e, i)

(-, Y, d)

(-, y, O

<' -''<:;
Valeursdu facteurr. Valuesof factor r.

x'u_

I lVa

.<:,
21r176

Ftc. 14. -

-t22-

Pt (%, 100

1-Pt

(%,
0

d" I'appareil de r6f6rence 'o,(,,, r\v' piece of equipment for the reference

Probabilit6 de r6f6rence. probabllity Reference 90 100

nominaleaux chocs URw : tensionde tenue ratedimpulsewithstandvoltage K en p.u. de o1 K in p.u. of o1
212176

Ut n-

Unw

Ftc. 15. -

D6f,nition de la tenue di6lectrique d'un appareil d I'instant t a I'aide du paramdtre K. Definition of the insulation strength of a piece of equipment at the time I as function of the parameter K.

-r23-

Tension tenuenominaleau choc Rated impulse withEtandvoltage

dpl: [A;+4

243 176

a) Distribution de la tenue didlectrique (90%) des appareils de

Ia population p. b) Distribution des diff6ren@s entre Ia tenue di6lectrique 90% d'un appareil donn6 mesur6e dans diff6rents laboratoires et la tenue di6lectrique reelle.
c) Distribution

aJ Distribution of the 90[withstand of population p.

voltage of the apparatus

D/ Distribution of the difference between the 90Yo withstand voltage of a given apparatus measuredin various laboratories and the actual one. c/ Distribution of the90% withstand voltage of any apparatus of population p in various laboratories.

de la tenue dilectrique 901l d'un appareil quelconque de la population p dans divers laboratoires.

Frc. 16. -

Densit6 de frdquence de la tenue didlectrique (90%) mesur6ed'une population d'appareils. Frequency density of the measured 90oh withstand strength of a population of apparatus.

-124-

0,8 I I ,f 0,,

,r'ift=:'=
a a

i/ t'

/ .m,u T

a a

i/ t'
/'

a a

o'5

ilt

,,/
Essaiid6al ldeal test

att'

/
-0'8
-O'6 {'4'

a2

4'2

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

K en p.u. de o1 K in p.u. of o1 241176

essai par mont6es et descentes30 chocs (article 52 de la Publication 71-1 de la CEI) 2 - essai15/2(article 53 de la Publication 71-1de la CEI)
l -

1 - up and down test 30 impulses(Clause52 of IEC Publication 7l-l) , , _ 15/2 test (Clause53 of IEC Publication 71-1)

3 - essai3/0 (article 54 de la Publication 7l'l de la CEI)

{ 4 - essar 5/l + 10/0 I . 5lO (article 27d) de la Publication 71 de Ia cEI, quatridme6dition)

3 4 -

3/0 test (Clause54 of IEC Publication 71-1) test (Clause 27d) of IEC Publication 71, I SIO fourth edition) I 5/1 + 10i0

Frc. 17. -

Probabilitdpour un mat6rielde r6ussird diff6rentstypes d'essaien fonction de ses caractdristiques d'isolation. Probability of an equipmentto pass the different types of tests as a function of its insulating characteristics.

C o u r b eo Curve

K en p.u. de o1 K in p.u. of o1
24s176

FIc. 18. -

Probabili6 Pt d'dchouer d I'essai(aire A + B). Risque du constructeur R* (aire ,,4). Risque du client Ro (aire C). Probability Pt of test failure (area A + B). Manufacturer's risk R- (arca A). Customer's risk R" (area C).

-t26-

Rc

( oP: t%

o t: 5 %
- a%

F'z

\ot

( oP: +%

1
10-1

ot:o%

( ot :6%

u t.li
f

10-2

/
10 2/

/ /

I I )
. , J

I t I

/ /
10-4

I ,

r
f\

tI

3
10-5
t

I
I 2 I
I
I

F
,
, I ,
I

10

, 1i
10'7'
a

!a
t

10{
10-5 10-4

10

10{

t0-1

1 P g 26176

I : essaide dchargedisruptive 50f 2 : essai15/2 3 : essai3/0

| : Z : 3 :

507. dischargetest l5l2 test 3/0 test

It

Frc. 19. -

Risquedu client en fonction de la probabilit6d'6checi I'essai(Pt). risk as a function of probabilityPt to fail the test. Customer's

F 4

* ' qf

-127-

Fc

____ t
t
dt :5ol ot :6%

dP:4%

6P:4%

--10-l

Cr: t0%

ot :6%

/
f

10-2 21

.t

r
/
I
f

,
a

/
10
1

l /
,t

/
10-4

a l

,J l

tl

/
3l
a

/
10-5

.L /

1""
I

2
I
I

10

1t l 10-7

I I

!s
I

10-8

10-5

104

1O-3

lo-2

10.1

1 tr?m
247176

I : essaide dechargedisruptive 50f 2:essail5/2 3 : essai3/0

| : 507, dischargetest 2:lll2tast 3 : 3/0 test

Ftc. 20. -

Risque du client R" en fonction du risque du constructeur Rm. Customer's risk R" as a function of manufacturer's risk Ro,.