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Copyright 1999, ditions Technip
668
Oil & Gas Science and Technology Rev. IFP, Vol. 54 (1999), No. 6
A hydromechanical approach is then proposed in addition to conventional methods. At any depth, the
upper bound fluid pressure is controlled by in situ conditions related to hydrofracturing or fault reactivation. Fluid-driven fracturing implies an episodically open system, under a close to zero minimum
effective stress regime. Sound knowledge of present-day tectonic stress regimes allows a direct estimation
of minimum stress evolution. A quantitative fluid pressure assessment at depth is therefore possible, as in
undrained or/and compartmented geological systems, pressure regimes, whatever their origin, tend to
rapidly reach a value close to the minimum principal stress. Therefore, overpressure assessment will be
improved, as this methodology can be applied to various geological settings and situations where
present-day overpressures originated from other causal mechanisms, very often combined.
However, pressure trends in transition zones are more difficult to assess correctly. Additional research on
cap rocks and fault seals is therefore required to improve their predictability. In addition to overpressure
assessment, the minimum principal stress concept allows a better understanding of petroleum system, as
fault-related hydrocarbon dynamic transfers, hydrofractured domains and cap-rock sealing efficiency depend on the subtle interaction, through time, between overpressure and minimum principal stress regimes.
Keywords: overpressure, minimum stress, hydrofracturing, fault transfer, mechanical properties.
INTRODUCTION
The study of overpressures in petroleum exploration started
in 1970 in offshore Gulf Coast areas. Some conventional
methods, essentially based on empirical porosity versus
effective vertical stress relationships, have been applied
worldwide with some success, in sand-shale Tertiary basins
whenever compaction disequilibrium was the main causal
mechanism. The failure of some pressure predictions, and the
recent evolution of petroleum exploration towards deeper
targets in tectonically complex basins (North Sea for
instance), and in frontier areas (deep offshore areas), led us to
review overpressure assessment and to propose some
complementary approaches, to be used in addition to
(Chaney, 1950)
(Hedberg, 1974)
Ke
Th
e
se
por.
1
2
3
(Finch, 1969)
(Berry, 1973)
(Hubbert and
Rubbey,1959)
y
rs
O
es
Dyna
Ar
mical transfers
Fau
lt o p
e n an
hyd
d R eser voir
ofra
cturi
overng
f ra H y d r
charging
ctu aulic
re r
egim
v increase
e
= porosity
= maximum principal stress
= intermediate principal stress
= minimum principal stresss
Figure 1
Main overpressure causal mechanisms (Grauls, 1997).
es
d
ac
er
r
ec
-d
r.
Po
ea
ck
ss
he
ls
ui
-r o
ns
Compression
Os
al
Later
w
o
l
f
up dip
flow
D a rcy
s
mo
ef ia n
fe
Bu
ct
oy a n
c
rm
al
expa
nsi
on
Aquath
e
ica
OVE
RPR E S S U R E S
tr e
Fl
i nt
tio
in
se
tra
= 3
ea
ls
v fault sv
ra
tte
rus
Th
Che m
Clay
sis
diagene
se
(Master, 1979)
(Foster, 1980)
s
se
CAUSES OF
v i n c r e a
(Powers, 1967)
(Burst, 1969)
(Dickinson, 1953)
(Terzaghi and Peck, 1968)
in
Com
cre
disequpilaibction
as
rium
ep
or.
v =
de
1
Normal-f
ault
cr
S tr
ike v = La
-sl
i
p- 2
Mech
fau
anic
al
str
es
lt
racking
se
Oil c
(Meissner, 1976)
rea
g
tion
n
i
inc
genera
ck
(Du Rouchet, 1981) V
gas
cra
tion
en
a
r
g
e
ro
en
es
il g
e ss
s tr
al
rm
(Barker, 1972)
is
(Jones, 1968)
(Gussow, 1938)
669
1
Shale
porosity
Pressures
Down up
S'v (A)
A
Onset
undercompacted
shales
Sv
S'v (B)
Shale prone
Sandprone
Fault
Pf
Figure 2
General principles of conventional methodologies applied to quantify the overpressures related to compaction disequilibrium phenomena.
This approach is based on porosity versus vertical effective stress relationship: the fluid pressure (Pf) at depth B can be assessed knowing the
vertical effective stress (S'v) at depth A, as the porosities in A and B are equivalent.
670
Oil & Gas Science and Technology Rev. IFP, Vol. 54 (1999), No. 6
1.6 Summary
Compaction disequilibrium is likely the most important
causal mechanism for overpressure development in recent,
vertical-stress dominated, sand-shale sedimentary basins. All
present-day Tertiary basins, that have developed worldwide
in deltaic environments (Niger, Mississippi, Nile, Mahakam
Deltas), or in offshore passive margins (West African, North
and South American margins for instance) are therefore
concerned. In these specific contexts, the conventional
approaches developed in United States Gulf Coast since 1968
continue to be applied with some success. However, important limitations must be emphasized. These are related to:
mechanical assumptions (vertical stress dominated context,
oedometric lateral boundary conditions);
the irreversibility of sediment compaction process;
the complex basin histories (major unconformities, uplifts,
stress regime changes);
the existence of additional causal mechanisms (lateral
stresses, thermal effect, dynamic transfers, etc.);
the existence of several causes combined together in the
same geological area, making the global present-day
abnormal pressure regime very difficult to assess.
2 AN APPROACH BASED ON LEAST PRINCIPAL
STRESS
Taking into account the above-mentioned limitations, a new
approach is proposed as a complement to conventional
methods. General observations made worldwide in various
HP contexts below 3000 m showed that the upper limit of
abnormal pressures, whatever their causal mechanisms,
seems to be controlled by a critical threshold Pc, such as:
0.75*Sv < Pc < 0.95*Sv, where Sv corresponds to the vertical
total stress. What does this threshold imply? Which
hanical prope
mec
r tie
,T
ck (, C0 )
s
o
R
pr
e
(P s s ure
)
tr e
ui
s
ic )
tor 3
D evia ( 1-
Rock
hydro-fracturing
or
fracture
reactivation
ss
Fl
= tg = friction coefficient
( = angle of friction)
T = rock tensile strength
C0 = rock cohesion
1 = maximum principal stress
3 = minimum principal stress
Hard
rocks
Shear
stress
1
Tensile
failure
C0
Soft rocks
Shear
failure
Mode
I
2
Pf increase
Initial
hydrostatic
regime
-T0
- S3
a
671
+S'3 S'1
S'1
Normal
effective stress
Mode
I/II
-S'3 + S'3
b
Mode
II
Pf increase
Initial
hydrostatic
Normal
regime
effective stress
Influence of deviatoric stress
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Oil & Gas Science and Technology Rev. IFP, Vol. 54 (1999), No. 6
20
Pressure (MPa)
40
60
80
500
120
1000
1500
Depth (meters)
100
Stress
2000
Vertical stress
2500
3000
3500
4000
Normal
pressure
regime
Minimum
principal
4500
5000
160
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
Figure 4
Figure 5
regimes at depth, should allow a better quantitative assessment of the contribution of lateral strain.
3.2 Hydrocarbon Generation
Thermal expansion of kerogen (Du Rouchet, 1978; Meissner,
1981; Spencer, 1987), or secondary cracking of oil at higher
temperatures (Osborne and Swarbrick, 1997) have been
mentioned as possible causes of abnormal pressure regimes
in sedimentary basins. The pressure anomaly is frequently
associated with microfracturing, indicating that the
hydrofracturing threshold has been reached. This causal
mechanism is illustrated in case studies from the Williston
basin, and from offshore Angola.
3.2.1 Williston Basin - North Dakota
East
West
Jurassic
L-M
Mississippian
Devonian
Onset
maturity
90-120C
Bakken shales
Source rocks
Overpressure
10
12
14
Sil. Dev.
Cell
S3 (type I)
Figure 6
0.47 psi/ft
0.46
0.46
0.73 psi/ft
0.47
Hydrofractured
Bakken shales
0.46
C. Ord.
Cretaceous-Tertiary
2
4
6
8
Formation fluid pressure ( 103 psi)
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Oil & Gas Science and Technology Rev. IFP, Vol. 54 (1999), No. 6
50
100
Pressure (kg/cm2)
200 300 400 500 600
Pf = fluid pressure
S3 = minimum stress
S1 = vertical stress
RFT or test
Normal compaction
reference
Normally
compacted
Mio-Pliocene
interval
1000
700
NC
Depth (m)
Onset of undercompaction
Slightly
undercompacted
Oligocene
interval
2000
UC
S3
P
Paleocene unconformity
Sand lenses
S1
Late Cretaceous
Source rock
SR
T = 130C
R0 = 0.75
Oil
bearing
Early Cretaceous
limestones
3000
TD
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
2 g/cm3 EMW
Figure 7
Hydrocarbon generation from Late Cretaceous source rocks in offshore Angola. The abnormal pressure gradient of 1.64 g/cm3 EMW,
especially localized within the source rock interval at 2500 m depth, well agrees with the S3 value, expected in type I vertical stress
dominated context. The 130C temperature and the 0.75% maturity values confirm that the present-day hydrocarbon system is at peak oil
generation.
P
Sv = vertical stress
S3 = minimum stress
PN = normal hydrostatic
pressure trend
P = pressure evolution
Sand
dominated
domain
Sv
At well location
Depth
S3
Shale
dominated
domain
675
Overcharging
Transition
zone
P
PN
P > S3
HP openfractured domain
Figure 8
Example from South China Sea: abnormal pressure regimes related to strike-slip fault tectonics, deep hydrofractured domain and to the
charging of the above undrained reservoir level, are controlled at depth by in situ minimum stress. Close to zero minimum effective stress
(S3 P = 0) conditions allow transient fault and fracture related vertical transfers and charging of the reservoir.
676
Oil & Gas Science and Technology Rev. IFP, Vol. 54 (1999), No. 6
Well
Tertiary
undercompacted
shales
sand
Cretaceous
LP
Shaly
caprock
Oil
water
S3
Depth
Stress
Sv
Palaeocene . .
. . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . .
.. . . .. . . . . .. . . .
P S3
"Open"
fault
Top
reservoir
Transition
zone
P S3
Jurassic
compartmented
pressure cell
Figure 9
Example from North Sea: abnormal pressures through undercompacted Tertiary section, open fault zone and at top of reservoir compartment
are controlled by the minimum stress regime. Leakage (LP) and fault transient behaviour are dependent on in situ minimum effective stress
(S3 P), and account well for vertical hydrocarbon migration from structural highs to Palaeocene sands.
As shown on the left hand side of Figure 9, a typical crosssection in central North Sea area allows three main intervals
to be successively identified, from top to bottom:
A shalymost dominated Tertiary section, where maximum thickness reaches 3000 m and compaction disequilibrium applies. Maximum pressure gradients, close to
1.55 g/cm3 EMW are encountered at 2000-2500 m depth.
The Palaeocene sands act as regional drain and cause the
pressure regime to kick back to subhydrostatic regime.
A normally compacted Cretaceous section down to 45005000 m, composed of shales and chalk, where the pressure
regime is usually hydrostatic.
A Pre-Cretaceous section composed by Jurassic and
Triassic overpressured reservoirs overlain by Late Jurassic
and lower Cretaceous shaly cap-rocks.
The present-day pressure regime in the Jurassic play is
essentially due to the high compartimenting of reservoir due
to faulting and to rapid burial during Neogene times. In such
a closed system, the pressure increased to a maximum value
corresponding to the leakage pressure in the highest
structural-point pressure cell. Such a value, close to the
in situ minimum stress, cannot be accounted for by conventional approaches. The geometry of the compartmented
structure conditions the type of leakage. Tilted block
geometry favors preferential leakage along the fault. In that
case, excess fluid pressure can contribute to the propagation
P S3
P S3
P S3
P S3
VTZ
Cap rock
Reservoir
VTZ
HP
HTZ
NP
Figure 10
Sketch showing lateral transition domain linked to semi-open
faulted compartments and vertical transition domains induced
by hydraulic fracturing leakage through cap-rock.
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Oil & Gas Science and Technology Rev. IFP, Vol. 54 (1999), No. 6