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Introduction
This directed reading will provide medical radiation technol-
* Corresponding author: Amanda Bolderston, MRT, FCAMRT, MSc,
British Columbia Cancer Agency, Fraser Valley Centre, 13750 96th Avenue,
ogists (MRTs) with the knowledge needed to conduct a suc-
Surrey, BC, Canada V3V 1Z2. cessful research interview. This would be useful for
E-mail address: amanda.bolderston@bccancer.bc.ca (A. Bolderston). undergraduate or graduate students or any MRT who wishes
1939-8654/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi: 10.1016/j.jmir.2011.12.002
to take the first steps in the field of qualitative research. Inter- The choice of approach depends on the question to be
views are a common method used to elicit qualitative data and answered and the purpose of the research. If the researcher is in-
provide insight into people’s behavior and the meaning they terested in what it is like for the participants to experience a cer-
ascribe to that behavior. In health care, interviews can be tain phenomena, and what the experience means to them,
used for examining people’s experiences of their illness and qualitative research is frequently the best available method
of the health services they receive or to look at health care [7]. Qualitative research can often be exploratory and inductive
practitioners’ needs and attitudes to their work [1]. There in nature, and is ideal when there is little known about a partic-
are several types of interviews, including newer approaches ular subject or issue. It can thus be used to build the foundation
such as focus groups and web-based interviewing. These will for further focused and deductive quantitative research [5].
be described, as will the fundamental steps involved in plan-
ning, conducting, and analyzing single or multiple interviews.
Qualitative Research Approaches
Figure 2. Managing focus groups [19]. There may be lower response rates for phone interviews
if the phone call was unsolicited and unexpected. With
established procedures for recruiting willing participants,
session can help; for example, to ask participants not to response rates are usually similar to (or higher than) other
interrupt when someone else is speaking, to respect all forms of interview [14].
opinions as valid and to keep discussions confidential As with a face-to-face interview, a private space with
when the group is over. minimal background noise and distraction is important,
especially if a speakerphone is used. If the interview is
2. Telephone Interviews to be taped, permission must be first sought from the par-
ticipant. If the researcher is taking notes, the participant
Remote interviews (such as phone, e-mail, or internet) allow
should be aware of this so that they are prepared for
participants to be interviewed in a familiar environment, which
possible pauses in the conversation [15].
may allow them to be more comfortable expressing their
Because there is no visual contact with the participant, the
opinions [17]. Phone interviews have a number of advantages
researcher should confirm that he or she is talking to the
compared to face-to-face interviews and have been found to
right person before the interview begins.
be an efficient and reliable form of collecting data [14, 15].
As a rule, phone interviews should be fairly short: after
They can also be a convenient and cost-effective way of talking
30 minutes or so fatigue or inattention may impact the
to people who are geographically dispersed. Indeed, it has been
quality of the data. Longer interviews may be better
estimated that using the phone can reduce research costs by
suited to the face-to-face format [28].
50% to 75% [27].
When conducting phone interviews, the interviewer
De Vaus [28] recommends the use of phone interviews
needs to have good verbal communication skills to estab-
because they are less subject to the issue of reactivity, because
lish rapport, encourage responses with strong probes, and
interviewees express opinions that they deem socially accept-
keep the interview on track. In particular, Wilson [29]
able rather than their actual beliefs. In fact, some authors
suggests that interviewers make use of publications
have suggested that anonymous telephone interviews may en-
developed for nurses undertaking telephone work with
able participants to be more honest [17] or allow a richer dis-
patients. To minimize the tendency to keep the conversa-
cussion or discuss potentially embarrassing topics [16]. Phone
tion short and task focused, the interviewer should be
interviews also minimize the impact of the interviewer’s gen-
explicit about the expectations from the beginning. Also
der, race, and classdall characteristics that have been shown
checking that it is a good time to talk and letting the
to alter the interviewee’s responses [14, 29]. This distancing
participant know approximately how long the process
affect afforded by the phone has been dubbed ‘‘pseudanonym-
will take often encourages more interaction [14].
ity’’ and may also affect internet or e-mail interviewing [29].
There are some inherent challenges in using phone inter-
3. E-mail or Internet Interviews
views. Conversations can sometimes be less smooth-flowing
than face-to-face interviews; one reason is that nonverbal cues The internet is an increasingly popular method of gather-
or prompts (such as nodding or smiling to encourage the ing qualitative data, using tools such as semistructured online
Bias (reflectivity): remember that researchers can share Kitzinger J. Qualitative research: Introducing focus groups. BMJ. 1995; 311
:(7000): 299 - 302
their own bias or perspectives and how they feel this Books:
may have shaped their interpretation of the data. King N, Horrocks C. Interviews in Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage publications; 2010.
Negative case analysis: consider that the researcher will Patton M Q. Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods, 3rd ed. Thousand
deliberately look for contrasting experiences/examples to Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2001.
disprove emerging theories. Seidman I. Interviewing As Qualitative Research: A Guide for Researchers in
Education and the Social Sciences. New York, Teacher’s College Press;
External auditing: consider including an independent 2006.
review of the themes by research team members or a re- Miles MB, Huberman AM. Qualitative data analysis. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks,
California. Sage. 1994
view of themes by peer(s) not involved in the research
Online:
to provide a more objective assessment of the process International Training and Education Centre for Health (2009). Technical
and results [7, 36–38]. Implementation Guide. Qualitative Interviews and Organizing and Conducting
Focus Groups
Available at
Reliability indicates that the research approach is consistent http://www.go2itech.org/resources/technical-implementation-guides
and well documented; for example, would another researcher United States Agency for International Development’s Center for
following the same approach come up with similar results Development Information and Evaluation. (1996). Conducting Key Informant
Interviews. (Performance Monitoring and Evaluation TIPS) Available at
[38]? Procedures to ensure reliability can include the following. http://www.usaid.gov/pubs/usaid_eval/pdf_docs/pnabs541.pdf