Ce document est mis à disposition selon les termes de la licence

Creative Commons “Attribution – Partage dans les mêmes conditions

4.0 International”. https://www.immae.eu/cours/

• "

• # "

• " $
• # " $

%
→
−
%# & ' + & =# ( ) *
←

+ ,
−
* # → +
−
+ + + →# +
- * " !
$ + # + + = + + # +

−
+ & →#

. / ,
+'0 1 2 0+1 3 '+1 ,
, !! " &

! ,

% * ! 4
% * !$ 4
-, , ( , &
 -, , * ) , *
4 0 + −δ → + δ 1 !

+ ' *$ ,

, * , 4 , * !! *
' *$ , 2 * ) *
1 0+( +( ( 5
' *$ , 2 1 ∈
& 10 03 2 6
7
& 1 2 76
& 1 * * * α .β
α× & 1 + β × & 1. =
( & 10 * 26
& 1 * 2766
* 8 97 1 *
& 18 3 9 & 1 276& & 1 2 766& & 18 2 :66

' *$ , ,;

⇔ * *$ ,
# ⇔ * *$ ,

*
<
+7 3
+ = %
• + & 1 + =
+7
3 = & 1 2766& & 1 + =
+7
23:6&
• '1 3
2 3666
<
+7 7 3
+ = 3 > 3 90 2 + 3 3 + 0+
' *$ , 2 ? & @ *$ , ,

+ ,

) $ , α &'0 + β & + = '+ + 0+

∆ & 1 × *$ A B A =
*

+
 α &'0 + β& + = '+ + 0+
' 7666
766
0 36 36

∆ & 1' × α + ∆ & 1 × + β + 1∆ & 10 × α =

= = −+ =

⇔ α − 9β =
→α = 9 β=
→ 9 '0 + + = +' + + >0 +

*
" ,
&

- , 4 ( * !!
2 ( :
- , 4 ( $ 4
, 4 4 , ; &

, , 4 &
 + 6

• - * 4 ⇔ 4 ⇔
++
2 1 ++ − →
• - * ; 4 ⇔ ⇔
, 2 1 C → C ++ + + −
• - 6 C +3 4 +3
&
+7 +3
* 9 4 (
7 +3
4 C &
• $
++ ++
C 1 + →C + 1
++ − + − ++
C 1 C ( * &- D ( ( * &-− 1

. , ,
E * ) " E1 '0

0 3%0+ 1 03%0+ 0+ %0+

3
+0 3 + 7 2 0+1 3 +0+

1 + = $

1 1 F G

+
'0 0 +1 ( 0+ = $ 0 ( * &-−
4 ( '0 2 ( :1 *

%# % , % , , %#
2H! * , '0
!* ) %#

%# 2 3 !* I , %# 1$ 3
%# 2 J !* K , %# , 1$ J

9
 M * '
" <
α + + &&& + β 0
− +
= γ# + &&&

α + β
1 × &&& × 10
= 1 +
1# γ
%#

%# 1

%# 1 % )N
7 7
2 5( 9O&D &*
* D
*$ ,
7
M 2 2 P>95L &*

M * * !
2 +LQ 2 +P5( LD
α + β
1 × &&& × 10
= 1+P5( L + ×
1# γ
%# %#

= ( LPL : ) +P5( LD
α + β
1 × &&& × 10
= 1+P5( L + ( LPL ×
1# γ
%# %#

. !! ,
"
"

• -, & -,
&
• - * 4 ,
, ;
3 3
* % 0 %0+

+ +"* "

-, 4 , ! $
&
* * 1

L
 1D =R = + [ ] = [D ] = − +

7
0 + +1 %0 3 0 + +1 3 + 7 2 +0 1 3+ 7

( >
= 0 %0 + − = 0 %0 + − + − +
+ +1 + +1
+ T S
= 0 %0 + − + ( = (+95: ) +L°
+ +1

"*
"

- *
+
TM S
, & * M 3
%M +3
M +
%M ++ = (==: + ( > ++
TM S
1 +P5( L D
M + %M ++

- ! * , * !*
' ,
1 !$ &

! "

* %# ( +%# + , 4
3# + 2# 3 + U

M * 4 ) ,

> &
+
7
< %# $ 3 3 V# &
7
< +%# + $ J # +V +3 + &
$ 3# + V + 3# &
-, 4 4
* 4&

>
 - $ ( **
α
( > 1
= + β
1#
* $
1 =

* $ & *W* ( + * $ &

N > +( $ &- = + ( , X
) , $ * &

. $ ,
, $ * ( * *
*W* &

,
7 +3 +3
* 8 9 %8 ( %
7
8 3 L 7 3 50
9
3
28 +3
3 +0+
+3
3+ 72
7 3 +3 +3
$ +8 9 3L 1 3 >0 2 +8 3L 3 +90+
, $ * ( − ++ = ++
8 9 %8 %
− + 5
( > T8 ST0 S
= − ++ = − ++ + 9
++
S×
8 %8 8 %8 5
9 9
L T8
( > ++
+ = ++
%
= ++
%
+ T S
+
++ + ++ L
T8 ST S
1 = = − + +
T8 9 S T0 S>
− + +
++ L T8 S T0 S>
+ − = − + ( > S − ( > 9
1 ++ − ++ T
% 8 9 %8
T8 ++ S+
⇔ 1 + − = 1 ++
%
− 8 −
%8 ++ + ( > 1
9

A $ ( = 1 + =
( > 1 = 1 8 −
%8 ++ − ++
%
9

1 − % 8 ++ − ++ %
= ( > 8 9
1
4 4 , $
8 −
%8 ++ > ++
%
9

( > 1 =− 1 8 −
%8 ++ − ++
%
+ 1 8 −
%8 ++ − ++
%
9 9

< ( > 1

< 1
* %# ⇔ * 1

=
 4 * !
7 7
3# + 13 2 + 3# 13
1 %# − + %# +
1+L° = ( >

-, , ! * X ,
! * &

# 3# +V + 3# 4&
9
!Y * ! ( 4 DI
− + > 9× ( > & ∆ > × (+9:

#
% 1 *
3 +3 3 7 +3
* M %M XM 3 2M
( > TM + S
+ ++ = (== : +
M %M
TM ++ S
* * M 3

[M ] > [M ] ⇔
+
+ ++ TM S
M +
%M ++ − M +
%M ++ = ( > ++
> ⇔ M +
%M ++ > M +
%M ++
TM S
*W* ( M +3
* M +
%M ++ < M +
%M ++

. ) , 4

M 3
%M +3
M +
%M ++ = (== :
93
% 3
9+
% + = (=9:

93 +3
6 , * M
93 +3 3 3
" 4 14 7 3M VM 3

5
 3
Z < ! 4 0
− + 5
( > T8 ST0 S
− ++ = − ++ + 9
8 9 %8 8 9 %8
L T8 ++ S
(L :
−
( > T8 S
= 8 −
%8 ++ + ++
9
−5
9
L T8 S
−
( > T8 S
= 8 −
%8 ++ − ( P> + ++
9
9
L T8 S
−
8 9 * ⇔ 8 −
%8 ++ > 8 −
%8 ++ − ( P>
9 9

** J 1Π −

M " = 8 −
%8 ++ − ( P> !!
9
7
- K ( ( , 8 9 67&
+3
- I ( ( , 8 6+&

* 4 * %

" %# % * &
α
( > 1
%# = %# + β
& 1 * & %# * &
1#
- % * * 4 &
- * % * 4
* ( 4 * &

+ M 666%M 66 *

M +
+ > ' − = [M 1 ' ]− = >

+ > ' − = [M 1 ' > ]

++ 9−
M = +9 +

M +
+ − = M ++ [M 1 ' > ] − + − = [M 1 ' > ]9−
M 66 % M 66 1 M 666 = [M 1 ' > ] M 66 = [M 1 ' ]9−
−
>

, $ ( M +
%M ++ = M 666% M 66

P
 +
TM S T M 666S
⇔ M +
%M ++ + ( > ++
= M 666% M 66 + ( >
TM S T M 66S
T M 666S + ++
= × TM S× × TM S
T M 66S +

+ +
TM S TM S
⇔ M +
%M ++ + ( > ++
= M 666% M 66 + ( >1 − + ( > ++
TM S +
TM S
⇔ M 666% M 66 = M +
%M ++ + ( >1 − +
= ( L:

[M 1 ' > ] − [M 1 ' > ]9−

• ,$ , '7 , !
3
M 3 67 V M +3 3 6+

• '7 * , M 666 M 66 1 "

X !
TM 1 ' >S97 3 6+ V TM 1 ' >S 7 3 67
7
- * $ * M 666%TM 1 ' >S *
7
4 M 666%TM 1 ' >S * &