CHAPTER 2

2.1 Based upon Table 2.1, a resistivity of 2.6 -cm < 1 m-cm, and aluminum is a
conductor.

2.2 Based upon Table 2.1, a resistivity of 1015 -cm > 105 -cm, and silicon dioxide is
an insulator.
2.3

108 cm 2

A
Imax = 10 6 2 (5m)(1m)
= 50 mA
2
cm
m

2.4

EG
ni = BT 3 exp
5
8.62x10 T
For silicon, B = 1.08 x 1031 and EG = 1.12 eV:
n i = 2.01 x10-10 /cm 3

6.73 x109 /cm 3

8.36 x 1013 /cm 3 .

For germanium, B = 2.31 x 1030 and EG = 0.66 eV:

n i = 35.9/cm 3
2.5

2.27 x1013 /cm 3

8.04 x 1015 /cm 3 .

Define an M-File:
function f=temp(T)
ni=1E14;
f=ni^2-1.08e31*T^3*exp(-1.12/(8.62e-5*T));
n i = 1014 /cm 3 for T = 506 K

n i = 1016 /cm 3 for T = 739 K

2.6

EG
ni = BT 3 exp
5
8.62x10 T

with

B = 1.27x10 29K 3cm 6

T = 300 K and EG = 1.42 eV: n i = 2.21 x106 /cm 3

T = 100 K: n i = 6.03 x 10-19/cm 3

15

T = 500 K: n i = 2.79 x1011 /cm 3

2.7

cm 2
V
6 cm
v n = n E = 710
3000 = 2.13x10
V s
cm
s

cm
V
5 cm
v p = + p E = +260
3000 = +7.80x10
V s
cm
s

1
cm
4 A
j n = qnv n = (1.60x1019 C)1017 3 2.13x10 6
= 3.41x10

cm
s
cm 2

1
cm
10 A
j p = qnv p = (1.60x1019C )10 3
7.80 x10 5
= 1.25x10
3

cm
s
cm 2

2.8

E
ni2 = BT 3 exp G
kT

B = 1.08x10 31

1.12
T 3 exp
5
8.62x10 T
Using a spreadsheet, solver, or MATLAB yields T = 305.22K

(10 ) = 1.08x10
10 2

31

Define an M-File:
function f=temp(T)
f=1e20-1.08e31*T^3*exp(-1.12/(8.62e-5*T));
Then: fzero('temp',300)

2.9

ans = 305.226 K

C
cm
MA
6 A
j = Qv = 0.5 3 10 7
=5 2
= 5x10
2
cm sec
cm
cm

2.10

v=
2.11

j 1000A /cm 2
cm
=
= 5 x 10 4
2
Q 0.02C /cm
s

1016
cm 2
V
A
j p = qp p E = (1.602x1019C) 3 400
2000 = 1280 2
v s
cm
cm
cm
10 4
cm 2
V
9 A
j n = qnn E = (1.602 x1019 C) 3 1100
2000 = 3.92x10
v s
cm
cm 2
cm

2.12

(a)

16

E=

5V
V
= 5000
4
10 x10 cm
cm

(b)

V
4
V = 10 5
(10x10 cm ) = 100 V

cm

2.13

1018 7 cm
6 A
j p = qpv p = (1.602x10 C ) 3 10
= 1.60x10
2
s
cm
cm
19

A
i p = j p A = 1.60x106 C 2 (2x104 cm )(25 x104 cm ) = 0.80 A

cm
2.14

For intrinsic silicon,

= q( n ni + p n i )= qn i (n + p )

1000( cm ) for a conductor

1

1000( cm )

4.16 x1019
ni
=
=
2
cm 3
q( n + p ) 1.602 x1019C 100 + 50 cm
(
)
v sec
39
E
1.73x10
n 2i =
= BT 3 exp G with
6
cm
kT
1

B = 1.08x1031K 3cm 6, k = 8.62x10 -5 eV/K and E G = 1.12eV

This is a transcendental equation and must be solved numerically by
iteration. Using the HP solver routine or a spread sheet yields T = 2701 K.
Note that this temperature is far above the melting temperature of silicon.
2.15

For intrinsic silicon,

= q(n n i + p ni ) = qni (n + p )

105 ( cm ) for a conductor

1

ni
=
q(n + p )
ni =
2

105 ( cm )

cm 2
19
1.602x10
C
2000
+
750
) v sec
(
)(

2.270x1010
3
cm

E
5.152x10 20
3
= BT exp G with
6
cm
kT

B = 1.08x10 31K 3cm 6, k = 8.62x10 -5 eV/K and E G = 1.12eV

Using MATLAB as in Problem 2.5 yields T = 316.6 K.
2.16

17

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Donor electron
fills acceptor
vacancy

No free electrons or holes (except those corresponding to n i).

2.17 (a) Gallium is from column 3 and silicon is from column 4. Thus silicon has an extra
electron and will act as a donor impurity.
(b) Arsenic is from column 5 and silicon is from column 4. Thus silicon is deficient
in one electron and will act as an acceptor impurity.
2.18 Since Ge is from column IV, acceptors come from column III and donors come from
column V. (a) Acceptors: B, Al, Ga, In, Tl (b) Donors: N, P, As, Sb, Bi
2.19 (a) Germanium is from column IV and phosphorus is from column V. Thus
germanium has one less electron and will act as an acceptor impurity.
(b) Germanium is from column IV and indium is from column III. Thus germanium
has one extra electron and will act as a donor impurity.
2.20

E=
2.21

j
A
V
= j = 10000 2 (0.01 cm ) = 100 , a small electric field.

cm
cm

C
cm
A
j ndrift = qnn E = qnv n = (1.602x1019 )(1016) 3 10 6
= 1600 2
cm
s
cm

2.22

1016 atoms
104 cm 3
N =
(1m)(10m)(0.5m)
= 50,000 atoms
3
cm

18

2.23

NA > N D : NA N D =1015 1014 = 9x1014 /cm 3

If we assume N A N D >> 2n i = 1014 /cm 3 :
p = NA N D = 9x1014 /cm 3 | n =

If we use Eq. 2.12 : p =

9x1014

n2i 2510 26
=
= 2.78 x1012 /cm 3
14
p 9x10

(9 x10 ) + 4 (5x10 )
14 2

13 2

= 9.03x1014

2
and n = 2.77x10 /cm . The answers are essentially the same.
12

2.24

NA > N D : NA N D = 4 x1016 1016 = 3x1016 /cm 3 >> 2n i = 2x1011 /cm 3

p = NA N D = 3x10 /cm
14

2.25

| n=

n2i
10 22
5
3
=
= 3.33x10 /cm
16
p 3x10

ND > N A : ND NA = 2x1017 1017 =1x1017 /cm 3

2ni = 2x1017 /cm 3; Need to use Eq. (2.11)
n=
p=

2.26

1017

(10 ) + 4(10 )
17 2

17 2

= 1.62x1017 /cm 3

n 2i
1034
16
3
=
= 6.18 x10 /cm
17
n 1.62x10

ND NA = 2.5 x10 /cm

18

Using Eq. 2.11 : n =

2.5x1018

(2.5x10 ) + 4(10 )
18 2

10 2

n2i
= .
p
No, the result is incorrect because of loss of significant digits
Evaluating this with a calculator yields n

= 0, and n =

within the calculator. It does not have enough digits.

2.27 (a) Since boron is an acceptor, NA = 5 x 1018/cm 3. Assume ND = 0, since it is not
specified. The material is p-type.

At room temperature, n i = 1010 /cm 3 and N A ND = 5x1018 /cm 3 >> 2ni

18

So p = 5x10 /cm and n =

19

n 2i
10 20 /cm 6
3
=
= 20 /cm
18
3
p 5x10 /cm

(b)

1.12
3
9
6
At 200K, n2i =1.08x10 31(200) exp
= 5.28 x10 /cm
5
8.62x10 (200)
ni = 7.27 x10 4 /cm 3

N A N D >> 2n i, so p = 5x1018 /cm 3 and n =

2.28 (a) Since arsenic is a donor, ND = 2 x 1017/cm 3.

specified. The material is n -type.

5.28x10 9
= 1.06x10 9 /cm 3
18
5x10

Assume NA = 0, since it is not

At room temperature, n i = 1010 /cm 3 and N D N A = 2x1017 /cm 3 >> 2ni

So n = 2x1017 /cm 3 and p =

n 2i
10 20 /cm 6
=
= 500 /cm 3
17
3
n 2x10 /cm

(b)

1.12
3
15
6
At 250K, n2i =1.08x10 31(250) exp
= 4.53x10 /cm
5
8.62 x10 (250)
ni = 6.73x10 7 /cm 3

N D N A >> 2n i, so n = 2 x1017 /cm 3 and n =

4.53x1015
= 0.0227 /cm 3
17
2x10

2.29 (a) Arsenic is a donor, and boron is an acceptor. ND = 8 x 1018/cm 3, and NA = 2 x

1018/cm 3. Since N D > N A, the material is n -type.

At room temperature, n i = 1010 /cm 3 and N D N A = 6x1018 /cm 3 >> 2ni

So n = 6x1018 /cm 3 and p =

n 2i
10 20 /cm 6
=
= 16.7 /cm 3
18
3
n 6x10 /cm

2.30 (a) Phosphorus is a donor, and boron is an acceptor. ND = 2 x 1017/cm 3, and NA = 5 x

1017/cm 3. Since N A > N D, the material is p-type.

At room temperature, n i = 1010 /cm 3 and N A ND = 3x1017 /cm 3 >> 2ni

n 2i
10 20 /cm 6
3
So p = 3x10 /cm and n = =
= 333/cm
17
3
p 3x10 /cm
17

2.31

20

ND = 5 x 1016/cm 3. Assume N A = 0, since it is not specified.

ND > N A : material is n - type | ND NA = 5x1016 /cm 3 >> 2n i = 2 x1010 /cm 3

n = 5x1016 /cm 3 | p =

n2i
10 20
=
= 2x103 /cm 3
16
n 5 x10
2

cm
cm
ND + N A = 5 x10 /cm | Using Fig. 2.13, n = 870
and p = 310
V s
V s
1
1
=
=
= 0.144 cm

qn n
cm 2 5x1016
19
(1.602x10 C) 870 V s cm3
16

21

2.32

NA = 1018/cm 3. Assume N D = 0, since it is not specified.

NA > N D : material is p - type | NA N D =1018 /cm 3 >> 2ni = 2x1010 /cm 3

18

p = 10 /cm

n 2i 1020
n = = 18 =100 /cm 3
p 10

cm 2
cm 2
ND + N A = 10 /cm | Using Fig. 2.13, n = 350
and p =150
V s
V s
1
1
=
=
= 0.0417 cm

q p p
cm 2 1018
19
1.602x10 C150

V s cm 3

18

2.33 Indium is from column 3 and is an acceptor. NA = 7 x 10169/cm 3. Assume ND = 0,

since it is not specified.

NA > N D : material is p - type | NA N D = 7x1019 /cm 3 >> 2ni = 2x1010 /cm 3

p = 7x1019 /cm 3

n=

n 2i
1020
=
= 1.43/cm 3
19
p 7 x10

ND + N A = 7x1019 /cm 3 | Using Fig. 2.13, n = 105

=

1
=
q p p

19

1.602x10

cm 2 7x1019
C80

3
V s cm

cm 2
cm 2
and p = 80
V s
V s

=1.12 m cm

2.34

Phosphorus is a donor : N D = 4.5x1016 /cm 3 | Boron is an acceptor : N A = 5.5 x1016 /cm 3

NA > N D : material is p - type
p = 1016 /cm 3 | n =

N A N D = 1016 /cm 3 >> 2n i = 2 x1010 /cm 3

n 2i 1020
=
=10 4 /cm 3
p 1016

ND + N A = 1017 /cm 3 | Using Fig. 2.13, n = 710

=

1
=
q p p

cm 2 1016
1.602x10 C260

V s cm 3

cm 2
cm 2
and p = 260
V s
V s

= 2.40 cm

19

2.35
20

1
1
1.16x10
=
| p p =
=
19
q p p
(1.602 x10 C)(0.054 cm) V cm s
An iterative solution is required:

22

NA

p p

1018

150

1.5 x 1020

1017

260

2.6 x 1019

8 x 1017

160

1.28 x 1020

7 x 1017

170

1.19 x 1020

2.36

18

1
1
8.32x10
| p p =
=
19
q p p
(1.602 x10 C)(0.75 cm) V cm s

An iterative solution is required:

2.37

NA

p p

1016

400

4.0 x 1018

2 x 1016

370

7.4 x 1018

3 x 1016

340

1.0 x 1019

2.4 x 1016

350

8.4 x 1018

NA = N D so n = p = n i but ND + N A = 10 20 /cm 3
cm 2
cm 2
and p = 80
Vs
V s
1
1
=
=
= 3.47x10 6 cm
10
2

qni (n + p )
10
cm
(1.602x1019 C) cm 3 180 V s

Using Fig. 2.13, n = 100

Based upon the value of its resistivity, the material is an insulator. However, it is not
intrinsic because it contains impurities. Addition of the impurities has increased the
resistivity.
2.38

1
qn n

| n n n N D =

18

1
3.12x10
=
19
(1.602 x10 C)(2 cm) V cm s

An iterative solution is required:

23

ND

nn

1015

1300

1.3 x 1018

2 x 1015

1260

2.5 x 1018

3 x 1015

1230

3.7 x 1018

2.5 x 1015

1240

3.1 x 1018

2.39 (a)

1
=
qn n

21

1
6.24 x10
| n n n N D =
=
19
(1.602 x10 C)(0.001 cm) V cm s

An iterative solution is required:

ND

nn

1019

160

1.6 x 1021

7 x 1019

100

7.0 x 1021

6 x 1019

100

6 x 1021

(b)
21

1
1
6.24 x10
=
| p p p NA =
=
19
q p p
(1.602x10 C)(0.001 cm) V cm s
An iterative solution is required:
NA

p p

8 x 1019

80

6.4 x 1021

2.40 Yes, by adding equal amounts of donor and acceptor impurities the mobilities are
reduced, but the hole and electron concentrations remain unchanged. See Problem
2.37 for example. However, it is physically impossible to add exactly equal amounts
of the two impurities.
2.41 (a) For the 1 ohm-cm starting material:

18

1
1
6.25 x10
| p p p NA =
=
19
q p p
(1.602x10 C )(1 cm) V cm s

An iterative solution is required:

NA

p p

1016

400

4.0 x 1018

1.5 x 1016

380

5.7 x 1018

1.7 x 1016

370

6.3 x 1019

To change the resistivity to 0.25 ohm-cm:

19

1
1
2.5 x10
| p p p NA =
=
19
q p p
(1.602x10 C)(0.25 cm) V cm s
NA

24

p p

6 x 1016

300

1.8 x 1019

8 x 1016

280

2.2 x 1019

1 x 1017

260

2.6 x 1019

Additional acceptor concentration = 1x1017 - 1.7x1016 = 8.3 x 1016 /cm 3

(b) If donors are added:
ND

ND + N A

ND - NA

nn

2 x 1016

3.7 x 1016

930

3 x 1015

2.8 x 1018

1 x 1017

1.2 x 1017

670

8.3 x 1016

5.6 x 1019

8 x 1016

9.7 x 1016

700

6.3 x 1016

4.4 x 1019

5 x 1016

6.7 x 1016

790

3.3 x 1016

2.6 x 1019

So ND = 5 x 1016 /cm 3 must be added to change achieve a resistivity of 0.25 ohm-cm. The
silicon is converted to n-type material.
2.42 Phosphorus is a donor: N D = 1016 /cm 3 and n = 1110 cm 2 /V-s from Fig. 2.13.

= qn n qn N D = (1.602 x1019 C)(1110)(1016) =

Now we add acceptors until = 5.0 (-cm)

= q p p

-1 :

1.78
cm

5( cm )
3.12 x1019
p p p (N A ND ) =
=
1.602x1019C V cm s
1

NA

ND + N A

NA - ND

p p

1 x 1017

1.1 x 1017

250

9 x 1016

2.3 x 1019

1.5 x 1017

1.6 x 1017

230

1.4 x 1017

3.2 x 1019

1.4 x 1017

1.5 x 1017

240

1.3 x 1016

3.1 x 1019

2.43 Boron is an acceptor: N A = 1016 /cm 3 and p = 400 cm 2 /V-s from Fig. 2.13.

= q p p q p N A = (1.602 x1019 C)(400)(1016) =

Now we add donors until = 5.0 (-cm)

= qn n

25

-1 :

0.64
cm

5.5( cm )
3.43x1019
n n n (N D N A ) =
=
1.602x1019C V cm s
1

ND

ND + N A

NA - ND

p p

8 x 1016

9 x 1016

730

7 x 1016

5.1 x 1019

6 x 1016

7 x 1016

790

5 x 1016

3.9 x 1019

5 x 1016

6 x 1016

820

4 x 1016

3.3 x 1019

2.44

kT 1.38 x1023 T
VT =
=
= 8.62x105T 6.64 mV, 12.9 mV, 25.9 mV
19
q 1.602 x10
2.45

dn
dn
j = qDn = qVT n
dx
dx
j = (1.602 x10

2.46

j = qDp

19

cm 2 1018 0 1
kA
C)(0.025V ) 350
= 14.0 2

4
4
V s 0 10 cm
cm

cm 2 1018 /cm 3

dp
x
= (1.602 x1019 C)15

exp
4
4
dx
s 2x10 cm 2 x10 cm

x A
j = 12000exp 5000 2

cm cm
8 2

A
2 10 cm
I (0) = j (0)A = 12000 2 (10m )
= 1.20 mA
2

cm
m
2.47

j p = q p pE qDp

dp
1 dp
1 dp
= q p p E VT
= 0 E = VT
dx
p dx
p dx

1022 exp (10 4 x )

1 dNA
E VT
= 0.025 14
N A dx
10 +1018 exp(10 4 x )
1022
V
= 250
14
18
10 +10
cm
22
10 exp (5)
V
4
E (5x10 cm ) = 0.025 14
= 246
18
10 + 10 exp (5)
cm
E (0) = 0.025

2.48 (a)

26


cm 2 1016
V
A
j ndrift = qn nE = (1.602x1019 C) 350
3 25 = 14.0 2
V s cm
cm
cm

cm 2 1.01x1018
V
A
j pdrift = q p pE = (1.602x1019 C)150

25 = 607 2
3
V s cm
cm
cm

j ndiff = qDn

dn
cm 2 104 1016
A
= (1.602x1019 C) 350 0.025
= 46.7 2

4
4
dx
s 3x10 cm
cm

j pdiff = qDp

dp
cm 2 1018 1.01x1018
A
= (1.602x1019C )150 0.025

= 20.0 2
4
4
dx
s 3x10 cm
cm

jT = 14.0 607 46.7 + 20.0 = 648

(b)

A
2
cm

0.5 x1016
cm 2
V
A
j ndrift = (1.602x1019 C)
350
25

= 7.01 2

3
V s
cm
cm
cm
1.005x1018
cm 2
V
A
j pdrift = (1.602x1019 C)
150

25 = 604 2
3
V s
cm
cm
cm

diff
n

dn
cm 2 104 1016
A
19
= qDn
= (1.602x10 C) 350 0.025
= 46.7 2

4
4
dx
s 3x10 cm
cm

j pdiff = qDp

dp
cm 2 1018 1.01x1018
A
= (1.602x1019C )150 0.025

= 20.0 2
4
4
dx
s 3x10 cm
cm

jT = 7.01 604 46.7 + 20.0 = 638

A
2
cm

2.49 NA = 2ND
E

C
D

ND

ND

ND

EA

NA

NA

NA

E
V

Holes

2.50

27

NA

hc (6.626 x10 J s)(3x10 m /s)

=
=
= 1.108 m
E
(1.12eV )(1.602x1019 J /eV )
34

2.51
Al - Anode

Al - Cathode
Si02
n-type silicon

p-type silicon

28

2.52 An n-type ion implantation step could be used to form the n+ region following step (f)
in Fig. 2.17. A mask would be used to cover up the opening over the p-type region and
leave the opening over the n-type silicon. The masking layer for the implantation
could just be photoresist.

Mask

Ion implantation

Photoresist
Si02
n+

p-type silicon

p-type silicon

n-type silicon

n-type silicon

Structure after exposure and

development of photoresist layer

Structure following ion

implantation of n-type impurity

Mask for ion implantation

Side view

Top View

2.53

1 1
(a) N = 8 + 6 + 4(1) = 8 atoms
8 2
(b) V = l 3 = (0.543x109 m) = (0.543x107 cm ) = 1.60x1022cm 3
3

8 atoms
atoms
= 5.00x10 22
22
3
1.60 x10 cm
cm 3

g
(d) m = 2.33 3 1.60x10 22cm 3 = 3.73x1022 g

cm
(e) From Table 2.2, silicon has a mass of 28.086 protons.
(c) D =

3.73x1022 g
g
mp =
= 1.66x1024
28.082(8) protons
proton
Yes, near the actual proton rest mass.

29