Dry-Reforming of Ethanol in the Presence

of a 316 Stainless Steel Catalyst

K. De Oliveira-Vigier2, N. Abatzoglou1* and F. Gitzhofer1
1. Department of Chemical Engineering, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada J1K 2R1
2. LACCO-UMR, 6503-Université de Poitiers, France

Dry-reforming is a known process for the production of synthetic gas from natural gas or other volatile fossil fuels. Another possible application
is the reforming of hydrocarbons contained in the synthetic gas produced from biomass or waste gasification. The absence of wide industrial
process applications is mainly due to the high endothermicity of the reactions involved and technical problems associated with carbon
formation. In this work, the target reaction is:

CH3CH2OH + CO2  2H2 + 2CO + C + H2O (1)

The principal challenge is that of using a 2D catalyst formulation favouring the target reaction and permitting easy retrieval of deposited carbon
while, at the same time, preserving the catalyst’s activity and structural integrity.
This paper presents the results obtained from the use of a 316 stainless steel catalyst. The catalyst is active in ethanol dry reforming as the yield
of hydrogen reached 98% of the theoretical value. Moreover, the co-product carbon is of a filamentous form and can be easily retrieved without
risk of modification to the catalyst properties. This catalyst is recyclable; it can be used several times over in the dry-reforming of ethanol process
without detectable change in its activity and selectivity.

Le reformage à sec est un procédé connu pour la production du gaz de synthèse à partir du gaz naturel ou autres combustibles fossiles volatils.
Une autre application possible est le reformage des hydrocarbures contenus dans le gaz de synthèse produit par la gazéification de la biomasse
ou de déchets. L’absence de larges applications de procédés industriels est essentiellement due à la haute endothermicité des réactions
impliquées et aux problèmes techniques associés à la formation de carbone. Dans ce travail, la réaction ciblée est :

CH3CH2OH + CO2  2H2 + 2CO + C + H2O (1)

Le principal défi réside dans l’utilisation d’une formulation de catalyseur 2D favorisant la réaction visée et permettant un retrait facile du carbone
déposé tout en préservant l’activité du catalyseur et l’intégrité de la structure. On présente dans cet article les résultats obtenus à partir d’un
catalyseur acier inoxydable 316. Le catalyseur est actif dans le reformage à sec d’éthanol alors que le rendement d’hydrogène atteint 98% de
la valeur théorique. En outre, le carbone du co-produit est d’une forme filamenteuse et peut être facilement retirée sans risque de modification
des propriétés du catalyseur. Ce catalyseur est recyclable; il peut être utilisé plusieurs fois dans le reformage à sec du procédé d’éthanol sans
changement détectable dans son activité et sélectivité.

Keywords: CO2 reforming, catalysis, ethanol, carbon sequestration, nanotubes

H
ydrogen is considered a potential source of clean energy,
mainly through its use in fuel-cells. However, its produc-
tion is still based on fossil-derived fuels (Armor, 1999;
Joensen and Rostrup-Nielsen, 2002; Peña et al., 1996). On the
other hand, ethanol, mainly as bio-ethanol, is seriously consid-
ered as an alternative in many applications, such as in the
production of chemicals and/or electric power. The basic
advantage of ethanol, in comparison to alternate fuels, is the
feasibility of its production from biomass or agricultural and
forest residues, a renewable source (Kordesh and Simader,
1996). Such production at the industrial level is successfully
established in Canada. Ethanol is therefore considered to be an
economically attractive alternative “green” power source with
* Author to whom correspondence may be addressed.
E-mail address: nicolas.abatzoglou@usherbrooke.ca

978 THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING VOLUME 83, DECEMBER 2005
 T Thermocouple K 10 points
T
P Gas input
No warming
~ 10,2 cm 17,8 cm
MFM
7,6 cm
Heater
elements
81,3 cm
61 cm GC
Catalyst
10,2 cm 5,1 cm
Collector
No warming Bag
~ 10,1 cm
Exit
Catalyst Table
Reactor design
Gas Output
Figure 1. Design of the dry reforming methanol reactor
low pollutant emissions potential. Furthermore, due to its high
heating value and high hydrogen content, ethanol has been the
subject of many published works aimed at hydrogen production
through various steam reforming and partial oxidation processes
(Aupetre et al., 2001; Kaddouri and Mazzocchia, 2004; Cavallaro
and Freni, 1996; Deluga et al., 2004; Diagne et al., 2004; Freni
and Cavallaro, 1999; Garcia and Laborde, 1991; Liguras et al.,
2003; Maggio et al., 1998; Vasudeva et al., 1996). For example,
Cavallaro et al. (2003) have studied the use of an Rh catalyst,
supported on alumina, and they have shown that, by increasing
the O2/ethanol ratio, the conversion of ethanol reached 100%
whereas the formation of methane is correspondingly reduced.
The purpose of this present work is to study the production of
hydrogen through ethanol dry reforming with simultaneous
atmospheric carbon sequestration. Such a process leads to the
additional decrease of greenhouse effect gases. The literature on
this topic is relatively scarce, e.g. Tsiakaras and Demin (2001)
studied the thermodynamics of ethanol reforming by CO2, but
they did not perform any experimental work.
The main drawback of this process is that the carbon dioxide
reforming leads to the formation of inert solid carbon—this can
then deactivate the catalysts used (Ruckenstein and Wang,
2002). Moreover, several researchers working on dry reforming
focus their work on the production of catalytic formulas that do
not favour the formation of surface carbon (Ferreira-Aparicio et
al., 1999; Tsipouriari and Verykios, 1999), that is both refractory
to further reforming (Wang and Rusckenstein, 2001a) and
poisons the catalysts. Although the carbon formation reaction
does pose a serious problem, it can also be used to “sequester”
carbon if the carbon deposits can be removed from the catalyst
without harm to the latter’s structural integrity and reactivity.
Additionally, this carbon is potentially a valuable by-product; if
its value is high enough, its economic utilisation could help
offset the higher energetic costs of the process.
This work focuses on the use of CO2 to reform ethanol, using
appropriate catalytic formulations. One of the work’s basic
targets is to use catalysts (a) that favour the formation of
filamentous carbon (carbon nanotubes), and (b) with surfaces
such that the carbon formed can be readily removed while their
activity and integrity are maintained. For this reason, two-
dimensional catalysts (of non-porous formulations) are preferred
to three-dimensional (from powder formulations or porous
matrices).
VOLUME 83, DECEMBER 2005
The target reaction is (TR):
C2H5OH + CO2  2 CO + 2 H2 + H2O + C (TR) (2)
Acquisition
Acquisition
MFM
T x 10 From the above quoted reaction, it can be seen that the target
is the formation of carbon, in an amount equivalent to that of
T
CO2 Ethanol
tank
the CO2 used. In these circumstances, the dry reforming process
Pump ~ produces less synthesis gas than achieved in the full reforming
Heated coating
reaction but it sequesters the CO2 carbon in an inert solid form,
Heated reactor readily removed from the non-porous catalytic surface. Carbon
Catalyst sequestered in this way can be used as a process by-product but
T
it cannot be subsequently re-oxidized or otherwise brought back
Dry Sampler Cooler into the earth’s surface carbon cycle without negating the whole
flowmeter Drierite process purpose.
In this study, dry reforming takes place in a controlled,
externally heated, fixed-bed reactor, using a thermally activated
316 stainless steel material as the catalyst. The results obtained
in the work include proof of the catalytic activity and reproduc-
ibility of the selected catalyst, and tests on its regeneration. The
effect of temperature and the ethanol to CO2 input ratio on the
percent conversion of the ethanol and its selectivity in the
presence of H2 and solid carbon filaments are also examined.
EXPERIMENTAL
Experimental Set-Up Used for the Catalytic Tests
Figure 1 depicts the experimental set-up employed. The gaseous
reactant is fed from the top of the reactor. The catalyst bed sits
on a supporting grid close to the reactor base. The reactor is 81
cm long and of a 2.4 cm internal diameter. Its upper part is used
as a pre-heater for the input gaseous reaction mixture. The
catalyst bed depth can be varied between 1 cm and 37 cm. In
order to monitor and control the reactor internal temperature,
particularly the catalyst bed, a multiple thermocouple is used to
determine the temperature at ten different points along the
column.
The process involves the following steps: ethanol is pumped
through the reactor using a precalibrated peristaltic pump. It is
then vaporized at 80°C and mixed with CO2 at the desired molar
ratio. A mass flow meter is used to measure the CO2 flow. The
reactor entry length is sufficient for the gaseous reactants, at the
flow rates used, to be pre-heated to the desired reaction temper-
ature. At the reactor exit, processed gas is quenched, using a
cooling coil. Any ethanol not converted in the reactor is retrieved
by external cooling. The water contained in the product is also
removed by passing the gas through a desiccant (drierite) bed.
The product gas flow rate is then measured, using a mass flow
meter, and analyzed, using a gas chromatograph fitted with a
manual sample injection. During the reactor heat-up period, a
moderate N2 flow is introduced to protect the catalyst from
oxidation. When the temperature reaches the set point for the
reforming of ethanol, the N2 flow ceases and the preselected CO2
and ethanol flows are switched on. Gas sampling for the GC
analysis commences at around 5 min from the beginning of the
ethanol and CO2 flows. This delay is necessary to ensure removal
of the remaining N2 from the system. Moreover the carbon was
retrieved by brushing the catalyst surface and washing with
water. This procedure takes only a few minutes.
Characterization of the Catalyst and the Carbon
Formed
In order to characterize the catalyst surface and the carbon
formed in the process, scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 979
 Table 1. Composition of SS 316

SS 316 Fe C Cr Ni Mo Mn Si S P
Content <61 <0.03 16–18.5 10–14 2–3 <2 <1 <0.03 <0.045
in (%w/w)

analysis was performed, using an S-4700 Hitachi equipped with

an X-ray spectrophotometer and a backscattered electrons
detector. The sample was deposited on a carbon film without any
treatment.

Choice of the Catalyst

The catalyst needs to be such that it is both active in the produc-
tion of hydrogen and at the same time, present a structure from
which carbon can be readily retrieved.
It was decided to test stainless steel (SS) as catalysts based on
the literature findings that Fe alloys are active catalysts for CO
disproportionation through the Boudouard reaction. SS is an
interesting material as it is of modest expense and can be easily
“refreshed” with washing if carbon nanotubes are grown on it.
Thus, a SS 316 has been tested in this role. The catalyst was
formed of 21 parallelepiped prisms (5*2.5*1.5 cm). Its external
surface (1.59.10-4 m2/g) was estimated as follows:
• External surface (cm²/g) = total surface / (volume *density
Figure 2. SEM of the carbon formed during the dry reforming of
of catalyst);
ethanol at 500°C over 1 h in the presence of 3.1 g of SS 316
• Total surface = (0.5*0.25 + 0.5*0.15 + 0.25*0.15)*21 = pre-treated at 800°C under N2
4.98 cm2;
• Volume = (0.5*0.25*0.15)*21 = 0.393 cm3; Table 2. Dry reforming of ethanol: effect of thermal pre-treatment
• SS 316 catalyst density = 7.95 g/cm3. under nitrogen for an hour at 800°C
The composition of the SS 316 used is set out in Table 1. Catalyst Mass balance Ethanol Y (H2) (%) C (%)
Before the reaction, the catalyst is heated at 800°C, remaining closure (%) conversion (%)
at this temperature for an hour under a nitrogen blanket. SS 316 100 13 4 0.05
Calculation SS 316 96 43 22 19
pre-treated
The molar yield of hydrogen formed (Y) and the carbon selectiv-
T = 500°C, t = 1 h, 3.1 g of catalyst, Et/CO2 = 2.1, GHSV = 16.8 h-1
ity over the CO2 fed were calculated, using the mass balances.
The molar yield of hydrogen was calculated as follows:
where Nfethanol are the moles of ethanol not transformed and
NH 2formed Niethanol are the moles of ethanol introduced in the reactor.
Y( H 2 )(%) = × 100 (3)
2Niethanol

where NH2formed are the moles of hydrogen produced during the

reaction, and Niethanol are the moles of ethanol introduced in the
reactor. As the TR reaction produced 2 moles of hydrogen from
one mole of ethanol the yield of hydrogen is calculated as in
Equation (3).
The percentage of carbon obtained was calculated using the
following relation:
NC formed
C(%) = × 100
NiCO2
where NCformed are the moles of carbon formed and NiCO are the
2
moles of CO2 introduced in the reactor. The assumption was that
carbon comes from the decomposition of carbon dioxide.
The mass balances closure was calculated, with the ratio of
the mass of ethanol and the carbon dioxide introduced to the
mass of products obtained plus the ethanol not converted.
The conversion of ethanol was calculated as follows:
Nfethanol − Niethanol
Conversion(%) =
Niethanol
RESULTS
From the preliminary testing performed, it was concluded that
the activity of the SS 316 catalyst, in the dry reforming reaction
of ethanol, is dependent on the thermal treatment history of the
catalyst material. Once the optimal thermal treatment conditions
were determined, the activity of the catalysts was investigated as
a function of reaction temperature and Et/CO2 molar ratio. The
surface deposition of the product carbon deactivated the catalyst.
The mechanical removal of the so formed carbon, and the reuse
(4)
of the catalyst under the same reaction conditions, proved the
feasibility of the catalyst regeneration and full retrieval of its
initial activity.
Pre-Treatment of the Catalyst
As the first experimental step, the pre-treatment of the SS 316
catalyst was studied. The experiments were performed in the
presence of SS 316 over 1 h with an Et/CO2 reaction gas molar
ratio of 2.1 (CO2 flow = 146 ml/min). In the first test, the SS 316
catalyst was used without pre-treatment, while in the second,
the catalyst had been previously heated to 800°C, as explained
(5)
in the experimental part. The phase diagram for Fe-C alloys with

980 THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING VOLUME 83, DECEMBER 2005
 surface catalytic activity becomes higher due to
surface conformational changes.
All experiments described below were performed
in the presence of pre-treated SS 316 at 800°C, under
nitrogen for an hour.
The carbon formed was retrieved and analyzed by
SEM and Figure 2 shows the presence of whiskers.
The non-porous SS 316 catalyst surface could be
“cleaned off” relatively easily since just water flow
alone has proved to be sufficient to remove the entire
quantity of carbon whiskers formed, as shown in
Figure 3. Only a structural change was observed as a
result of the pre-treatment at 800°C.

Figure
100 3. SEM analyses of SS 316 before and after pre-treatment at 800°C Dry Reforming of Ethanol with Mechanically
under nitrogen for 1 h Regenerated SS 316
90

To test the feasibility of regenerating the SS 316

80 H2 H 2 bis CO
catalyst by mechanically removing the carbon
C O bis C O2 C O2 bis
70 whiskers formed in the process, an experiment was
performed with the SS 316 catalyst regenerated by
60
these means. Processing conditions as used previously
Selectivity (% )

50 were employed (T = 500°C, t = 1 h, 3.1 g of SS 316,

Et/CO2 = 2.1). The results, in terms of the hydrogen
40
yield and carbon selectivity, are presented in Table 3.
30 Figure 4 shows the composition of the exit gas for
the two experiments; it is clear that the H2 and CO
20
concentrations are similar in the two cases also.
10
It appears that the yield of hydrogen and the
selectivity of carbon are similar. The SS 316 catalyst
0 did not lose its catalytic activity after being used only
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
once and then washed free from the earlier carbon
T ime (min)
G raph1 deposit.
Figure 4. Reproducibility of the dry reforming of ethanol: composition
of the exit gas Reaction Conditions
After demonstrating that carbon deposited on the catalyst could
60 60
be readily removed mechanically without damage to the catalyst
50 50 activity, the effect of the reaction conditions on the dry reform-
C onver sion of ethanol (% )

ing reaction was studied. The variables studied were the Et/CO2
40 40 molar ratio and the reaction temperature.
Y (H 2) (% )

30 30 Effect of the Et/CO2 Molar Ratio

The reactions were performed at 500°C over a period of an hour.
20 20 Since it had been shown that the catalyst was able to be fully
regenerated mechanically, the same pre-treated SS 316 sample
10 10
was used and recycled after each succeeding experiment. In
0 0
these experiments, 3.1 g of catalyst was introduced and the
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 results obtained for the Et/CO2 molar ratios between 0.8 an 4.1
E thanol to C ar bon dioxide r atio show a maximum in the ethanol conversion, the H2 yield and
solid carbon selectivity at an Et/CO2 ratio of 3.2 (Figure 5 and
Figure 5. Conversion of ethanol and yield of hydrogen as function of
Table 4). Moreover the GSHV lies between 32 264 150 and
the Et/CO2 ratio
77 735 850 mLgas/h*m²cat; this is a value of more than two
less than 0.5%C, as in the SS 316 used, shows that these alloys orders of magnitude higher than the GHSV of the CO2 reforming
form a eutectic mixture, composed of α-ferrite and γ-austenite of CH4 in the presence of Co/MgO (60 000 mLgas/h*m²cat)
structures, at temperatures above 720ºC. Table 2 shows that
when the catalyst is pre-treated at 800°C, the ethanol conver- Table 3. Reproducibility of the dry catalytic reforming of ethanol in
sion, the hydrogen yield and the carbon selectivity are all higher the presence of SS 316
than those obtained with non pre-treated SS 316. So far, the only
Catalyst Mass balance Ethanol Y (H2) (%) C (%)
plausible explanation for this is that structural changes caused
closure (%) conversion (%)
by the thermal pre-treatment are responsible for the higher
SS 316 94 45 25 18
activity of the SS 316 catalyst, but further studies are required.
reused (bis)
Compositional changes are possible only if some components of
the steel are lost, thus leading to other crystal configurations and SS 316 96 43 22 19
defaults. This is rather impossible. However, it is possible that T = 500°C, t = 1 h, 3.1 g of catalyst, Et/CO2 = 2.1, GHSV = 16.8 h-1

VOLUME 83, DECEMBER 2005 THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 981
 Et/CO2 =0.8 Et/CO2 =2

Et/CO2 =3.2 Et/CO2 =4.1

Figure 6. SEM analysis of the carbon formed during dry-reforming of ethanol in the presence of SS 316. Effect of the Et/CO2 ratio

Table 4. Dry-reforming of ethanol in the presence of 3.1 g of SS 316, at 500°C: effect of the Et/CO2 ratio

Cat. Molar Mass balance Ethanol Y (H2) (%) C (%) GHSV GHSV (h-1)
Et/CO2 closure (%) conversion (%) (mLgas/h*m2cat)
SS 316 0.8 99 40 18 1.4 77 735 850 14.6
SS 316 2.1 96 43 22 19 49 748 430 16.6
SS 316 3.2 100 57 45 63 38 616 350 16.8
SS 316 4.1 99 31 22 8 32 264 150 17.3
T = 500°C, t = 1 h, 3.1 g of catalyst

(Wang and Ruckenstein, 2001b). Nevertheless, since the catalyst Effect of the Temperature
used has no internal surface, the GHSV in our experiments is
As an Et/CO2 molar ratio of the order of 3 leads to a maximum
between 14 and 17 h-1 for ethanol dry reforming. This low GHSV
in the ethanol conversion, and in the hydrogen yield and carbon
can be improved by using a smaller catalyst particles size.
selectivity at the studied conditions, the effect of temperature on
Although such smaller particles can be thought to cause a
the dry-reforming of ethanol was also studied at this ratio. Three
carbon separation problem, the high difference between the
temperature levels were used: 400°C, 500°C and 600°C, all in
density of the carbon and the catalyst renders their mechanical
the presence of 3.1 g of pre-treated SS 316 catalyst over a period
separation easy.
of an hour.
The carbon formed was retrieved and analyzed by SEM. And
Table 5 shows that conversions and yields all increase with
it appears to be of the same type of carbon whiskers for all
temperature. At 600°C, the conversion of input ethanol is 86%
ethanol to carbon dioxide ratio employed (Figure 6).
while the yield to hydrogen is 98%. Nevertheless, the selectivity
in carbon formation is higher than 100%, meaning that at least

982 THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING VOLUME 83, DECEMBER 2005
 Figure 8. This observation is in agreement with literature
findings for Ni reforming catalysts (Bradford et al., 1999).
However, in our case, the EDX performed on this sample of
whiskers demonstrated that the majority metal present was Fe;
being more than 98% Fe, a level that is in fact much higher than
the Fe concentration in the original SS 316 alloy.
The analysis of the carbon formed and retrieved from the
catalyst surface is given in Table 6 and it shows the presence of
iron, nickel and chromium.

CONCLUSION
From the results of this study, it can be concluded that SS 316,
following pre-treatment at 800°C under nitrogen for an hour, is
active in promoting the reaction of dry reforming of ethanol at
500°C. Moreover, the carbon by-product formed as “whiskers” is
readily removed from the catalyst. The catalyst can be regener-
ated and its initial activity and selectivity are conserved. Indeed,
Figure 7. Analysis of the carbon formed at 600°C by SEM the yield to hydrogen and the selectivity into carbon are similar
both before and after catalyst regeneration. It was also observed
that the input Et/CO2 molar ratio and the reaction temperature
Table 5. Dry-reforming of ethanol in the presence of SS 316—effect of are important parameters in the dry reforming of ethanol. An
the temperature (conditions: 3.1 g of catalyst, t = 1 h, Et/CO2 = 3.1) optimum Et/CO2 ratio of 3 is necessary to obtain a maximum
yield to hydrogen (45%) at 500°C. Moreover, increasing the
Catalyst T(ºC) Mass balance Ethanol Y (H2) C (%)
temperature to 600°C leads to a yield to hydrogen of 98%, with
closure (%) conversion (%)
(%)
simultaneous carbon whiskers formation.
Furthermore, the results of this work demonstrate that
SS 316 400 98 7 2.6 3
hydrogen can be obtained from the dry reforming of ethanol in
SS 316 500 100 57 45 63 the presence of SS 316 catalyst (pre-treated at 800°C) in yields
SS 316 600 100 86 98 240 close to 100%. The carbon whiskers so formed can also be
retrieved easily. Within the range of the reaction conditions
evaluated, the maximum yield of hydrogen (98%) was obtained
Table 6. Analysis of the carbon formed at 600°C
at a reactants molar ratio Et/CO2 close to 3, a temperature of
Carbon Iron Chromium Nickel 600°C and a GHSV of the order of 40 000Lgas(m²cata)-1*h-1.
Mass % 98.30 0.85 0.17 0.43 Moreover, the SS 316 alloy appears to be a particularly interest-
ing catalyst for the dry reforming reaction of ethanol as it is
readily recyclable in its “process use” state.
some part of the carbon whiskers came from the ethanol. At the optimal conditions reported in this paper, the carbon
The carbon formed was retrieved mechanically and analyzed production decreases the energy efficiency of the process by an
by SEM, and whiskers have also been obtained (see Figure 7). average of 34%. In fact, the theoretical complete reforming
The increase of the temperature leads to the formation of smaller reaction (C2H5OH + CO2  3CO + 3H2) produces 1706.4 MJ/
whiskers. kmol of ethanol converted while the TR reaction at the optimal
During dry-reforming of ethanol, when the temperature is at conditions of 600°C produces 878.4 MJ/kmol of ethanol
600°C and the input ethanol to carbon dioxide ratio is around 3, converted. This means that the carbon sequestration, as expected,
the carbon product takes the form of whiskers and the yield of decreases the energy efficiency of the process by about 50%.
hydrogen and the conversion of ethanol are both high. The SEM This loss must be offset by the value of the sequestered carbon
analyses of the carbon retrieved reveal the presence of metal in the market.
crystallites at the tops of the carbon whiskers, as shown in
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the Ministère
des Affaires étrangères of France for the
fellowship awarded to K. De Oliveira-Vigier,
NSERC’s Strategic Project Grants program
and the CFI for funding related to this work.
Many thanks to Peter Lanigan for reviewing
the manuscript.

Figure 8. SEM of the carbon whisker and the corresponding EDX analysis

VOLUME 83, DECEMBER 2005 THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 983
NOMENCLATURE Kordesh, K. and G. Simader, “Fuel Cells and their
Applications,” VCH, Weinheim, Federal Republic of Germany
2D catalyst non-porous catalyst
(1996).
3D catalyst porous catalyst
Liguras, D. K., D. I. Kondarides and X. E. Verykios, “Production
C (%) percentage of carbon formed
of Hydrogen for Fuel Cell by Steam Reforming of Ethanol
EDX energy dispersive X-ray
over Supported Noble Metal Catalyst,” Appl. Catal. B 43,
Et/CO2 molar ratio of ethanol to carbon dioxide
345–354 (2003).
GHSV gas hourly space velocity
Maggio, G., S. Freni and S. Cavallaro, “Light Alcohols/Methane
NCformed moles of carbon formed
Fuelled Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell: A Comparative Study,”
NH2formed moles of hydrogen produced during the reaction
J. Power Sources 74, 7–23 (1998).
NiCO moles of CO2 introduced in the reactor
2 Peña, M. A., J. P. Gomez and J. L. G. Fierro, “New Catalytic
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Routes for Syngas and Hydrogen Production,” Appl. Catal. A
Nfethanol moles of unconverted ethanol during the
144, 7–57 (1996).
reaction
Ruckenstein, E. and H. Y. Wang, “Carbon Deposition and
SEM scanning electron microscopy
Catalytic Deactivation During CO2 Reforming of CH4 over
SS 316 stainless steel 316
Co/γ-Al2O3 Catalysts,” J. Catal. 205 (2), 289–293 (2002).
T temperature
Tsiakaras, P. and A. Demin, “Thermodynamic Analysis of a
t time
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Sources 102, 210–217 (2001).
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Tsipouriari, V. A. and X. E. Verykios, “Carbon and Oxygen
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