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Analogique & Digital
Modulations

Modulations analogiques & numrique



Compilation : S. GHABOUBI

Superviser : N. Raissouni
ENSA Ttouan Universit Abdelmalek Essaadi





2011

SOMMAIRE :


1. AM
2. FM
3. PM
4. SM
5. ASK
6. PSK
7. QAM
8. FSK
9. BPSK
10. QPSK
11. M-PSK
12. OQPSK
13. Pi/4 QPSK
14. SOQPSK
15. DPQPSK
16. DPSK
17. AFSK
18. MSK
19. MFSK
20. DTMF

21. CPFSK
22. m FSK
23. QAM
24. PM
25. CPM
26. MSK
27. GMSK
28. OFDM
29. WM
30. TCM
31. PAM
32. PDM
33. PPM
34.
35. auto adaptatif
36. ADPCM
37.
38. CVSD or CVSDM
39. MIC et
40. DPCM


1. MODULATION D'AMPLITUDE

Gnralits

Des techniques de modulations analogiques, la modulation d'amplitude fut la premire
employe. Comme nous le verrons par la suite, elle se caractrise par une grande simplicit de
mise en uvre. On la trouve frquemment pour les transmissions hertziennes (stations
radiophoniques grandes ondes par exemple).

Description du signal AM. Cas d'un signal sinusodal

Signal AM dans le domaine temporel
Comme son nom l'indique, un signal s(t) (courant ou tension) modul en amplitude est un
signal constitu par une porteuse sinusodale de frquence fp dont l'amplitude Ap est modifie
suivant une loi linaire par le signal informatif u(t). Si nous prenons le cas d'un signal
modulant sinusodal, l'expression de s(t) est donc :
s(t) = Ap cos(w pt) + k Am cos(wmt) cos(w pt) o k est le facteur de
proportionnalit du modulateur. k est parfois appel sensibilit du modulateur. La grandeur de
k dpend des grandeurs de Am et Ap.

soit :


Dans le cas gnral l'expression d'un signal modul en amplitude est :
s(t) = Ap (1 + mu(t)) cos(wp.t) .

o m est un paramtre essentiel appel taux de modulation. Il est d'usage d'exprimer m
en %.
La reprsentation temporelle de s(t) est illustre par la figure 1.



signal sinusodal modul en amplitude. La porteuse est fp=162 kHz, l'amplitude Ap=1 (U.A.) et le taux
de modulation est m=50%. Le signal modulant u(t) est une frquence de 4 kHz.


signal sinusodal modul en amplitude. La porteuse est fp=162 kHz, l'amp litude Ap=1 (U.A.) et le
taux de modulation est m=120%. Le signal modulant u(t) est une frquence de 4 kHz.


La courbe en pointills est appele l'enveloppe de s(t). Dans le cas o m est infrieur
1 (m<100%), l'enveloppe de s(t) est identique u(t). m est dfini par le rapport entre
l'excursion en amplitude et l'amplitude en l'absence de signal informatif (u(t)=0) :



Signal AM dans le domaine frquentiel

Le signal modul s(t) prend la forme : s(t) = Ap (1 + mu(t)) cos(wp.t)

Supposons que le signal utile soit de la forme u(t)=cos(wpt). En dveloppant l'quation
prcdente nous avons successivement :



Le spectre du signal est donc compos de 3 raies. L'une d'amplitude Ap la frquence fp, les 2
autres sont d'amplitude m /2* Ap aux frquences fp-fm (appele bande latrale infrieure ou,
dans la littrature anglo-saxonne Lower Side Band : LSB) et fp+fm (appele bande latrale
infrieure ou Upper Side Band : USB). La bande passante requise pour transmettre le signal
u(t) en prservant son intgrit est appele bande de frquence B et vaut donc :
BpAM=Df=2 fm.

2. MODULATION DE FREQUENCE (F.M.)

Nous avons vu que le principe de la modulation AM repose sur la modification de
l'amplitude de la porteuse sans modification de la frquence. Une autre forme de modulation
consiste garder l'amplitude de la porteuse constante mais faire varier sa frquence.

Notion de frquence et de phase instantane

Considrons les signaux sinusodaux : r(t) = As cos(w t) et s(t) = As cos(w t + j) .
Supposons que w et j soient constantes dans le temps. Le dphasage de s(t) par rapport r(t)
est constant et les deux signaux sont caractriss par une frquence identique. Si j est variable
avec le temps, le dphasage entre s(t) et r(t) varie dans le temps. Ce changement de phase se
traduit galement par un changement de frquence du signal s(t) car pour passer d'une phase j
j+dj en un temps dt, il est ncessaire que la pulsation du signal varie. On appelle alors
pulsation instantane la grandeur :




De mme, sera appele phase instantane la grandeur : ji (t ) = w t + j(t ) .

Principe de la modulation de frquence

Gnralits

La modulation de frquence ou F.M. (Frequency Modulation), trs souvent employ en
VHF (Very Hight Frequencies) ou en UHF (Ultra Hight Frequencies) pour la transmission des
signaux audio, consiste utiliser une porteuse dont la frquence varie en fonction du signal
modulant. Il est alors possible d'crire :
fs = fp + f(t) o f(t) est une frquence variant linairement avec le signal modulant u(t). c'est-
dire : f (t) =n u(t) avec n facteur de proportionnalit du modulateur (en Hz/Am) qui prend
parfois la dnomination de sensibilit du modulateur.
La frquence de la porteuse tant constante, la phase instantane de s(t) est donne par :



Les techniques de modulations de frquence sortent du domaine de ce cours. Ces techniques
font appel des oprateurs lectroniques nomms VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator ou
Oscillateur Contrl en Tension). Nanmoins, pour mmoire, nous pouvons citer deux
techniques trs rpandues. La premire, utilise en BF (jusqu' plusieurs dizaines de
MgaHertz dans les circuits intgrs), est fonde sur l'emploi d'oscillateur relaxation et
consiste charger un condensateur jusqu' une tension de rfrence l'aide d'une source de
courant commande en tension (VCCS). Lorsque la tension du condensateur atteint la tension
de rfrence, le condensateur est dcharg et l'opration recommence. La seconde technique,
employe en HF (typiquement VHF et UHF), repose sur un oscillateur LC quasi sinusodal.
Le condensateur employ est en fait une diode spciale, appele VARICAP ou varactor, qui
polarise en inverse, prsente une capacit variable en fonction de la tension inverse de diode.
La frquence de rsonance de l'oscillateur est modifie en fonction de la tension inverse
applique la diode VARICAP.

Reprsentation temporelle du signal FM.

Prenons le cas d'un signal modulant sinusodal : u(t)=Amcos(wmt) avec wm<<wp.
L'expression du signal s(t) est alors :





3. MODULATION DE PHASE (PM)

Principe

Dans le cas de la modulation de phase, c'est la phase instantane qui varie linairement
en fonction du signal modulant. Donc, par rapport un signal FM, l'expression du signal s(t)
modul M est :
s(t) = Ap cos(wpt + j(t)) avec j(t) = q Ap cos(wmt) o q est le coefficient de
proportionnalit du modulateur (en rd/V ou rd/A). L'excursion en phase est :
La frquence instantane est donc :


L'excursion en frquence est donc :
Par analogie avec la modulation de frquence, l'indice de modulation est donc :

Notons, que contrairement ce qui se produit pour un signal modul
FM, l'indice de modulation en M est indpendant de la frquence du signal modulant.
En faisant apparatre l'indice de modulation, l'expression du signal s(t) peut se mettre sous la
forme : s(t) = Ap cos(w pt + d cos(wmt)). Le spectre d'un signal modul M est donc identique
celui d'un signal modul FM.


4. MODULATION : SM
Space modulation is a radio Amplitude Modulation technique used in Instrument Landing
Systems that incorporates the use of multiple antennas fed with various radio frequency
powers and phases to create different depths of modulation within various volumes of three-
dimensional airspace. This modulation method differs from internal modulation methods
inside most other radio transmitters in that the phases and powers of the two individual signals
mix within airspace, rather than in a modulator.
An aircraft with an on-board ILS receiver within the capture area of an ILS, (glideslope and
localiser range), will detect varying depths of modulation according to the aircraft's position
within that airspace, providing accurate positional information about the progress to the
threshold.
Method used to determine aircraft position
The ILS uses two radio frequencies, one for each ground station (about 110 MHz for LLZ and
330 MHz for the GP), to transmit two Amplitude Modulated signals (90 Hz and 150 Hz),
along the glidepath (GP) and the localiser (LLZ) trajectories into airspace. it is this signal that
is projected up from the runway which an aircraft using an instrument approach, uses to land.
The modulation depth of each 90 Hz and 150 Hz signal changes according to the deviation of
the aircraft from the correct position for the aircraft to touchdown on the threshold. The
difference between the two signal modulation depths is zero when the aircraft is on the correct
glideslope on approach to the runwayi.e. No difference (zero DDM), produces no deviation
from the middle indication of the instrument's needle within the cockpit of the aircraft.




COMPARAISON DES DIFFERENTES MODULATIONS ANALOGIQUES

Pouvoir quantifier la qualit du signal aprs sa transmission et sa dmodulation est l'un des
points essentiels des techniques de communication. Il est relativement intuitif de comprendre
que le signal reu aprs une transmission longue distance va tre considrablement attnu
et comme par ailleurs, ce signal vont se superposer des parasites, le signal arrivant au
dmodulateur. Enfin, le signal subit diffrent traitement (modulation, amplification,
dmodulation) qui vont entraner des dformations.
Il est d'usage de caractriser le bruit par sa puissance. De ce fait, l'influence du bruit sur un
signal est donn par le rapport signal bruit qui est le rapport de la puissance du signal non
bruit sur la puissance de bruit (SNR : Signal to Noise Ratio). Cette quantit est frquemment
exprime en dcibels

Plus le SNRdB est lev, meilleure est la qualit du signal rcupr.
La mesure de la dformation d'un signal est donn par le taux de distorsion harmonique total
(THD : Total Harmonic Distorsion). La mesure du THD consiste dterminer les
harmoniques du signal aprs traitement au signal original, lequel est un signal sinusodal pur.
Nous reviendrons ultrieurement sur la dtermination des performances des diffrentes
modulations. Retenons simplement les points suivants :




5- La modulation par saut damplitude (ASK)

En modulation par saut damplitude, les symboles transmis sont :



o Am reprsente les M diffrentes amplitudes que peut prendre le signal, codant ainsi les
M=2^k possibles blocs de k bits de la squence.
Pour chaque symbole, lnergie diffre selon ltat de modulation :

Le signal tant unidimensionnel, sa reprsentation vectorielle est :

Le diagramme des constellations et la forme donde des symboles sont reprsents sur la
Figure ci-dessous :
Figure : Forme donde (a) et constellation (b) pour une modulation PAM.
6. La modulation par saut de phase (PSK) :


Le diagramme des constellations ainsi que la forme donde temporelle sont reprsents sur la
Figure ci-dessous :

Figure : Forme donde (a) et constellations (b) pour une modulation PSK.

7. La modulation damplitude en quadrature (QAM) :

Le diagramme des constellations est reprsent sur la Figure ci-dessous :

Figure : Constellations pour une modulation QAM.



8. La modulation par saut de frquence (FSK) :


Figure : Forme donde (a) et constellations (b) pour une modulation FSK.



9. La modulation : BPSK
BPSK est la forme la plus simple du PSK. Elle utilise deux phases qui sont spares de 180 ;
on l'appelle galement 2-PSK. Cette modulation est la plus robuste de toutes les PSK car il
faut une grande dformation du signal pour que le dmodulateur se trompe sur le symbole
reu. Cependant on ne peut moduler qu'un seul bit par symbole (voir le schma), ce qui est un
inconvnient pour les applications qui ncessitent un dbit binaire lev.
Le taux d'erreur binaire du BPSK peut tre calcul ainsi :

Comme il y a un bit par symbole, cela correspond galement au taux d'erreur de symbole.
Applications
Les donnes binaires sont souvent convolues avec les signaux suivants :
pour le "0"
pour le "1"
o f
c
est la frquence de la porteuse.
Donc le signal peut tre reprsent par une unique fonction de base :

o 0 est reprsent par et 1 est reprsent par . Ceci est bien sr
arbitraire.
Une utilisation de cette fonction de base est montre au moyen du diagramme temporel du
signal moduler en section 3.2 et 3.3. Dans ce diagramme, l'onde de forme du haut
correspond la composante cosinus de la modulation PSK, c'est--dire encore, au signal que
le modulateur BPSK produirait. Le train de bits sortant est reprsent au-dessus de l'onde de
forme (le schma tout entier correspond la modulation QPSK)

Figure : Exemple de


: Exemple de diagramme de constellation pour BPSK
10. La modulation : QPSK
Souvent connues sous le nom de 4
constellation quatre points, quidistance autour d'un cercle. A
peut coder deux bits par symbole, cf schma
dbit binaire par deux compar un systme BPSK tout en maintenant
signal ou alors de maintenir le dbit en rduisant la bande passante utilise par deux.
Bien que le QPSK puisse tre vu comme une modulation en quadrature, il est aussi simple de
le considrer comme deux modulations indpendantes. Ave
(ou impairs) sont utiliss pour moduler la composante In
(ou pairs) sont utiliss pour la Quadrature
et peuvent dmodules indpendamment.
La probabilit d'une erreur de bit en QPSK est la mme qu'en BPSK:
.
Cependant, avec deux bits par symbole, le taux d'erreur par symbole augmente:



Si le rapport signal--bruit est lev (comme c'est le cas en pratique pour des systmes
QPSK), la probabilit d'erreur symbole peut tre approxime par:

Comme avec BPSK il y a un problme d'ambiguit sur la phase pour le receveur et l'encodage
diffrentiel de QPSK est souvent utilis en pratique.
Implmentation
L'implmentation de QPSK est plus gnrale et d'un ordre PSK plus lev que BPSK.
L'criture des symboles lis au diagramme de constellation en termes de composantes sinus et
cosinus est reprsente par:
Avec, donc, les quatre valeurs de phases suivantes:
: QPSK
Souvent connues sous le nom de 4-PSK ou QPSK, cette modulation utilise un diagramme de
quatre points, quidistance autour d'un cercle. Avec quatre phases, QPSK
peut coder deux bits par symbole, cf schma code de Gray Cela permet de soit multiplier le
dbit binaire par deux compar un systme BPSK tout en maintenant la bande passante du
signal ou alors de maintenir le dbit en rduisant la bande passante utilise par deux.
Bien que le QPSK puisse tre vu comme une modulation en quadrature, il est aussi simple de
le considrer comme deux modulations indpendantes. Avec cette interprtation, les bits pairs
(ou impairs) sont utiliss pour moduler la composante In-Phase(I), tandis que les bits impairs
(ou pairs) sont utiliss pour la Quadrature-phase (Q). BPSK est utilis sur les deux porteuses
endamment.
La probabilit d'une erreur de bit en QPSK est la mme qu'en BPSK:
Cependant, avec deux bits par symbole, le taux d'erreur par symbole augmente:
.
est lev (comme c'est le cas en pratique pour des systmes
QPSK), la probabilit d'erreur symbole peut tre approxime par:
BPSK il y a un problme d'ambiguit sur la phase pour le receveur et l'encodage
diffrentiel de QPSK est souvent utilis en pratique.
L'implmentation de QPSK est plus gnrale et d'un ordre PSK plus lev que BPSK.
lis au diagramme de constellation en termes de composantes sinus et
.
Avec, donc, les quatre valeurs de phases suivantes: / 4, 3 / 4, 5 / 4 and 7 / 4.
diagramme de
vec quatre phases, QPSK
Cela permet de soit multiplier le
la bande passante du
signal ou alors de maintenir le dbit en rduisant la bande passante utilise par deux.
Bien que le QPSK puisse tre vu comme une modulation en quadrature, il est aussi simple de
c cette interprtation, les bits pairs
Phase(I), tandis que les bits impairs
phase (Q). BPSK est utilis sur les deux porteuses
est lev (comme c'est le cas en pratique pour des systmes
BPSK il y a un problme d'ambiguit sur la phase pour le receveur et l'encodage
L'implmentation de QPSK est plus gnrale et d'un ordre PSK plus lev que BPSK.
lis au diagramme de constellation en termes de composantes sinus et
/ 4.
Les deux composantes du signal sont donnes par les
La fonction de base
1
(t) donne la composante I ou In
ou Quadrature permettant ainsi de reprsenter les tats de phase du signal par quatre
points
Le facteur 1 / 2 indique que la puissance totale est galement rpartie entre les deux porteuses.
En comparant ces expressions avec celles
comme deux signaux BQSK indpendants. QPSK peut
Signaux QPSK dans le domaine temporel
Le signal moduler reprsent sur la figure ci
alatoire rparti sur l'intervalle de donnes Data. Les deux ondes porteuses situes dans la
partie suprieure du schma correspondent respectivement la composante cosinus (I ou In
phase) et la composante sinus (Q ou Quadrature). Les bits impairs
composante In-phase et les bits pairs la composante Quadrature (le premier bit est forc 1).
La rsultante de la somme des deux composantes I et Q donne le signal reprsent en bas de
la figure. Les sauts de phase sur chaque composa
changements de phase PSK survenant au dmarrage d'une pri
haut prise isolment correspond la description de BPSK

Les deux composantes du signal sont donnes par les fonctions de base suivantes:


) donne la composante I ou In-phase et
2
(t) la composante Q
ou Quadrature permettant ainsi de reprsenter les tats de phase du signal par quatre
.
Le facteur 1 / 2 indique que la puissance totale est galement rpartie entre les deux porteuses.
En comparant ces expressions avec celles de BPSK, on remarque que QPSK peut s'interprter
comme deux signaux BQSK indpendants. QPSK peut-tre implment de diffrentes faons.
Signaux QPSK dans le domaine temporel
Le signal moduler reprsent sur la figure ci-dessous est donn pour un train de bits
alatoire rparti sur l'intervalle de donnes Data. Les deux ondes porteuses situes dans la
partie suprieure du schma correspondent respectivement la composante cosinus (I ou In
phase) et la composante sinus (Q ou Quadrature). Les bits impairs sont assigns la
phase et les bits pairs la composante Quadrature (le premier bit est forc 1).
La rsultante de la somme des deux composantes I et Q donne le signal reprsent en bas de
la figure. Les sauts de phase sur chaque composante peuvent-tre considrs comme des
changements de phase PSK survenant au dmarrage d'une priode binaire. La forme d'onde du
haut prise isolment correspond la description de BPSK
suivantes:

) la composante Q
ou Quadrature permettant ainsi de reprsenter les tats de phase du signal par quatre
Le facteur 1 / 2 indique que la puissance totale est galement rpartie entre les deux porteuses.
de BPSK, on remarque que QPSK peut s'interprter
tre implment de diffrentes faons.
de bits
alatoire rparti sur l'intervalle de donnes Data. Les deux ondes porteuses situes dans la
partie suprieure du schma correspondent respectivement la composante cosinus (I ou In-
sont assigns la
phase et les bits pairs la composante Quadrature (le premier bit est forc 1).
La rsultante de la somme des deux composantes I et Q donne le signal reprsent en bas de
tre considrs comme des
ode binaire. La forme d'onde du
11. La modulation : m- PSK

PhaseShift Keying : Modulation par saut de phase. La phase du signal modul peut prendre
m valeurs diffrentes. Ce type de modulation est utilis pour des signaux m-aires mais le plus
souvent dans les cas m=2 et m=4. La PSK-m est la plus robuste vis--vis du bruit.
Typiquement, ce type de modulation est mis en oeuvre pour les tlcommunications par
satellite.



Il existe de nombreuses variantes de PSK : DPSK, ODPSK


12. La modulation : Offset QPSK (OQPSK)
Offset quadrature phase-shift keying
using 4 different values of the phase to transmit. It is sometimes called
phase-shift keying (SQPSK).


Signal doesn't cross zero, because only one bit of the symbol is changed at a time

Difference of the phase between QPSK and OQPSK
Taking four values of the phase (two
phase of the signal to jump by as much as 180 at a time. When the signal is low
(as is typical in a transmitter), these phase
undesirable quality in communication systems. By offsetting the timing of the odd and even
bits by one bit-period, or half a symbol
never change at the same time. In the constellation diagram shown on the right, it can be seen
that this will limit the phase-shift to no more than 90 at a time. This yields much lower
amplitude fluctuations than non-offset QPSK and is sometimes preferred in practice.
The picture on the right shows the difference in the behavior of the phase between ordinary
QPSK and OQPSK. It can be seen that in the first plot the phase can change by 180 at once,
while in OQPSK the changes are never greater than 90.
Offset QPSK (OQPSK)
shift keying (OQPSK) is a variant of phase-shift keying modulation
using 4 different values of the phase to transmit. It is sometimes called Staggered quadrature

doesn't cross zero, because only one bit of the symbol is changed at a time

Difference of the phase between QPSK and OQPSK
Taking four values of the phase (two bits) at a time to construct a QPSK symbol can allow the
phase of the signal to jump by as much as 180 at a time. When the signal is low-
(as is typical in a transmitter), these phase-shifts result in large amplitude fluctuations, an
undesirable quality in communication systems. By offsetting the timing of the odd and even
period, or half a symbol-period, the in-phase and quadrature components will
time. In the constellation diagram shown on the right, it can be seen
shift to no more than 90 at a time. This yields much lower
offset QPSK and is sometimes preferred in practice.
e on the right shows the difference in the behavior of the phase between ordinary
QPSK and OQPSK. It can be seen that in the first plot the phase can change by 180 at once,
while in OQPSK the changes are never greater than 90.
shift keying modulation
Staggered quadrature
doesn't cross zero, because only one bit of the symbol is changed at a time
) at a time to construct a QPSK symbol can allow the
-pass filtered
ifts result in large amplitude fluctuations, an
undesirable quality in communication systems. By offsetting the timing of the odd and even
phase and quadrature components will
time. In the constellation diagram shown on the right, it can be seen
shift to no more than 90 at a time. This yields much lower
offset QPSK and is sometimes preferred in practice.
e on the right shows the difference in the behavior of the phase between ordinary
QPSK and OQPSK. It can be seen that in the first plot the phase can change by 180 at once,
The modulated signal is shown below for a short segment of a random binary data
Note the half symbol-period offset between the two component waves. The sudden phase
shifts occur about twice as often as for QPSK (since the signals no longer change together),
but they are less severe. In other words, the magnitude of jumps is smaller in OQPSK when
compared to QPSK.
Timing diagram for offset-QPSK. The binary data stream is shown beneath the time axis. The two
signal components with their bit assignments are shown the top and
bottom. Note the half-period offset between the two signal components.


wn below for a short segment of a random binary data
period offset between the two component waves. The sudden phase
shifts occur about twice as often as for QPSK (since the signals no longer change together),
severe. In other words, the magnitude of jumps is smaller in OQPSK when
QPSK. The binary data stream is shown beneath the time axis. The two
signal components with their bit assignments are shown the top and the total, combined signal at the
period offset between the two signal components.
wn below for a short segment of a random binary data-stream.
period offset between the two component waves. The sudden phase-
shifts occur about twice as often as for QPSK (since the signals no longer change together),
severe. In other words, the magnitude of jumps is smaller in OQPSK when

QPSK. The binary data stream is shown beneath the time axis. The two
the total, combined signal at the
13. La modulation : /4
This final variant of QPSK uses two identical constellations which are rotated by 45 (
radians, hence the name) with respect to one another. Usually, either the even or odd symbols
are used to select points from one of the constellations and the other symbols select points
from the other constellation. This also reduces the phase
only to a maximum of 135 and so the amplitude fluctuations of
OQPSK and non-offset QPSK.

two separate constellations with identical Gray coding but rotated by 45 w
One property this modulation scheme possesses is that if the modulated signal is represented
in the complex domain, it does not have any paths through the origin. In other words, the
signal does not pass through the origin. This
signal which is desirable when engineering communications signals.
On the other hand, / 4QPSK lends itself to easy demodulation and has been adopted for use
in, for example, TDMA cellular telephone
The modulated signal is shown b
The construction is the same as above for ordinary QPSK. Successive symbols are taken from
the two constellations shown in the diagram. Thus, the first symbol (1 1) is taken from the
'blue' constellation and the second symbol (0 0) is taken from the 'green' constellation. Note
that magnitudes of the two component waves change as they switch between constellations,
but the total signal's magnitude remains constant. The phase
two previous timing-diagrams.
QPSK
This final variant of QPSK uses two identical constellations which are rotated by 45 (
with respect to one another. Usually, either the even or odd symbols
are used to select points from one of the constellations and the other symbols select points
from the other constellation. This also reduces the phase-shifts from a maximum of 180, but
nly to a maximum of 135 and so the amplitude fluctuations of / 4QPSK are between
Dual constellation diagram for /4-QPSK. This shows the
two separate constellations with identical Gray coding but rotated by 45 with respect to each other.
One property this modulation scheme possesses is that if the modulated signal is represented
in the complex domain, it does not have any paths through the origin. In other words, the
signal does not pass through the origin. This lowers the dynamical range of fluctuations in the
signal which is desirable when engineering communications signals.
QPSK lends itself to easy demodulation and has been adopted for use
cellular telephone systems.
The modulated signal is shown below for a short segment of a random binary data
The construction is the same as above for ordinary QPSK. Successive symbols are taken from
the two constellations shown in the diagram. Thus, the first symbol (1 1) is taken from the
tion and the second symbol (0 0) is taken from the 'green' constellation. Note
that magnitudes of the two component waves change as they switch between constellations,
but the total signal's magnitude remains constant. The phase-shifts are between those of
This final variant of QPSK uses two identical constellations which are rotated by 45 ( / 4
with respect to one another. Usually, either the even or odd symbols
are used to select points from one of the constellations and the other symbols select points
shifts from a maximum of 180, but
QPSK are between
QPSK. This shows the
ith respect to each other.
One property this modulation scheme possesses is that if the modulated signal is represented
in the complex domain, it does not have any paths through the origin. In other words, the
lowers the dynamical range of fluctuations in the
QPSK lends itself to easy demodulation and has been adopted for use
elow for a short segment of a random binary data-stream.
The construction is the same as above for ordinary QPSK. Successive symbols are taken from
the two constellations shown in the diagram. Thus, the first symbol (1 1) is taken from the
tion and the second symbol (0 0) is taken from the 'green' constellation. Note
that magnitudes of the two component waves change as they switch between constellations,
shifts are between those of the
Timing diagram for /4-QPSK. The binary data stream is shown beneath the time axis. The two signal
components with their bit assignments are shown the top and the total, combined signal at the
bottom. Note that successive symbols are taken alternately from the two constellations, starting with
the 'blue' one.


QPSK. The binary data stream is shown beneath the time axis. The two signal
components with their bit assignments are shown the top and the total, combined signal at the
ve symbols are taken alternately from the two constellations, starting with

QPSK. The binary data stream is shown beneath the time axis. The two signal
components with their bit assignments are shown the top and the total, combined signal at the
ve symbols are taken alternately from the two constellations, starting with
14. La modulation : SOQPSK
The license-free shaped-offset QPSK (SOQPSK) is interoperable with Feher-patented QPSK
(FQPSK), in the sense that an integrate-and-dump offset QPSK detector produces the same
output no matter which kind of transmitter.
These modulations carefully shape the I and Q waveforms such that they change very
smoothly, and the signal stays constant-amplitude even during signal transitions. (Rather than
traveling instantly from one symbol to another, or even linearly, it travels smoothly around
the constant-amplitude circle from one symbol to the next.)
The standard description of SOQPSK-TG involves ternary symbols.

15. La modulation : DPQPSK
Dual-polarization quadrature phase shift keying (DPQPSK) or dual-polarization QPSK -
involves the polarization multiplexing of two different QPSK signals, thus improving the
spectral efficiency by a factor of 2. This is a cost-effective alternative, to utilizing 16-PSK
instead of QPSK to double the spectral the efficiency.




16. La modulation : DPSK (Differential encoding)
Differential phase shift keying (DPSK) is a common form of phase modulation that conveys
data by changing the phase of the carrier wave. As mentioned for BPSK and QPSK there is an
ambiguity of phase if the constellation is rotated by some effect in the communications
channel through which the signal passes. This problem can be overcome by using the data to
change rather than set the phase.
For example, in differentially-encoded BPSK a binary '1' may be transmitted by adding 180
to the current phase and a binary '0' by adding 0 to the current phase. Another variant of
DPSK is Symmetric Differential Phase Shift keying, SDPSK, where encoding would be +90
for a '1' and -90 for a '0'.
In differentially-encoded QPSK (DQPSK), the phase-shifts are 0, 90, 180, -90
corresponding to data '00', '01', '11', '10'. This kind of encoding may be demodulated in the
same way as for non-differential PSK but the phase ambiguities can be ignored. Thus, each
received symbol is demodulated to one of the M points in the constellation and a comparator
then computes the difference in phase between this received signal and the preceding one. The
difference encodes the data as described above. Symmetric Differential Quadrature Phase
Shift Keying (SDQPSK) is like DQPSK, but encoding is symmetric, using phase shift values
of -135, -45, +45 and +135.
The modulated signal is shown below for both DBPSK and DQPSK as described above. In
the figure, it is assumed that the signal starts with zero phase, and so there is a phase shift in
both signals at t = 0.

Timing diagram for DBPSK and DQPSK. The binary data stream is above the DBPSK signal.
The individual bits of the DBPSK signal are grouped into pairs for the DQPSK signal, which
only changes every T
s
= 2T
b
.
Analysis shows that differential encoding approximately doubles the error rate compared to
ordinary M-PSK but this may be overcome by only a small increase in E
b
/ N
0
. Furthermore,
this analysis (and the graphical results below) are based on a system in which the only
corruption is additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN). However, there will also be a physical
channel between the transmitter and receiver in the communication system. This channel will,
in general, introduce an unknown phase-shift to the PSK signal; in these cases the differential
schemes can yield a better error-rate than the ordinary schemes which rely on precise phase
information.

17. La modulation : Audio FSK
Audio frequency-shift keying (AFSK) is a modulation technique by which digital data is
represented by changes in the frequency (pitch) of an audio tone, yielding an encoded signal
suitable for transmission via radio or telephone. Normally, the transmitted audio alternates
between two tones: one, the "mark", represents a binary one; the other, the "space", represents
a binary zero.
AFSK differs from regular frequency-shift keying in performing the modulation at baseband
frequencies. In radio applications, the AFSK-modulated signal normally is being used to
modulate an RF carrier (using a conventional technique, such as AM or FM) for transmission.
AFSK is not always used for high-speed data communications, since it is far less efficient in
both power and bandwidth than most other modulation modes. In addition to its simplicity,
however, AFSK has the advantage that encoded signals will pass through AC-coupled links,
including most equipment originally designed to carry music or speech.

18. La modulation : MSK

Minimum PhaseShift Keying : Modulation par saut de phase. La phase du signal modul
peut prendre m valeurs diffrentes. Ce type de modulation est utilis pour des signaux
m-aires mais le plus souvent dans les cas m=2 et m=4. Dans cette modulation, la phase varie
continment car la modulation revient une modulation de frquence. Le diagramme de
constellation est alors identique celui dune PSK-m.
La MSK est galement trs robuste au bruit. Cest la modulation employe en tlphonie
GSM et DCS.

19. La modulation : MFSK
Multiple frequency-shift keying (MFSK) is a variation of frequency-shift keying (FSK) that
uses more than two frequencies. MFSK is a form of M-ary orthogonal modulation, where
each symbol consists of one element from an alphabet of orthogonal waveforms. M, the size
of the alphabet, is usually a power of two so that each symbol represents log
2
M bits.
M is usually between 2 and 64
Error Correction is generally also used
How it works
Like other M-ary orthogonal schemes, the required E
b
/N
0
ratio for a given probability of error
decreases as M increases without the need for multisymbol coherent detection.
In fact, as M approaches infinity the required E
b
/N
0
ratio decreases asymptotically to the
Shannon limit of -1.6 dB. However this decrease is slow with increasing M, and large values
are impractical because of the exponential increase in required bandwidth. Typical values in
practice range from 4 to 64, and MFSK is combined with another forward error correction
scheme to provide additional (systematic) coding gain.
Types
Defined examples of a multiple frequency-shift keying system include dual-tone multi-
frequency (DTMF), which is used in touch tone phones and the Multi-frequency trunk signals
used in Twentieth Century telephone exchanges.
These signals are distinctive when received auraly. Their main feature is a rapid succession of
tones with almost musical quality.

20. La modulation : DTMF
Dual-tone multi-frequency signaling (DTMF) is used for telecommunication signaling over
analog telephone lines in the voice-frequency band between telephone handsets and other
communications devices and the switching center. The version of DTMF that is used in push-
button telephones for tone dialing is known as Touch-Tone, was first used by AT&T in
commerce as a registered trademark, and is standardized by ITU-T Recommendation Q.23. It
is also known in the UK as MF4.
Other multi-frequency systems are used for internal signaling within the telephone network.
The Touch-Tone system, using the telephone keypad, gradually replaced the use of rotary dial
starting in 1963, and since then DTMF or Touch-Tone became the industry standard for both
cell phones and landline service.
Keypad
The DTMF keypad is laid out in a 44 matrix, with each row representing a low frequency, and each
column representing a high frequency. Pressing a single key (such as '1' ) will send a sinusoidal tone
for each of the two frequencies (697 and 1209 hertz (Hz)). The original keypads had levers inside, so
each button activated two contacts. The multiple tones are the reason for calling the system
multifrequency. These tones are then decoded by the switching center to determine which key was
pressed.
DTMF keypad frequencies (with sound clips)

1209 Hz 1336 Hz 1477 Hz 1633 Hz
697 Hz 1 2 3 A
770 Hz 4 5 6 B
852 Hz 7 8 9 C
941 Hz * 0 # D


21. La modulation : CPFSK
Continuous-phase frequency-shift keying
frequency-shift keying (FSK), which is itself a special case of analog
FSK is a method of modulating digital data
information present in the data to variations in the carrier's
one of two frequencies (referred to as the
standard FSK signal does not have
instantaneously between two sinusoids with different frequencies.
As the name suggests, the phase of a CPFSK is in fact continuous; this attribute is desirable
for signals that are to be transmitted over a
introduce wideband frequency components. In addition, some classes of amplifiers exhibit
nonlinear behavior when driven with nearly
effects on the shape of the transmitted signal.
Theory
If a finitely-valued digital signal to be transmitted (the message) is
corresponding CPFSK signal is
where A
c
represents the amplitude of the CPFSK signal,
D
f
is a parameter that controls the
located inside of the cosine's argument is what gives the CPFSK signal its continuous phase;
an integral over any finitely-valued function (which
any discontinuities. If the message signal is assumed to be
integral change to a lower bound of zero and a higher bound of
Note that this does not mean that
waveforms contain discontinuities. However, even a discontinuous message signal will
generate a proper CPFSK signal.


21. La modulation : CPFSK (Continuous-phase frequency-shift keying
shift keying (CPFSK) is a commonly-used variation of
(FSK), which is itself a special case of analog frequency modulation
digital data onto a sinusoidal carrier wave, encoding the
information present in the data to variations in the carrier's instantaneous frequency
one of two frequencies (referred to as the space frequency and mark frequency). In general, a
standard FSK signal does not have continuous phase, as the modulated waveform switches
instantaneously between two sinusoids with different frequencies.
As the name suggests, the phase of a CPFSK is in fact continuous; this attribute is desirable
for signals that are to be transmitted over a bandlimited channel, as discontinuities
frequency components. In addition, some classes of amplifiers exhibit
nonlinear behavior when driven with nearly-discontinuous signals; this could have undesired
effects on the shape of the transmitted signal.
ignal to be transmitted (the message) is m(t), then the

represents the amplitude of the CPFSK signal, f
c
is the base carrier frequency
is a parameter that controls the frequency deviation of the modulated signal. The
's argument is what gives the CPFSK signal its continuous phase;
valued function (which m(t) is assumed to be) will not contain
any discontinuities. If the message signal is assumed to be causal, then the limits on the
integral change to a lower bound of zero and a higher bound of t.
Note that this does not mean that m(t) must be continuous; in fact, most ideal digital data
waveforms contain discontinuities. However, even a discontinuous message signal will

shift keying)
used variation of
frequency modulation.
, encoding the
instantaneous frequency between
). In general, a
dulated waveform switches
As the name suggests, the phase of a CPFSK is in fact continuous; this attribute is desirable
discontinuities in a signal
frequency components. In addition, some classes of amplifiers exhibit
discontinuous signals; this could have undesired
), then the
frequency, and
of the modulated signal. The integral
's argument is what gives the CPFSK signal its continuous phase;
) is assumed to be) will not contain
, then the limits on the
) must be continuous; in fact, most ideal digital data
waveforms contain discontinuities. However, even a discontinuous message signal will
22. La modulation : FSK-m

FrequencyShift Keying : Modulation par saut de frquence. La frquence du signal modul
peut prendre m valeurs diffrentes. Ce type de modulation est utilis pour des signaux m-aires
mais le plus souvent dans le cas m=2.
Cest lexception la rgle car :



23. La modulation damplitude en quadrature (QAM) :

Le diagramme des constellations est reprsent sur la Figure ci-dessous :

Figure : Constellations pour une modulation QAM.


24. La modulation : PM (
Polar modulation is analogous to
coordinates are analogous to Cartesian coordinates
Cartesian coordinates, x and y. When considering quadrature modulation, the
the I (in-phase) axis, and the y axis is called the
use of polar coordinates, r (amplitude) and
The quadrature modulator approach to
amplifier which creates a design conflict between improving power efficiency or maintaining
amplifier linearity. Compromising linearity causes degraded signal quality, usually by
adjacent channel degradation, which can be a fundamental factor in limiting network
performance and capacity. Additional problems with linear RF power amplifiers include
device parametric restrictions, temperature instability, power control accuracy, wide
noise and production yields are also common. On the other hand compromising power
efficiency increases power consumption (which reduces battery life in handheld devices) and
generates more heat.
The issue of linearity in a power amplifier can theoreti
input signal of the power amplifier be "constant envelope", i.e. contain no amplitude
variations. In a polar modulation system, the power amplifier input signal may vary only in
phase. Amplitude modulation is then a
power amplifier through changing or modulating its supply voltage. Thus a polar modulation
system allows the use of highly non
Class F.
In order to create the Polar signal, the phase transfer of the amplifier must be known over at
least a 17 dB amplitude range. As the phase transitions from one to another, there will be an
amplitude perturbation that can be calculated during the transition as,
where n is the number of samples of I and Q and should be sufficiently large to allow an
accurate tracing of the signal. One hundred samples per symbol would be about the lowest
number that is workable.
Now that the amplitude change of the signal is known, the phase error introduced by the
amplifier at each amplitude change can be used to pre
the phase error at each amplitude from the modulating I and Q s




24. La modulation : PM (Polar modulation)
is analogous to quadrature modulation in the same way that polar
Cartesian coordinates. Quadrature modulation makes use of
. When considering quadrature modulation, the x axis is called
axis is called the Q (quadrature) axis. Polar modulation makes
(amplitude) and (phase).
he quadrature modulator approach to digital radio transmission requires a linear
which creates a design conflict between improving power efficiency or maintaining
amplifier linearity. Compromising linearity causes degraded signal quality, usually by
adjacent channel degradation, which can be a fundamental factor in limiting network
performance and capacity. Additional problems with linear RF power amplifiers include
device parametric restrictions, temperature instability, power control accuracy, wide
noise and production yields are also common. On the other hand compromising power
efficiency increases power consumption (which reduces battery life in handheld devices) and
The issue of linearity in a power amplifier can theoretically be mitigated by requiring that the
input signal of the power amplifier be "constant envelope", i.e. contain no amplitude
variations. In a polar modulation system, the power amplifier input signal may vary only in
phase. Amplitude modulation is then accomplished by directly controlling the gain of the
power amplifier through changing or modulating its supply voltage. Thus a polar modulation
non-linear power amplifier architectures such as
In order to create the Polar signal, the phase transfer of the amplifier must be known over at
least a 17 dB amplitude range. As the phase transitions from one to another, there will be an
ation that can be calculated during the transition as,

where n is the number of samples of I and Q and should be sufficiently large to allow an
accurate tracing of the signal. One hundred samples per symbol would be about the lowest
Now that the amplitude change of the signal is known, the phase error introduced by the
amplifier at each amplitude change can be used to pre-distort the signal. One simply subtracts
the phase error at each amplitude from the modulating I and Q signals.
polar
kes use of
axis is called
(quadrature) axis. Polar modulation makes
linear RF power
which creates a design conflict between improving power efficiency or maintaining
amplifier linearity. Compromising linearity causes degraded signal quality, usually by
adjacent channel degradation, which can be a fundamental factor in limiting network
performance and capacity. Additional problems with linear RF power amplifiers include
device parametric restrictions, temperature instability, power control accuracy, wideband
noise and production yields are also common. On the other hand compromising power
efficiency increases power consumption (which reduces battery life in handheld devices) and
cally be mitigated by requiring that the
input signal of the power amplifier be "constant envelope", i.e. contain no amplitude
variations. In a polar modulation system, the power amplifier input signal may vary only in
ccomplished by directly controlling the gain of the
power amplifier through changing or modulating its supply voltage. Thus a polar modulation
such as Class E and
In order to create the Polar signal, the phase transfer of the amplifier must be known over at
least a 17 dB amplitude range. As the phase transitions from one to another, there will be an
where n is the number of samples of I and Q and should be sufficiently large to allow an
accurate tracing of the signal. One hundred samples per symbol would be about the lowest
Now that the amplitude change of the signal is known, the phase error introduced by the
distort the signal. One simply subtracts

25. La modulation : CPM
Continuous phase modulation (CPM) is a method for modulation of data commonly used in
wireless modems. In contrast to other coherent digital phase modulation techniques where the
carrier phase abruptly resets to zero at the start of every symbol (e.g. M-PSK), with CPM the
carrier phase is modulated in a continuous manner. For instance, with QPSK the carrier
instantaneously jumps from a sine to a cosine (i.e. a 90 degree phase shift) whenever one of
the two message bits of the current symbol differs from the two message bits of the previous
symbol. This discontinuity requires a relatively large percentage of the power to occur outside
of the intended band (e.g., high fractional out-of-band power), leading to poor spectral
efficiency. Furthermore, CPM is typically implemented as a constant-envelope waveform, i.e.
the transmitted carrier power is constant. Therefore, CPM is attractive because the phase
continuity yields high spectral efficiency, and the constant-envelope yields excellent power
efficiency. The primary drawback is the high implementation complexity required for an
optimal receiver.


26. La modulation : MSK
In digital modulation, minimum-
frequency-shift keying that was developed in the late 1950s and 1960s.
MSK is encoded with bits alternating between quaternary components, with the Q component
delayed by half the symbol period. However, instead of square pulses as OQPSK uses, MSK
encodes each bit as a half sinusoid
problems caused by non-linear distortion. In addition to being viewed as related to OQPSK,
MSK can also be viewed as a continuous phase frequency shift keyed (CPFSK) signal with a
frequency separation of one-half the bit rate.
Mathematical representation
The resulting signal is represented by the formula
where a
I
(t) and a
Q
(t) encode the even and odd information respectively with a sequence of
square pulses of duration 2T. Using the
where the phase and frequency modulation are more obvious,
where b
k
(t) is +1 when a
I
(t) = a
Q
(
and otherwise. Therefore, the signal is modulated in frequency and phase, and the phase
continuously and linearly changes.

Mapping changes in
MSK
-shift keying (MSK) is a type of continuous-phase
that was developed in the late 1950s and 1960s.
[1]
Similar to
MSK is encoded with bits alternating between quaternary components, with the Q component
period. However, instead of square pulses as OQPSK uses, MSK
sinusoid. This results in a constant-modulus signal, which reduces
linear distortion. In addition to being viewed as related to OQPSK,
MSK can also be viewed as a continuous phase frequency shift keyed (CPFSK) signal with a
half the bit rate.
Mathematical representation
The resulting signal is represented by the formula
encode the even and odd information respectively with a sequence of
. Using the trigonometric identity, this can be rewritten in a form
where the phase and frequency modulation are more obvious,

(t) and -1 if they are of opposite signs, and
k
is 0 if
otherwise. Therefore, the signal is modulated in frequency and phase, and the phase
continuously and linearly changes.

Mapping changes in continuous phase
phase
Similar to OQPSK,
MSK is encoded with bits alternating between quaternary components, with the Q component
period. However, instead of square pulses as OQPSK uses, MSK
modulus signal, which reduces
linear distortion. In addition to being viewed as related to OQPSK,
MSK can also be viewed as a continuous phase frequency shift keyed (CPFSK) signal with a

encode the even and odd information respectively with a sequence of
, this can be rewritten in a form
is 0 if a
I
(t) is 1,
otherwise. Therefore, the signal is modulated in frequency and phase, and the phase
27. La modulation : GMSK

Gaussian minimum-shift keying
In digital communication, Gaussian minimum shift keying or GMSK is a continuous-phase
frequency-shift keying modulation scheme. It is similar to standard minimum-shift keying
(MSK); however the digital data stream is first shaped with a Gaussian filter before being
applied to a frequency modulator. This has the advantage of reducing sideband power, which
in turn reduces out-of-band interference between signal carriers in adjacent frequency
channels. However, the Gaussian filter increases the modulation memory in the system and
causes intersymbol interference, making it more difficult to discriminate between different
transmitted data values and requiring more complex channel equalization algorithms such as
an adaptive equalizer at the receiver. GMSK has high spectral efficiency, but it needs a higher
power level than QPSK, for instance, in order to reliably transmit the same amount of data.
GMSK is most notably used in the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM).


28. La modulation : OFDM
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), essentially identical to coded
OFDM (COFDM) and discrete multi-tone modulation (DMT), is a frequency-division
multiplexing (FDM) scheme utilized as a digital multi-carrier modulation method. A large
number of closely-spaced orthogonal sub-carriers are used to carry data. The data is divided
into several parallel data streams or channels, one for each sub-carrier. Each sub-carrier is
modulated with a conventional modulation scheme (such as quadrature amplitude modulation
or phase-shift keying) at a low symbol rate, maintaining total data rates similar to
conventional single-carrier modulation schemes in the same bandwidth.
OFDM has developed into a popular scheme for wideband digital communication, whether
wireless or over copper wires, used in applications such as digital television and audio
broadcasting, wireless networking and broadband internet access.
The primary advantage of OFDM over single-carrier schemes is its ability to cope with severe
channel conditions (for example, attenuation of high frequencies in a long copper wire,
narrowband interference and frequency-selective fading due to multipath) without complex
equalization filters. Channel equalization is simplified because OFDM may be viewed as
using many slowly-modulated narrowband signals rather than one rapidly-modulated
wideband signal. The low symbol rate makes the use of a guard interval between symbols
affordable, making it possible to handle time-spreading and eliminate intersymbol
interference (ISI). This mechanism also facilitates the design of single frequency networks
(SFNs), where several adjacent transmitters send the same signal simultaneously at the same
frequency, as the signals from multiple distant transmitters may be combined constructively,
rather than interfering as would typically occur in a traditional single-carrier system.


29. La modulation : WM
Wavelet modulation, also known as fractal modulation, is a modulation technique that
makes use of wavelet transformations to represent the data being transmitted. One of the
objectives of this type of modulation is to send data at multiple rates over a channel that is
unknown. If the channel is not clear for one specific bit rate, meaning that the signal will not
be received, the signal can be sent at a different bit rate where the signal to noise ratio is
higher.


30. La modulation : TCM
In telecommunication, trellis modulation (also known as trellis coded modulation, or
simply TCM) is a modulation scheme which allows highly efficient transmission of
information over band-limited channels such as telephone lines. Trellis modulation was
invented by Gottfried Ungerboeck working for IBM in the 1970s, and first described in a
conference paper in 1976; but it went largely unnoticed until he published a new detailed
exposition in 1982 which achieved sudden widespread recognition.
In the late 1980s, modems operating over plain old telephone service (POTS) typically
achieved 9.6 kbit/s by employing 4 bits per symbol QAM modulation at 2,400 baud
(symbols/second). This bit rate ceiling existed despite the best efforts of many researchers,
and some engineers predicted that without a major upgrade of the public phone infrastructure,
the maximum achievable rate for a POTS modem might be 14 kbit/s for two-way
communication (3,429 baud 4 bits/symbol, using QAM).
[citation needed]
However, 14 kbit/s is
only 40% of the theoretical maximum bit rate predicted by Shannon's Theorem for POTS
lines (approximately 35 kbit/s).


31. La modulation : PAM

Principe :
La modulation d'impulsion en amplitude ou PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation) est d'un
principe simple. Il consiste utiliser un chantillonneurbloqueur pour obtenir le signal s(t)
par partir du signal informatif u(t), chantillonn intervalles de temps rguliers.
Le signal s(t) est obtenu en multipliant le signal u(t) par un signal carr c(t) de priode
Te dont le taux de remplissage r est infrieur (=/Te). L'allure du signal s(t) est alors
illustre par la figure cidessous :




32. Modulation par dure d'impulsion ou PDM

La modulation par dure d'impulsion ou PDM (Pulse Duration Modulation) consiste
chantillonn u(t). A chaque front montant de l'horloge, le signal modul est un signal carr
dont le rapport cyclique varie en modifiant la dure en fonction de l'amplitude du signal
u(t). Le signal prend alors la forme suivante :




Par rapport la modulation PAM, la modulation PDM prsente l'avantage d'une bonne
immunit aux bruits. La modulation PDM peut tre ralise en utilisant une modulation PAM
suivie d'une conversion amplitudetemps.





33. Modulation d'impulsion en position PPM

La modulation par dure d'impulsion ou PPM (Pulse Position Modulation) consiste
chantillonner u(t). A chaque front montant de l'horloge, le signal modul s(t) est un train
d'impulsions. Chaque impulsion est retarde de , par rapport l'horloge, en fonction de
l'amplitude du signal u(t). Le signal prend alors la forme suivante :



La modulation PPM peut-tre obtenue simplement en ralisant une opration XOR entre un
signal modul PDM et une horloge dont le taux de remplissage est =1/2. La puissance
ncessaire la transmission du signal PPM est indpendante du signal modulant.
Les signaux L'encombrement spectral est cependant relativement important.

Conclusion

De part leurs caractristiques, les modulations PDM et surtout PPM (et sont extension PFM)
sont surtout utilises pour les transmissions de signaux analogiques sur fibres optiques, en
tlcommande IR ou en tlmtrie.






34. La modulation : Modulation delta

Principe

Une des techniques de codage consiste coder chaque instant nTe, pour un signal u(t), l'cart
entre le signal chantillonn u*(t) et un signal ue(t), estimation de u(t), obtenue par
extrapolation u(t-Te). En modulation delta, ue(t) est un signal en escalier qui ne peut varier que
d'un pas de quantification q entre deux instants d'chantillonnage. C'est alors tout simplement
l'cart entre u(t) et ue(t-Te) qui est cod par un bit. Si u(t)ue(t-Te)>0 alors le bit transmis vaut
"1" et ue(t)=ue(t-Te)-q, sinon, le bit transmis vaut "0" et ue(t)=ue(t-Te)+q.

Un synoptique de la modulation delta est donne ci-dessous :




35. Codage delta autoadaptatif

Pour amliorer la qualit du codage en conservant la mme frquence d'chantillonnage, il
peut tre intressant de faire varier le pas de quantification. Puisque le codage delta est un
codage diffrentiel, il est intressant de faire varier le pas q en fonction de la pente de u(t). La
variation du pas q peut tre ralise par des moyens analogiques ou numriques. Dans ce
dernier cas, c'est l'analyse de la squence de bits issus du comparateur qui induit le
changement de q (en particulier, les longues squences de "1" ou de "0"). Ce type de codage
est appel PACN (codage delta pente asservie et codage numrique).

Autres applications

En dehors de la tlphonie, le codage delta est galement trs bien adapt la transmission
des images. En effet, dans les cas les plus frquents, les signaux codant des images sont
caractriss par des spectres dont l'amplitude dcrot avec la frquence.


36. DPCM (ADPCM)
Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM) is a variant of DPCM (differential pulse-code modulation) that
varies the size of the quantization step, to allow further reduction of the required bandwidth
for a given signal-to-noise ratio.
Typically, the adaptation to signal statistics in ADPCM consists simply of an adaptive scale
factor before quantizing the difference in the DPCM encoder.
ADPCM was developed in the early 1970s at Bell Labs for voice coding, by P. Cummiskey,
N. S. Jayant, and James L. Flanagan


37. Delta-sigma (; or sigma-delta, )
Delta-sigma (; or sigma-delta, ) modulation is a method for encoding high resolution
signals into lower resolution signals using pulse-density modulation. This technique has found
increasing use in modern electronic components such as analog-to-digital and digital-to-
analog converters, frequency synthesizers, switched-mode power supplies and motor controls.
One of the earliest and most widespread uses of delta-sigma modulation is in data conversion.
An ADC or DAC circuit which implements this technique can relatively easily achieve very
high resolutions using low-cost CMOS processes, such as the processes used to produce
digital integrated circuits. For this reason, even though the technique was first presented in the
early 1960s by prof. Haruhiko Yasuda while he was student at Waseda University, Tokyo,
Japan,

it did not come into widespread use until improvements in silicon technology in the
1980s.
Given a particular fabrication process, a sigma-delta ADC can give more bits of resolution
than any other ADC structure except the integrating ADC



38. CVSD or CVSDM (Continuously variable slope delta modulation)
Continuously variable slope delta modulation (CVSD or CVSDM) is a voice coding
method. It is a delta modulation with variable step size (i.e. special case of adaptive delta
modulation), first proposed by Greefkes and Riemens in 1970.
CVSD encodes at 1 bit per sample, so that audio sampled at 16kHz is encoded at 16kbit/s.
The encoder maintains a reference sample and a step size. Each input sample is compared to
the reference sample. If the input sample is larger, the encoder emits a 1 bit and adds the step
size to the reference sample. If the input sample is smaller, the encoder emits a 0 bit and
subtracts the step size from the reference sample. The encoder also keeps the previous N bits
of output (N = 3 or N = 4 are very common) to determine adjustments to the step size; if the
previous N bits are all 1s or 0s, the step size is increased. Otherwise, the step size is decreased
(usually in an exponential manner, with being in the range of 5 ms). The step size is adjusted
for every input sample processed. To allow for bit errors to fade out and to allow
(re)synchronization to an ongoing bitstream, the output register (which keeps the reference
sample) is normally realized as leaky integrator with a time constant () of about 1 ms.
The decoder reverses this process, starting with the reference sample, and adding or
subtracting the step size according to the bit stream. The sequence of adjusted reference
samples are the reconstructed waveform, and the step size is adjusted according to the same
all-1s-or-0s logic as in the encoder.
Adaptation of step size allows one to avoid slope overload (step of quantization increases
when the signal rapidly changes) and decreases granular noise when the signal is constant
(decrease of step of quantisation).
CVSD is sometimes called a compromise between simplicity, low bitrate, and quality.
Bitrates are 9.6 kbit/s to 128 kbit/s.
Like other delta-modulation techniques, the output of the decoder does not exactly match the
original input to the encoder.



39. Comparaison entre modulations MIC et Delta.

Le systme Delta est beaucoup plus simple mettre en oeuvre que le systme MIC car le
codage ne se fait que sur un bit (un seul comparateur suffit). La modulation delta est d'autant
plus efficace que les chantillons successifs d'un signal ne sont pas indpendants. Ce type de
modulation est dons bien adapte la parole ou la transmission d'image. En revanche, la
PCM est nettement plus efficace pour transmettre des signaux dont les chantillons sont
alatoires et donc proches d'un bruit blanc gaussien. La modulation PCM est donc d'un emploi
plus gnrale mais plus lourd que la modulation delta.
L'amlioration du rapport signal/bruit de 6 dB ncessite une augmentation d'un bit en
modulation PCM et de doubler la frquence d'chantillonnage en modulation delta. De ce fait,
La modulation MIC permet d'obtenir un meilleur rapport signal/bruit que la modulation delta
ds que le dbit D* est suprieur 48 kbitss-1.
En revanche, du fait mme du principe de codage diffrentiel, le codage delta est beaucoup
moins sensible aux erreurs de transmissions (erreurs de retranscription sur les signaux
binaires). Ainsi, un taux d'erreur de 10-2 n'affecte pas sensiblement la restitution d'un signal
modul delta alors qu'un taux d'erreur de 10-3 rend inoprant un signal modul MIC.




40. La modulation : DPCM.

Dans le cas d'une transmission vocale, il est possible de rduire le dbit binaire en prservant
la qualit du message en combinant le principe de la modulation diffrentielle avec une
prdiction suprieur zro et une adaptation dynamique du pas de quantification. Ainsi,
l'UITT a dfini un procd de modulation par impulsion et codage diffrentiel adaptatif
ADPCM qui fait l'objet de la recommandation G 721. Les principales caractristiques sont les
suivantes :

u-ue est quantifi sur 15 niveaux (par 4 bits) selon une loi nonuniforme
le dbit est de 32 kbitss-1 (qualit identique la modulation MIC 64 kbitss-1),
ue est estim par un algorithme complexe.

A dbit donn, le rapport signal/bruit de l'ADPCM est systmatiquement meilleur d'envriron
10 dB.




Rfrence :

Web :

www.wikipedia.org
www.developpez.com
www.javafr.com (Codes sources)








TO BE CONTINUED