By Mark Cyruss D.

Dicang, RN
Difference between a Leader and a
Manager
Leader Manager
Informal authority With formal authority

With or without legal capacity to act With legal capacity to act

Not always a manager Always a leader

Leadership
- A critical management skill
- Ability to motivate a group of people toward
a common goal
- According to Gardner, it is a process of
persuasion and example by which an
individual induces a group to take action that
is in accord with the leader’s purposes or the
shared purposes.
Robert Merton
4 Fundamental Considerations
1. Follower understands the task
2. Follower has the resources
3. Task is consistent with personal beliefs
and values
4. Task is consistent with the purpose and
values of the organization
Douglas McGregor (Contingency Leadership
Theory)
4 Major Leadership Variables
1. Characteristics of the Leader
2. Characteristics of the Followers
3. Characteristics of Group and
Organization
4. Characteristics of the Environment
(social, economic and Political milieu)
Leadership Theories
1. Trait / Swansburg Theory
- some people have certain characteristics or personality that make
them better leaders than others
a. Intelligence traits – judgment, knowledge, ability
b. Personality traits – decisiveness, authoritarianism,
extroversion, alertness, aggressiveness, enthusiasm,
independence, self-confidence
c. Physical Characteristics – age, built, height, weight, bearing
d. Background Information – education, social status, experience
e. Task-oriented Characteristics – persistence, responsibility,
achievement need, initiative
f. Social characteristics – supervisory activity, popularity, prestige,
tact, diplomacy
2.Great Man Theory – some people are
born to lead and others are born to be
lead; great leaders arise when situation
demands it

3.Behavioral Theory – understanding

human behavior (core of leadership and
management in nursing)
4. Situational Theory – leader
behaves according to the situation

5. Charismatic Theory –
unexplainable charm

6. Life-Cycle Theory – leader to

follower to leader
7. Motivational Theory – based on holistic-dynamic theory
Examples:
a. Need Theory
- Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
- The Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factors – working conditions
(salary, quality of supervision, job security)
Motivating Factors – job itself and
opportunities for growth and development
- McClelland’s Three Basic Needs Theory
achievement, power and affliation
 b. Expectancy Theory – Victor Vroom; if
person perceives positive relationship between
efforts and performance
c. Operant Theory – B.F. Skinner;
motivation is controlled by external conditions
d. Equity Theory – fairness is considered
according to employees’ input against rewards
e. Interactional Theory – leadership
behavior is generally determined by the
relationship between the leader’s personality and
the specific situation
 d. Scientific Management – Frederick Taylor:
scientific selection, training, and development of
workmen to achieve optimum efficiency
e. Bureaucracy - Max Weber: work within
principles of chain of command, unity of command ,
span of control and specialization
f. Theory X and Theory Y - Douglas McGregor:
Theory X – person must be coerced, directed,
threatened and punished
Theory Y – person should receive help towards
success
 Transactional Vs. Transformational
Transactional Leadership
- the leader is concerned with the day-to-day operations
- the leader sets goals, gives directions and uses rewards
to reinforce employee behaviors

Transformational Leadership
- the leader inspires and motivates followers beyond
expectations through his ability to influence attitudes
Leadership Styles
1. Autocratic / Authoritarian / Directive / Hard / Dictatorial
Followers: passive; dec self-esteem; dec sense of
belongingness
Advantage: time-efficient

2. Laissez-faire / Permissive / Ultraliberal / Free-Reign

Leader: not involved in decision making
Followers: inc self-esteem, inc sense of belongingness

3. Democratic / Participative / Consultative

Leader and Follower : dec self esteem
Disadvantage: Time-consuming
Types of Power
1. Reward Power – incentive
2.Coercive Power – punishment
3. Referent – trust, admiration, respect
4.Expert – unique skills and knowledge
5.Informational – unique knowledge alone
6.Legitimate – legal capacity
7. Personal – Charismatic
8.Connection - relationship
MANAGEMENT
- Process of coordinating actions and allocating
resources to achieve organization goals of the
healthcare delivery system
- Both interpersonal and technical process

- Goals
- Effectiveness – “doing the right thing”: meeting the
organization’s objectives
- Efficiency – “doing things right”: maximize the resources and
save up cost
Level of Skills Management
1.Conceptual Skill – creative way of
thinking

2. Interpersonal Skill – creative way of

dealing with other people

3. Technical Skill – creative way of

doing
Theories of Management
1. Frederick Taylor – Scientific Management
Theory; “Father of Scientific Management”
- Recruitment
- Selection
- Training (didactic and practicum)
- Orientation
- Placement
- Staff Development
2. Elton Mayo – HR Theory; Good working relationship

3. William Ouchi – Theory Z (Japanese Management Theory)

Loyalty of Subordinates
a. Long-term employment
b. Participative Leadership
c. Personal concern
d. Slower promotion

4. Douglas McGregor – Theory X and Y

Theory X - lazy employees; hates work
Theory Y – striving employees; loves work
5. Henri Fayol – 14 Principles of Management
a. Division of Work – specialization makes employee more
efficient
b. Proper ARA
Authority – right to act even without higher admin
Responsibility – obligation to perform task
Accountability – act of accepting ownership for results
or lack therof
c. Unity of Command – orders only from one superior
d. Unity of Direction – one goal and one common end
e. Remuneration – salary/wage
f. Balance between centralization and decentralization
g. Subordination of personal interest with general interest
h. Scalar Chain / Chain of Command / Scalar Principle –
reporting to direct supervisor
i. Stability of Tenure / Job Security / Security of Tenure
j. Esprit de corps
k. Span of Control
l. Channels of Communication
Upward – to superior
Downward – to patient, family, community, workers
Horizontal – to peers and members of healthcare
team
Downward – to subordinates
Diagonal – to other department
m. Command Responsibility – Respondeat Superior
- “Let the master answer for the acts of
subordinate”
Elements:
- relationship of manager and follower
- task received by subordinate from superior
- damage/injury
- knowledge and supervision

n. Self-Regulation / Discipline - proper conduct and

decorum
6. Jo Stacy Adams – Equity Theory; more work equates
to more compensation

7. Henry Mitsburg – 3 Basic Roles

Interpersonal Role – symbol, leader, liason
Informational Role – monitor, disseminator,
spokesperson
Decisional – entrepreneur, troubleshooter,
negotiator
Managerial Functions
1. Planning – pre-determining a course of action in order to
arrive at a desired result; permeates into the other functions

2. Organizing - process of establishing formal authority

3. Directing – issuance of orders, assignments and instructions

that enable the nursing personnel to understand what are
expected of them.

4. Controlling – evaluating; an on-going function of

management process that includes assessing and regulating
performance
PLANNING
Principles
1. Based and focused on the vision, mission,
philosophy and objectives of the organization
2. Continuous process
3. Pervasive within the entire organization
4. Utilizes all available resources
5. Precise in its scope and nature
6. Time –bound
7. Must be documented
Importance of Planning
1. Leads to achievement of goals and objectives
2. Gives meaning to work
3. Provides for effective use of available resources and
facilities
4. Cost effective
5. Based on past and future activities
6. Helps in coping with crises
7. Leads to the realization of the need for change
8. Provides basis for control
9. Necessary for effective control
Why managers fail to plan effectively?
1.Lack knowledge of the philosophy, goals
and objectives of the agency

2.Not know how to manage their time

3.Lack confidence in formulating plans

Scope of Planning
Top Management
- Nursing Directors, Chief Nurses and Directors of Nursing
- over-all management of the nursing service

Middle Management
- Nursing Supervisor
- implement operating policies and formulate intermediate policies

Lower or First Level Management

- Head Nurses / Senior Nurses, Charge Nurses/Team Leaders
- daily or weekly plan for the administration of direct patient care
Elements
1. Forecasting – helps manager look into the future and
decide in advance

2. Setting Vision, Mission, Philosophy, Goals and Objectives

Vision – outlines the organization’s future role
Mission – outlines the organization’s reason for existing
Philosophy – statement of beliefs and values
Goals – general and covers broad area
Objectives – more specific and concrete
3. Time Management
- technique for allocating one’s time through
setting of goals, assigning priorities, identifying and
eliminating wasted time

4. Preparing the Budget

a. Budget – annual operating plan, a financial
“road map”
b. Nursing Budget – plan for allocation of
resources during one fiscal year
c. Hospital Budget – financial plan to meat future
service expectations
 Types:
Cash Budget – cash receipts and disbursements
Revenue Budge - income
Operating Budget – Salaries, supplies, employee
benefits
Capital Expenditure Budget - anticipated procurements

5. Establishing Nursing Standards, Policies and Procedures

Nursing Standards – provides professional norms
Policies – broad guidelines for the managerial decisions
Procedures – specific directions for implementing
written policies
Organizing
Organization
- consists of the structure and process which
allow the agency to enact its philosophy and
utilize its conceptual framework

Organizational Chart
- Line drawing that shows how the parts of an
organization are linked
Elements of Organizing
1. Setting Up the Organizational Structure
Types of Organization
a. Line Organization – simplest and most direct
- Clinical and Administration
b. Informal Organization – horizontal relationship
- Group of workers with same interest
c. Staff Organization – advisory to line structure
- Training and Research
d. Functional Organization – unit is specifically responsible
- All Standing and Ad Hoc Committee
2. Staffing
- process of determining and providing the acceptable
manner and mix of nursing personnel to produce a desired level
of care to meet the patient’s demand

Patient Care Classification System

- A method of grouping patients according to the amount and
complexity of their nursing care requirements and the nursing
time and skill they require.
SOLVE!
How many nursing personnel are needed for
300 patients in a tertiary hospital?

1. Categorize the patients according to levels

of care needed
Hospital Minimal Care Moderate Intensive Highly Spl.
Care Care Care
Primary 70 25 5 -

Secondary 65 30 5 -

Tertiary 30 45 15 10

Special 10 25 45 20
Tertiary
300 x .30 = 90 patients needing minimal care
300 x .45 = 135 patients needing moderate care
300 x .15 = 45 patients needing intensive care
300 x 0.1 = 30 patients needing highly specialized care
300 patients

2. Find the number of nursing care hours needed by patients at

each level of care per day

Levels of Care NCH needed per patient/day

Level 1 – Self or Minimal Care 1.50
Level 2 – Moderate or Intermediate Care 3.0
Level 3 – Total or Intensive Care 4.5
Level 4 – Critical Care 6.0
90 x 1.5 = 135 NCH/day
135 x 3 = 405 NCH/day
45 x 4.5 = 202.5 NCH/day
30 x 6 = 180 NCH/day
Total 922.50 NCH/day

3. Find the total NCH needed by 300 patients per year

922.5 x 365 (days/year) = 336,712.50 NCH/year

4. Find the actual working hours rendered by each nursing
personnel per year

R.A. 5901 (Forty-Hour Week Law)

100 bed capacity and up = 40 hours a week
(at least one million employees)
99 bed capacity and below = 48 hours per week
(less than one million employees)
40 Hours 48 Hours

213 265
Total Working Days/Year Total Working Days/Year

1,704 2,120
Total Working Hours/Year Total Working Hours/Year
NO COMPUTATION NEEDED!
1,704 (working hours/year)

5. Find the nursing personnel needed

a. Total NCH/year = 336,712.50 = 198
Working Hours/year 1,704

b. Relievers x Total Nsg Personnel = 198 x 0.15 = 30

40 Hours = 0.15
48 Hours = 0.12

c. Total Nsg. Personnel Needed = 198 + 30 = 228

 6. Categorize to professional and non-professional personnel

Types of Hospital Ratio of Pro. to Non-Pro

Primary 55:45
Secondary 60:40
Tertiary 65:35
Special Tertiary 70:30

228 x .65 = 148 professional nurses

228 x .35 = 80 nursing attendants
Determine number of nurses per shift
AM shift = .45
PM shift = .37
Night shift = .18

148 nurses x .45 = 67 nurses on AM shift

148 nurses x .37 = 55 nurses on PM shift
148 nurses x .18 = 26 nurses on night shift

80 nursing attendants x .45 = 36 NA on AM shift

80 nursing attendants x .37 = 30 NA on PM shift
80 nursing attendants x .18 = 14 NA on night shift
THE SIMPLER THE BETTER!
1. Check the bed capacity to determine number of Hours
2. Remember these figures:
40 Hours 48 Hours
1,704 working hrs/yr 2,120 working hrs/yr
0.15 relievers 0.12 relievers
3. Determine types of hospital , NCH/day and NCH/year
4. Determine working hrs/yr, Nsg personnel, reliever and total
nsg personnel
5. Determine corresponding pro to non-pro ratio
6. Determine shift distribution
Remember multipliers: 0.45, 0.37, 0.18
3. Schedule
- A timetable showing planned work days and shifts for
nursing personnel

Types:
1. Centralized Schedule – Chief Nurse
2. Decentralized Schedule – Supervising/Head/Senior Nurse
3. Cyclical Schedule – covers a designated number of weeks
called cycle length and is repeated thereon
4. Job Description
- A statement that sets the duties and responsibilities of
a specific job.
- Includes needed characteristics or qualifications of the
individual to perform such duties successfully
Directing
- Actuates accomplish goals
- Connecting link between organizing for work and getting the
job done

Elements of Directing
1. Delegation – process by which a manager assigns specific
tasks/duties to workers with commensurate authority to
perform the job
Principles of Delegation
1. Select the right person to whom the job is to
be delegated
2.Delegate both interesting and uninteresting
tasks
3. Provide subordinates with enough time to
learn
4.Delegate gradually
What cannot be delegated
1. Overall responsibility, authority and accountability
for satisfactory completion of all activities in the
unit
2. Authority to sign one’s name is never delegated
3. Evaluating the staff and/or taking necessary
corrective disciplinary action
4. Responsibility for maintaining morale of the
opportunity to say a few words of encouragement
to the staff specially the new ones
5. Jobs that are too technical and those that involve
trust and confidence
Nursing Care Assignment
- Otherwise known as modalities of nursing care, systems of
nursing care or patterns of nursing care

1. FUNCTIONAL NURSING – task-oriented

Advantages:
- Accomplished work in short time
- Workers learn to work fast
- Gain skill faster due to repetition
- Great control on work activities
Disadvantages
- Fragmentation of nursing care; holistic care not achieved
- Diminished nurses’ accountability and responsibility
- Patient cannot identify “real nurse”
- Undeveloped nurse patient relationship
- Poor nursing care evaluation
- Difficult point person

2. Total Care or Case Nursing – one nurse to one patient

Advantage: holistic care is achieved
Disadvantages: works only when plenty of nurses and few
patients; nurses not familiar with patients in other areas
3. Team Nursing – one nurse leads a group of nursing
personnel
Advantage: all team members are involved in patient’s care
Disadvantages:
- Fragmentation of care if not fully implemented
- Difficulty in attaining team conference and care planning
- Team has the sole responsibility and authority

4. Primary Nursing – total care of a small group of patients

from admission to discharge
Advantages:
- Increased autonomy of nurse
- Assures continuity of care
- Increased rapport and trust between patient and nurse
- Improves communication of the health care team
Disadvantage:
- Increases staffing and costs

5. Modular Method – modification of team and primary nursing

6. Case Management – focuses on the achievement of outcomes

within effective appropriate time frames and resources
- directed by a case manager
Conflict
- Inevitable as change
- Clash between two opposing and oftentimes hostile parties

Types of Conflict
a. Covert – not what it appears on the surface
b. Overt – what appears on the surface
c. Vertical – differences of opinion between superiors and
subordinates
d. Horizontal – line or staff conflict; common struggle
between departments
e. Intrapersonal – occur within one individual
f. Interpersonal – between two or more individuals
g. Intragroup – within one group
h. Intergroup – between two or more group

CONFLICT RESOLUTION
1. Avoidance – groups who do not want to do something that
may interfere with their relationships
2. Accommodation – self-sacrifice
3. Collaboration – inspires mutual attention to the problem
4. Compromise – both parties seek expedient, acceptable
answers for short period; lose-lose atmosphere
5. Competition - supervisor or nurse manager exerts power at
the subordinate’s expense; authority-obedience approach

6. Smoothing – disagreements are ignored to maintain surface

harmony but issues remain unresolved

7. Withdrawing – one party is removed thereby making it

possible to resolved the issue

8. Forcing – yields an immediate end to the conflict but leaves

the cause of the conflict unresolved
Controlling
- Opens opportunities for improvement and comparing
performance against set standards

Evaluation – plays an important role in quality and

productivity improvement
Characteristics
a. Objective – free from bias
b. Reliable – accurate and precise
c. Sensitive/Valid – related to the performance of
the employee
Performance Standards
1. Standards on Structure
- focus on the structure or management system
- hospital
2. Process Standards
- decisions and actions of the nurse
- nurse
3. Outcome Standards
- measure results of care
- patient
Performance Appraisal
- Employee’s performance is evaluated against standards
- Most valuable tool in controlling human resources and
productivity

Methods of Measuring Performance

1. Essay – appraiser writes a paragraph or more about the
workers strengths, weaknesses and potentials
2. Checklist – compilation of all nursing performances
expected of a worker; marking the appropriate column
3. Ranking – evaluator ranks the employees
4. Rating Scales – includes series of items representing the
different tasks or activities in the nurse’s job description

5. Forced-Choice Comparison – asked to choose the statement

that best describes the nurse being evaluated

6. Anecdotal Recording – describes the nurse’s experience with

a group or a person or in validating technical skills and
interpersonal relationships
Quality Assurance
Quality – degree of excellence and assurance
Assurance – achieving a sense of accomplishment

Quality Assurance
- Process of evaluation that is applied to the health care system
and the provision of health care services by health workers

Quality Assurance Vs. Performance Evaluation

QA – focus on the care and service the patient receives
PE – focuses on the care and service rendered by the worker
Nursing Audit Committee
- Composed of a representative from all levels of the nursing
staff who determines QA criteria
- designates within the week to be the audit day

a. Patient Care Audit

Concurrent – patient care is observed and evaluated
within the hospital
Retrospective – patient care is evaluated on discharged
patient
b. Peer Review
- patient care audits done by peers of the same
profession , rank and setting

c. Quality Circles
- group of workers doing similar work who meet
regularly to identify, analyze and solve work problems.
- introduced by Japanese
Disciplinary Approaches
A. Problem Solving
1. Oral Warning – includes counseling

B. Disciplinary Action
1. Counseling and Oral Warning
2. Written Warning
3. Suspension
4. Dismissal
RESEARCH
- To search again, to examine carefully
- Diligent and systematic inquiry, discovery

Nursing Research
- Scientific process that validates and refines existing
knowledge and generates new knowledge that
directly influences nursing priorities

Nursing Research Priorities:

Nursing as a Profession; Nursing Practice; Patient
Outcomes
Types of Nursing Research
1. Basic Research – extend the base of
knowledge

2. Applied Research – finding solutions to

existing problems

3. Action Research – study of a certain

problem to draw conclusions
Variables
– qualities, properties or characteristics or persons, things or
situations that change or vary and are manipulated in research

Types:
1. Independent Variable – creates an effect on DV
2. Dependent Variable – outcome that is to be predicted
3. Extraneous Variable – affect the measurement of the study
4. Demographic Variable – characteristics of the sample
Major Steps in Quantitative Study
Phases

1. Conceptualization
2. Design and Planning
3. Empirical
4. Analytical
5. Dissemination
Conceptualization
Step 1: Formulating and Delimiting the Problem
(Statement of the Problem)
Forms:
a. Interrogative
b. Declarative
c. Combination

Research Problem – enigmatic, perplexing or troubling

condition
Research Questions – specific queries researchers want to
answer
Scope – extent
Limitation – perceived limitation
Delimitation – restriction

Important Considerations in Formulation Research Problem

1. Siginificance of the study
2. Researchability of the problem
3. Feasibility of Addressing the problem
4. Research Interest
Terminologies
1. Statement of Purpose – establish the general direction

2. Problem Statement – identifies the nature of the problem

3. Theory – set of defined concepts

4. Conceptual Model – set of highly abstract related

constructs

5. Conceptual Frameworks – relevant concepts put together

6. Theoretical Framework – defined concepts put together

Step 2: Reviewing the Related Literature

Literature Review – summary of theoretical and empirical

sources to generate a picture of what is knows and not known
about a particular problem

Purpose: To find, read and analyze the body of literature

published on a particular topic.

Kinds:
1. Research – previous studies
2. Non-research – experiences, opinions and theories
Step 3: Undertaking clinical framework
Step 4: Defining the framework and developing Conceptual
Definitions
Step 5: Formulating Hypothesis
Hypothesis – intelligent guess

Forms:
1. Research hypothesis – prediction about the relationship
between two or more variables
2. Simple hypothesis – one IV and one DV
3. Complex hypothesis – 2 or more IV and 2 or more DV
4. Affirmative Hypothesis – scientific hypothesis; there is a relationship
between IV and DV
a. Directional Hypothesis – specifies the direction of the
relationship
b. Non-directional Hypothesis – does not specifies the
direction of the relationship
6. Null Hypothesis – statistical hypothesis; no relationship between IV
and DV

Type 1 error : rejecting null hypothesis that is TRUE; false positive

conclusion
Type 2 error: false negative conclusion

Null Hypothesis TRUE FALSE

True (Null accepted) Correct decision Type II error (false positive)

False (Null rejected) Type I error (false negative) Correct decision

 DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE
Step 6: Selecting the Research Design
Research Design – blueprint of the study
Forms:
1. Experimental Design – with manipulation
a. True – with manipulation, control and randomization
b. Quasi – with manipulation, no control and no randomization
2. Non Experimental – without manipulation
a. Past – historical
b. Present – Descriptive
: Survey – opinion of the majority
: In-depth Study - Case Analysis
: Comparative – commonalities and differences
: Correlational - relationships
Limitations of Experimental Research
1. Halo Effect ( observer ) – when researchers assume that respondents
are good (bad) leading to similar evaluation
2. Hawthorne Effect (being observed) – change in behavior in response
to change in environmental conditions

Characteristics of a True Experimental Design

1. Manipulation – doing something to the study participants (IV)
2. Control – evaluating performance of the treatment group (DV)
3. Randomization – random assignment; random allocation; placing
subjects into random treatment conditions
Types of Designs According to Timeframes
1. Cross-sectional –collection of data of a phenomenon once

2. Longitudinal – collection of data at more than one

phenomenon

3. Retrospective - collection of data of an outcome at present

and linking it in the past

4. Prospective – collection of data of a presumed cause and the

outcome
Research Methods
1. Quantitative – “hard science”
a. Descriptive – observe and describe
b. Correlational – effect of a potential cause
c. Quasi-Experimental
d. Experimental
2. Qualitative – “soft science”
a. Phenomenological – essence and meaning of a situation
b. Grounded Theory – focus is on individual’s behaviour
c. Ethnographic – description of cultural behaviour
d. Historical – answers lies in the past
e. Case Studies
Step 7: Developing protocols for the Intervention
Step 8: Identifying the population
Population – entire aggregation of cases

Step 9: Designing the Sampling Plan

Sampling – process of selecting portion of the population to

represent the entire population
Sample – subset of population elements (basic unit)
Sampling Method
A. Non-probability Sampling – with bias
1. Accidental – Convenience sampling; most convenient
2. Quota – based on number of participants required
3. Purposive or Judgment – based on researcher’s belief
4. Snowball or Network – early sample members refer others

B. Probability Sampling – without bias

1. Simple Random – Fish-Ball Method
2. Stratified Random – divided into strata; representativeness
3. Cluster – samples from general population
4. Systematic – every nth person on the list
Other Sampling Methods
Longitudinal Sampling – samples from an extended period of time
a. Prospective : samples with condition from present to
future
b. Retrospective: samples with condition from past to
present

Cross-sectional Sampling – subjects are observed at only one point

Cross-cultural Sampling – subjects from a variety of cultural

settings
Step 10: Specifying methods to measure the research variable

Step 11: Developing methods to safeguard Human and Animal

Rights

Step 12: Reviewing and Finalizing the Research Plan

PILOT STUDY – trial to test hypothesis
EMPIRICAL PHASE
Step 13: Collecting data

Research Instruments
A. Observation – complete view of the situation; most direct
Double-blind phenomenon: use to counteract Hawthorne effect

Observer: Participant and Non-participant

Observation: Structured (with schedule) and Unstructured
Subject: Overt and Covert
2. Questionnaire – most common; cost effective
Open-ended – allow respondent to respond on their own
Close-ended – offer respondent with options
3. Interview – second most common; time consuming
Categories:
a. Directive – controlled by interviewer
- Standardized – used exact wordings
- Non-standardized – freely uses questions to ask
- Semi-standardized – specific number of questions to ask
and probe
b. Non-directive – controlled by interviewee
c. Focused – series of questions and allows freedom to
deviation
4. Records – provides readily available and valuable source of
data; no control on condition

5. Biophysiologic Measurement – useful in quantitative studies

Terminologies:
a. Reliability – consistency of measurement technique
b. Stability – consistency of repeated measures; test-retest
reliability
c. Equivalence – comparing measurements made by two or
more observers; inter-rater reliability
d. Homogeneity –correlation of various items on the
instrument
e. Validity – extent in which instrument reflects abstract being
examined
Central Tendencies
a. Mode – most frequent
b. Median – middle
c. Mean – average

Variability
a. Range – highest score minus the lowest score
b. Standard deviation – average amount of deviation of values
from the mean

Step 14: Preparing data for analysis

 ANALYTIC PHASE
Step 15: Analyzing the data
Step 16: Interpreting the Results

DISSEMINATION PHASE
Step 17: Communicating the findings
Step 18: Utilizing the findings in the research
TO SUM IT UP!
RESEARCH PROCESS
1. Formulation of research problem
2. Review of Related Literature
3. Identify Theoretical/ Conceptual Framework
4. Formulating Hypothesis
5. Defining Variables
6. Research Design
7. Sampling
8. Pilot Study
9. Data Collection
10. Interpret the results
11. Disseminate information
 Study Hard
but
Party even Harder!