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Abstract
Complex resistivity (CR) has been used to investigate the properties and the extent of damage
in wood and standing trees. Our laboratory experiments have proved that wood’s anisotropy
influences its electrical behaviour. It is a well-established fact that wood exhibits the lowest
resistivity amplitudes in the axial direction compared to that in tangential and radial
directions. It has been shown that anisotropy affects not only the amplitude but also the phase.
Phase values are the highest in the axial direction, particularly in the lower frequency range.
The changes in resistivity due to fungi-induced damage were investigated in a long-term
laboratory test. With progressing damage, both resistivity and phase decrease. The phase also
shows sensitivity to the changes in the structure of wood cell. CR Tomography (CRT) has
been employed in the field to detect fungi-infected zones in fallen trees. A number of factors
such as the type and age of the tree, and the season seem to influence the CRT results. Among
those, the effect of seasonal changes has been demonstrated here. Furthermore CRT can be
used to characterise fungi-infected zones in the tree.
Keywords
Tree investigation, complex resistivity tomography, wood anisotropy, fungi, oak
Résumé
La résistivité complexe (CR) a été employée pour étudier les propriétés et la stabilité du bois
et des arbres vivants. Nos expériences en laboratoire ont vérifié que l'anisotropie du bois
influence son comportement électrique. On sait que le bois montre les plus basses amplitudes
de résistivité dans la direction axiale comparée aux directions tangentielles et radiales. Notre
expérience a également démontré que l'anisotropie affecte non seulement l'amplitude mais
également la phase. Les valeurs de phase sont les plus hautes dans la direction axiale
particulièrement dans la gamme de fréquence inférieure. Des dommages Mycète-induits ont
été étudiés par un essai de laboratoire de CR pendant une période dépassant un an. Pendant
que les dommages progressent, la résistivité et la phase diminuent. La phase montre
également la sensibilité aux changements de la structure de la cellule en bois. Le CRT a été
utilisé dans le domaine pour détecter des zones mycète-infectées dans les arbres qui sont
tombés. Un certain nombre de facteurs tels que le type d'arbre, l'âge et la saison ont un
impact sur les résultats de CRT. L'influence des changements saisonniers sur un arbre de
chêne sain a été montrée ici. Les tomogrammes de CR enregistrés au cours des trois dernières
années montrent la sensibilité à l'humidité du bois.
1 Introduction
Complex Resistivity (CR) is a conventional geophysical method which uses alternating
current to measure the difference in the voltage within a broad frequency range (1 mHz to
1000 Hz). The frequency spectra can be interpreted using various models. It is possible to
deduce information about environmental contamination from SIP data. Using CR, the
amplitude and the phase of the complex resistivity provide complementary information about
decay and the level of damage in wood. CR Tomography can then be developed as a modified
NDTCE’09, Non-Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering
Nantes, France, June 30th – July 3rd, 2009
version of the geoelectrical tomography method [1] to investigate standing trees. The usually
invasive point measurement methods used provide only punctual information about the decay.
In contrast, tomographic methods can give imaging information about the entire plane
investigated. Unlike Computer Tomography (CT) the application of tomographic methods in
wood investigation is rare. Although CT [2] provides very good results, its application is
rather complicated. Acoustic tomography has also been used for this purpose but the
interpretation of its results has not yet fully been established [3].
2 Laboratory Measurements
For the laboratory measurements we used the CR equipment SIP256c. We measured in the
frequency range from 1 mHz to 100 Hz. The wood samples (diameter ~ 20 mm, length ~ 70
mm) were placed in a measuring cell with two taps for the current (outer taps, Figure 1 left)
and two taps for the voltage measurements (inner taps), so it was measured in a 4-point-array.
The first experiment will show the effect of the strong anisotropy in the wood’s complex
resistivity. This anisotropy is caused by the naturally inhomogeneous structure of the trees. To
understand the effect of fungi damage on complex resistivity, a long-term experiment with
Daedalea quercina was carried out. It will be described afterwards.
Figure 1: Left: Measuring cell for laboratory measurements. Right: Assembly for field measurements.
2.1 Anisotropy
To estimate the degree of the influence of anisotropy on the amplitude and the phase of
complex resistivity, laboratory measurements were carried out on oak along the main
directions axial (along the growth direction), radial (perpendicular to the growth direction)
and tangential (along the annual ring). The results are shown in Figure 2. The axial samples
show the lowest resistivity (Figure 2a). The resistivity of the radial samples is more than two
times greater (around 410 Ωm) than that of the axial ones. However, the greatest resistivity
was observed in the tangential samples, for which resistivities were measured almost four
times greater than those for the axial samples.
Anisotropy influences not only the amplitude, but also the phase measurements (Figure 2b).
The strongest phase effect was observed in the axial direction. The radial samples show much
less phase effect and the tangential samples show almost none at all. The peak of the phase
curves is also different for different directions. The axial peak occurs at a frequency of about
f = 0.01Hz while the radial phase peak occurs around f = 0.1Hz. For the tangential curves no
distinguished phase peak is detectable.
Summing up, the anisotropy of wood affects both the amplitude and the phase of the complex
resistivity. Because of the considerable anisotropy-induced differences in resistivity and
phase, it is important to record the direction along which the field measurement have been
taken.
NDTCE’09, Non-Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering
Nantes, France, June 30th – July 3rd, 2009
800 2.5
a) b) oak samples
axial 1
2 axial 2
600 axial 3
radial 1
resistivity [Ohm*m]
radial 2
1.5
- phase [°]
tangential 1
tangential 2
400
tangential 3
1
200
0.5
0 0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
frequency [Hz] frequency [Hz]
1000000 2
axial samples
a) @ 0.01 Hz b) axial samples
@ 0.01 Hz
100000
1.5
resistivity [Ohm*m]
- phase [°]
10000
1
1000
0.5
100
10 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
time with fungus [weeks] time with fungus [weeks]
1000000 2
c) radial samples d) radial samples
100000 @ 0.1 Hz @ 0.1 Hz
1.5
resistivity [Ohm*m]
- phase [°]
10000
1
1000
0.5
100
10 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
time with fungus [weeks] time with fungus [weeks]
Figure 3: Resistivity and phase for axial (red triangles) and radial (blue crosses) wood samples infected by
the fungus Daedalea quercina for different infection times.
10000 2
a) b) radial @ 0.1 Hz
axial @ 0.01 Hz
resistivity [Ohm*m]
1.5
1000
- phase [°]
100
0.5
10 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
wood moisture [%] reduction of the mass loss [%]
Figure 4: Resistivity vs. wood moisture (left) and phase vs. change in the mass loss for axial and radial
samples.
3 Field measurement
The laboratory measurement system described above can be extended to a 24-channel system
applicable for the field tomography measurements. Steel nails were used as electrodes and
applied at an equidistant pitch around the perimeter of the trunk (Figure 1 right). To reduce
the duration of the test, a frequency range of 0.1 to 10Hz was used. The measured data were
inverted by the reconstruction program DC2dTree [4]. Starting with a homogenous seed
model, the program uses an iterative approach to reconstruct the inner structure to match the
resistivity data. In the current version it is possible to include the geometry of the trunk in the
reconstruction program but not the anisotropy and the three-dimensionality of the tree.
Ignoring the anisotropy can cause big measurement differences (compare section 2.1). But for
NDTCE’09, Non-Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering
Nantes, France, June 30th – July 3rd, 2009
tomography measurements along a horizontal section of the trunk the current propagation is
similar in radial and tangential direction. Although there are differences between these
directions, they were negligible for the inversion.
Along with the CRT measurements, the drill resistance test was also conducted. The
equipment used IML-Resi E500 measures the mechanical strength (density) of the wood. In
this method a very long needle is driven into the tree. The mechanical resistance is then
measured by the power that is necessary to drive the needle into the tree. Driving the needle
into strong wood takes more power (higher amplitude) than into infected, i.e. soft wood.
Figure 5: Tomograms of a healthy oak in summer and winter. The typical oak has a ring-like structure in
resistivity and phase.
NDTCE’09, Non-Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering
Nantes, France, June 30th – July 3rd, 2009
Figure 6: Photo with the drill resistance results (a), tomograms of resistivity (b) and phase (c) of a fungi-
infected tree.
4 Conclusions
Our laboratory measurements have demonstrated that the anisotropy of wood has a significant
influence on complex resistivity. Also, progressive fungi infection affects the resistivity
characteristic, which can be used to differentiate between healthy and damaged wood.
Resistivity tomography measurements were also conducted in the field. Because of the
correlation between resistivity and wood moisture, the seasonal changes were indicated
clearly. Measurement results on fungi-infected trees demonstrated the applicability of the
method in non-destructive testing for tree investigation.
References
1. U.Weihs, V. Dubbel, F. Krummheuer and A. Just. Die elektrische
Widerstandstomographie. Forst und Holz, volume 54, pages166 - 170, 1999.
2. A. Habermehl and H.-W. Ridder. Computer-Tomographie in der Forstwirtschaft und
Baumpflege (part 1). DGZfP-Zeitung 55, pages 48 - 55, 1996.
3. S. Rust, S. Franz, M. Minke, I. Schumann, and A. Roloff. Schalltomographie zur
Erkennung von Fäule und Höhlungen an stehenden Bäumen. Stadt + Grün, pages 50 - 52,
June 2002.
4. Th. Günther. Impedanztomographie an Bäumen unter Berücksichtigung der
Baumform. Manual zu DC2dTree, 2005.