1/5

The Shear Strength of a Fine Sand

La résistance au cisaillement du sable fin

b y L. B je r r u m , S. K r in g s t a d , O . K u m m e n e je , N o rw e g ia n G e o te c h n ic a l I n s titu te

Summary
The author gives the results of a series of triaxial tests on a fine
sand. Tests were carried out on drained and undrained samples,
and the sand was tested in both dense and loose condition, but
maximum attention was devoted to tests on very loose sand.
Whereas the tests on dense and medium dense sand gave “ nor­
m a l” results, the tests on loose sand showed several unexpected
results. The angle of internal friction was found to decrease
rapidly as the porosity increased above 44 per cent. In the
undrained tests with pore-pressure measurements, values as
low as 11° were found in the very loose sand. A nother character­
istic property of the loose sand is the high pore pressures developed
in undrained tests. The pore pressure param eter, A, was found to
be as high as 2-7 in the very loose sand with initial porosity
47-48 per cent.
Sommaire
Les auteurs présentent une série d'essais triaxiaux sur sable fin.
D ans cette série, il y avait des essais de cisaillement drainés ainsi
que des essais de cisaillement non drainés, et ils furent effectués
sur du sable ferme comme sur du sable meuble. On a étudié avant
tout les essais effectués sur du sable très meuble. Tandis que les
essais sur sable ferme et moyennem ent ferme ont donné des résul­
tats “ n o rm a u x ” , ceux obtenus avec du sable meuble ont été à
plusieurs points de vue étonnants. C ’est ainsi qu'on a trouvé que
l’angle de frottem ent interne dim inuait rapidem ent quand la poro­
sité augm entait pour dépasser 44 pour cent. Lors des essais
non drainés, et com portant des mesures de la pression intersti­
tielle, on a trouvé, dans le sable très meuble, des valeurs aussi
basses que 11°. Les pressions interstitielles, élevées qui se déve­
loppent dans les essais non drainés, sont une autre propriété carac­
téristique du sable meuble. On a trouvé que le param ètre A de la
pression interstitielle atteignait même 2-7 dans le sable très meuble
dont la porosité initiale était de 47 à 48 pour cent.

Introduction to co n tin u e the tests to o b ta in a com p reh en siv e p icture o f

th e sh ear stren g th p ro p erties o f a fine san d fo r the full range
T he b o tto m s o f the m a jo rity o f fjo rd s o n the w est co ast o f possible porosities. T he resu lts o f these tests are described
o f N o rw ay are occupied b y en o rm o u s deposits o f loosely below.
com pacted fine san d , carried in to th e fjo rd s b y glacier w ater
a n d b y postglacial rivers. In these su b aq u eo u s san d deposits, Sand used for testing
flow slides occur a t interv als. T hese slides a re ch aracterized
by a te m p o ra ry liquefaction o f large sa n d m asses (T e rza g h i, T h e san d used in th e tests is a fine san d o b ta in e d from a
1957). d ep o sit a t V algrinda, so u th o f T ro n d h eim . T h e g rain size
D u rin g last six years, th e N o rw eg ian G eotech n ical In stitu te
h a d th e o p p o rtu n ity o f investigating one flow slide sh o rtly
after it h a d occured a n d to stu d y in d etail a n u m b e r o f old er
slides in the T ro n d h eim F jo rd . In this co n n ectio n , sam ples
were tak en fro m the fjo rd b o tto m a n d a n u m b e r o f u n d rain ed
triax ial tests carried o u t in an a tte m p t to rep ro d u ce in the
la b o ra to ry the p h en o m en a observ ed in n atu re . A ll tests were,
how ever, unsuccessful. T h e stru c tu re o f the loose san d was
so u n stab le th a t th e sam ples collapsed d u rin g setting up o f
the testing m achine, an d c o n so lid atio n w as m uch g reater
th a n in th e n a tu ra l deposits.
D u rin g a visit in 1956 to th e flow slide w asted b a n k s o f the
M ississippi R iv er in the U .S .A ., o n e a u th o r discussed the
problem s o f flow slides w ith th e engineers a t th e W aterw ay s
E x p erim en t S tatio n in V icksburg. T h ey w ere ab le to show
him the results o f a series o f u n d ra in e d tria x ial tests o n fine
sand, in w hich th ey h ad succeeded in rep ro d u cin g liquefaction
o f the san d sam ples in the la b o ra to ry .
In th e certain belief th a t w h at w as possible in V icksburg
m ight also be d o n e in N o rw ay , it w as su b seq u en tly decided
to m ake a few m o re tests w ith th e san d sam ples fro m the
N orw egian flow slides. It m u st be a d m itted how ever, th a t
com plete liquefaction was n e v er observed in the N o rw eg ian
tests.
P a r t i c l e s i z e in mm
T he in te rp re ta tio n o f the sh ear stren g th d a ta o f these tests
p ro v ed nevertheless to be m ost interestin g a n d su rprising, as Fig. 1 Particle size distribution o f fine sand.
friction angles as low as 11° w ere observed. It w as thus decided G ranulom étrie du sable fin.
29
distrib u tio n o f th e san d is given in Fig. 1. T he specific g rav ity
o f th e sand is 2-74 t/m 3. T he sta n d a rd m ax im u m a n d m in i­
m u m porosities o f the san d w ere fo u n d to be 46-2 p er cen t
a n d 39-2 per cen t respectively, the m ax im u m value being
determ ined by d ry dep o sitio n (K o lb u szew sk i, 1948) a n d
the m inim um value b y v ib ratin g a d ry san d sam ple.
D r. I. T h. R o sen q v ist in v estig ated th e m ineralogical c o m p o ­
sition o f th e san d a n d fo u n d it to be com posed m ain ly o f
q u a rtz w ith som e feldspar a n d h o rn b len d e. A few ore m inerals
and b io tite grains w ere observed. T h e m a jo rity o f th e q u a rtz
grains an d especially those ran g in g in size betw een 0-03 m m
a n d 0-1 m m w ere v ell-ro u n d e d a n d p olished, in d icatin g th a t
the san d h a d been su b jected to long tra n sp o rt.
T esting procedure
T h e tria x ia l eq u ip m en t used fo r the tests is th e sta n d a rd
a p p a ra tu s d eveloped a t the N o rw eg ian G eo tech n ical In stitu te.
A co m p lete d escrip tio n o f this e q u ip m en t has been published
in the N .G .I. p u b lic atio n series N os. 21 and 35. T h e la y -o u t
o f the a p p a ra tu s as used in th e san d tests is show n d iag ram -
m atically in Fig. 2.

L o a d in g p re ss

P roving rin g

T riax ial cell

R ed u ctio n g e a r s
and m otor

B u rette
C ap illary tu b e

P o re -p re ssu re
m e a s u rin g dev ise

B ourdon g a g e 0-12 kg/crr)2

S crew c o n tro l

M ercury w ater m an o m eter

Test tube
C o n sta n t p re s s u re cell

Table top

E x tra co upling for

u n d rain e d te s ts

G land co c k
P isto n valve

Fig. 2 L ayout of triaxial apparatus.

Présentation des appareils triaxiaux.

A ll tests w ere carried o u t o n cy lin d rical sam ples w ith a
d iam eter o f 3-57 centim etres an d a h eig h t o f 8-0 centim etres.
T h e sam ple is co n tain ed in a 0-05 m illim itre thick ru b b er
m em b ran e w hich is sealed to th e base o f th e cell an d to a to p
cap. D u rin g the placing o f th e sam ple a split m o u ld is used
fo r su p p o rtin g a n d su rro u n d in g th e ru b b e r m em b ra n e an d
the sam ple.
In o rd er to co v er th e full ran g e o f possible p o ro sities o f
the san d , th ree different m eth o d s o f build in g u p th e sam ple
w ere a d o p ted , resulting in a dense, a m edium dense a n d a
loose deposit.
T he low est range o f p o ro sities w as o b ta in e d b y tam p in g
single layers o f w et sand w ith a ro d (d iam eter 7 m illim etres).
T he sand has a m oisture c o n te n t o f a b o u t 15 p e r cent d u rin g
th e process, a n d th e p orosities o b tain ed in this w ay v aried
from 35 p er cent to 39 per cent.
M edium dense pack in g o f 'the san d w as also o b ta in e d by
light tam p in g , b u t a t a placem ent m o istu re c o n te n t o f 8 p er
cent. T h e tam p in g ro d h a d a d iam eter o f 2-9 centim etres. T he
p o ro sites w hich resulted fro m this p ro ced u re v aried from
40 p er cen t to 43 p er cent.
F o r o b ta in in g m ax im u m p o ro sity , san d w ith 11 p er cen t
m o istu re c o n te n t w as placed very carefu lly in th e m ould.
A t this w ater c o n te n t cap illary forces create an ad h esion
betw een th e grains resu ltin g in a “ h o n e y c o m b ” stru cture.
T he p o ro sity o f sam ples places in this w ay w as a b o u t 75 per
cent. A very slow u p w ard s flow o f w ater th ro u g h th e sam ple
w as th en applied, d u rin g w hich th e stru ctu re collapsed an d

30
the sam ple co n solidated. If th e process o f sa tu ra tio n w as slow volum e test is th a t it will give co rrec t p o re p ressu re m easur­
en o u g h , a very h om ogen eo u s sam ple w ith a final p o ro sity em ents even if th e sam ple is n o t com p letely satu rate d .
o f a b o u t 46 p er cen t w as o b tain ed .
A fter the sam ple h ad been deposited a n d satu ra te d , the Test results
to p cap was placed a n d sealed to th e ru b b e r m em b ran e. T he
sam ple w as th en subjected to a very light vacum (50 ce n ti­ T h e results o f th e final series o f tests, consisting o f 24 d ra i­
m etres o f w ater) by a low ering o f th e b u rette w hich is co n n ec­ n e d tests, 19 co n so lid ated c o n stan t-v o lu m e tests an d 12 co nsol­
ted to the p o ro u s filter p late a t th e b o tto m o f the sam ple. idated u n d ra in e d tests are p resen ted below . A s there is no
T h e stren gth o f the sam ple, c o n so lid ated fo r this pressure, difference betw een th e results o f th e u n d ra in e d a n d th e cons-
w as then sufficient to p erm it the rem o v al o f the split m ould. tan t-v o lu m e tests, th ey will be discussed below u n d er the
T h e dim ensions o f the sam ple w ere m easu red a n d w hen the sam e desig n atio n , u n d ra in e d tests. In th e discussion o f the
u p p er section o f the triax ial cell h a d been m o u n ted , th e cell results m ax im u m em phasis will be given to the results o f the
pressure w as slow ly increased, a n d th e b u re tte was sim ul­ tests w ith loose sand.
taneously raised.
M ost sam ples w ere co n so lid ated u n d e r a n all-ro u n d p res­ Stress-Strain curves
sure, but som e u n d ra in e d tests w ere also p erfo rm ed o n sam ples
co n so lid ated an iso tro p ically . T he an iso tro p ical co n so lid atio n In Fig. 3 are p lo tte d a typical set o f stress-strain a n d volum e
was d one by increasing th e cell p ressure in steps, as well as ch an g e-strain curves as observed in the drained tests. The
the ad d itio n al vertical load o n the sam ple. T h e ra tio between th ree curves rep resen t the results o f tests o n a dense, a m edium
the vertical an d lateral stresses w as co n tro lle d so th a t the
cross-section o f the sam ple rem ain ed c o n sta n t d u rin g con so li­
datio n . W hen co n so lid atio n w as com plete, th e sh ear tests
w ere carried o u t by su bjectin g the sam ple to a c o n sta n t ra te
o f strain. T h e types o f test p erfo rm ed w ere as follow s :
Drained tests. — T h e m a jo rity o f the d rain ed tests were
carried o u t as c o n v e n tio n a l d rain ed tria x ia l tests b y increasing
the axial strain u n til failure. T h e ra te o f stra in selected was
0-2 per cen t strain p er m inute.
In o rd er to investigate the effect o f th e co n sid erab le co nso li­
d a tio n w hich in ev itab ly takes place in co n v en tio n al d rain ed
tests o n loosely deposited san d , a series o f tests w as p erfo rm ed
o n loose san d in w hich failure w as p ro d u ced b y decreasing
lateral pressures. T h e tests w ere c arried o u t as fo r a n o rm a l
d rain ed test w ith the sam e ra te o f stra in , b u t d u rin g th e tests
the cell p ressure w as red u ced a t such a ra te th a t a c o n sta n t
ax ial stress w as m ain tain ed .
Consolidated undrained tests. — A fter co n so lid a tio n o f the
sam ple, steps w ere ta k e n to en su re co m p lete sa tu ra tio n .
T his w as d o n e b y increasing th e cell p ressu re a t th e sam e
tim e as a back pressu re was applied to the p o re w ater. D u rin g
this o p e ra tio n the effective stresses in th e sam ple rem ain ed S tra in in p e r c e n t
un ch an g ed a n d u n d e r th e increased p ressure the a ir bubbles
in the p o re w ater w ere com pressed a n d dissolved (see B j e r r u m Fig. 3 D rained tests. Typical stress-strain and volume change
an d H u d e r , 1957). A n excess pressure o f 8 k g /cm 2 w as used curves for dense, medium and loose sand. Samples
in all tests. In o rd er to increase the accu racy o f m ain tain in g consolidated at 1 kg/cm 2.
an d m easuring the effective stresses d u rin g th e test, a special Essais drainés. Courbes typiques de tension-déform ation
c o n n ectio n betw een th e cell p ressu re a n d th e p o re pressure et de variation de volume, relatives aux sables ferme,
u nits w as established (see Fig. 2). moyen et meuble. Echantillons consolidés à 1 kg/cm'2.
T he shear test w as m ad e by bringing th e sam ple to failure
a t a c o n sta n t ra te o f d efo rm a tio n , 0-2 p er cent strain p er
m inute. D u rin g the test, p o re pressures w ere m easu red by a n d a loose sam ple w hich w ere all c o n so lid ated a t the sam e
b alancing th e m ercu ry “ U” in th e special plastic p o re pressure pressure, 1-0 k g /cm 2. As seen from th e curves the dense sand
device (see Fig. 2). show s a h eav ily d ila ta n t stru ctu re, resu ltin g in a n et volum e
increase d u rin g th e shear. It fails a t a low strain , a b o u t 4 per
Consolidated constant volume tests. — A fter co m p letio n o f cent. T h e loose san d show s, o n th e c o n tra ry , a considerable
co n so lid atio n , the d rain ag e system fro m the b o tto m filter volum e re d u ctio n d u rin g the test a n d the stra in a t failu re is
p late w as co n n ected to a cap illary tu b e (see Fig. 2). T he a b o u t 13 p er cent.
sam ple w as sub jected to a n ax ia l strain in the sam e w ay a n d Fig. 4 show s in a sim ilar w ay the stress-strain cu rv es o b ser­
a t the sam e ra te as in the co n v e n tio n al u n d ra in e d test. D u rin g ved in th e undrained tests. M o reo v er, th e d iag ram show s the
the test, the cell p ressure was reg u lated in such a w ay th a t d irectly m easured p o re pressure. T he stra in a t failure, d erived
there w as n o w ater squeezed o u t o f o r sucked in to th e sam ple, fro m the stress-strain curves, is o f special interest. W hereas
as indicated by a c o n sta n t level in th e cap illary tube. T he the stra in a t failu re for th e densest san d sam ples varies from
pressure in the p o re w ater w as thus k ep t u n ch an g ed durin g 6 p e r cen t to 10 p e r cent, th e failu re strain increases ra p id ly
the test a n d eq u al to th e atm o sp h eric pressure. A s th ere is fo r increasing p o ro sity . A m ed iu m dense sam ple w ith a p o ro ­
no change in th e volum e o f th e sam ple, the test is id entical sity o f 40 p er cen t th u s show s a strain a t failure o f 24 p er cent.
to a co n v en tio n al u n d ra in e d test a n d th e change in cell p res­ F o r still h igher p orosities, th e stra in a t failu re decreases again
sure can be assum ed eq u al to the p o re p ressure set u p in the a n d fo r th e very loose sam ples w ith po ro sities fro m 44 per
corresp o n d in g u n d rain ed test o n a co m pletely satu rate d cen t to 46 p e r cent the failure stra in is, o n th e average, as
sam ple ( B j e r r u m , 1 9 5 4 ). T h e a d v a n ta g e o f the c o n sta n t low as 0-5 p er cent.

31
 S tra in ¡n p e rc e n t

Fig. 4 U ndrained tests. Typical stress-strain and pore pressure

curves for dense, medium and loose sand. Samples In itia l p o r o s i t y in p e r s e n t
consolidated at 1 kg/cm 2.
Fig. 5 U ndrained tests. Pore pressure param eter A at failure
Essais à teneur en eau courante. Courbes typiques de plotted against initial porosity.
tension-déform ation et de pression interstitielle, pour
sables ferme, moyen et meuble. Echantillons consoli­ Essais à teneur en eau constante. Le param ètre A de la
dés à 1 kg/cm 2. pression insterstitielle à rupture, en fonction de la
porosité initiale.

P o re pressure param eter, A

w ere carried o u t u n d e r a c o n sta n t ra te o f strain . A t th e p o in t
In th e stress-strain d iag ram s in Fig. 4 are also sh o w n som e o f failu re th e ap plied d e v iato r stress, th erefo re, reaches a
typical p o re p ressure curves as observ ed in u n d ra in e d tests. m ax im u m value a n d rem ain s c o n sta n t fo r a certain range
T hree curves a re given in Fig. 4, rep resen tin g tests w ith a o f strain before it decreases. A t failure th erefore, there is no
dense, a m edium a n d a loose sam ple co n so lid ated a t 1 k g /cm 2. ch an g e in to ta l stresses o n the sam ple. A t th e p o in t o f failure
C o rresp o n d in g to the vo lu m e increase o b serv ed in th e d rain ed the p o re pressures in th e dense an d m edium san d show ed
tests, Fig. 3, a large neg ativ e p o re pressu re is set u p in u n d ra ­ a ten d en c y to decrease o r to rem ain un ch an g ed . In the loose
ined tests on dense sand.
D u rin g the u n d rain ed tests o n very loose san d , surp risin g ly
high p o re pressures a re o b serv ed , w hich resu lt in extrem ely
low sh ear strengths. T his finding is illu strated in Fig. 4, bu t
it is m o re clearly o b served b y a calc u latio n o f the p o re p ressu re
p a ra m e te r A. ( S k e m p t o n , 1954). T he p o re pressure p a ra ­
m eter, A , is defined by th e follow ing eq u a tio n
A u = A o n i + A (A o i — A s m )
in w hich A n is the p o re p ressure set u p by the ch an g e in
m a jo r an d m inor princip al stresses, A a i a n d A o m . Fig. 5
show s the A — values ob serv ed at fa ilu re —defined as o c cu r­
ring at the m axim um values o f (a / —a m ) —p lo tted against
the initial p o ro sities o f the sam ples.
In Fig. 5 it is o f interest to see th a t fo r po ro sities below 44
per cen t negative pore pressures are observ ed a t failure. F o r
sam ples w ith porosities from 44 p er cent to 47 p er cent, the
A —values v ary from zero to one, while for po ro sities ab o v e
44 per cent, the p o re pressure p aram eter, A, increases rap id ly .
T he loosest sam ple w hich has been tested in this series, h av in g
an initial p o ro sity o f 48 p er cent, had th u s th e A — value o f
S tra in in p e r c e n t
2-7. In o rd e r to illustrate the significance o f this high value
o f A, it can be m entioned th a t it is the m ax im u m value w hich Fig. 6 U ndrained tests. Variation in pore pressure param eter A
during typical undrained tests on dense, medium,
has h ith e rto been observ ed at the In stitu te an d is a p p ro x im a ­ loose and very loose samples.
tely tw ice the values observed in n o rm a lly co n so lid ated clays.
Essai à teneur en eau constante. V ariation du para­
T he unstab le stru ctu re o f th e loose san d is n o t o n ly illu­
mètre A de pression interstitielle au cours d ’essais
strated by the A — values a t failure, b u t also b y an observed typiques non drainés sur échantillons fermes, moyens,
ad d itio n al increase in p o re p ressure a fter failure. A ll tests meubles et très meubles.
32
 In itia l p o r o s ity in p e r c e n t P o r o s ity a t f a i l u r e in p e r c e n t
Fig. 7 D rained tests. Angle o f internal friction plotted against initial porosity (left) and porosity at failure (right).
Essais drainés. Angle de frottem ent interne en fonction de la porosité initiale (à gauche), et de la porosité à rupture (à droite).

sand, how ever, a very p ro n o u n c e d increase in p o re p ressure
w as o b served a t failure. T his is clea rly illu strated in F ig. 6,
w hich show s the A —values o b serv ed d u rin g ty p ical u n d ra in e d
tests. T h e p o in t o f failu re is in d icated o n each c u rv e so th a t
the change in p o re pressu re a t failu re can be seen d irectly
fro m th e diagram .
The angle of internal friction
T h e angle o f in tern al fric tio n fo u n d b y the drained tests are
p lo tted in F ig. 7 as a fu n c tio n o f th e p o ro sity . T w o d iagram s
are show n in w hich the fric tio n angle is p lo tte d ag ain st the
initial p o ro s ity a n d ag ain st th e p o ro sity a t failu re respectively.
E ach p o in t in F ig. 7 rep resen ts o n e test o n ly , th e friction
angle b eing c o m p u ted fro m the value o f th e p rin cip al stress
ra tio a t failure, assum ing th a t th e cohesion is zero. T h e dia­
gram s in Fig. 7 show s th e w ell-know n decrease in angle of
in te rn al frictio n fo r increasing p o ro sity . H ow ever, th e tests
o n very loose sam ples in d icate th a t in the loose ran g e the
frictio n angle decreases ra p id ly fo r increasing p o ro sity ,
resulting in a sh a rp b end o f th e curves. T h e v ery loose sam ples
th u s show ed frictio n angles as low as a b o u t 20°.
A s th e p o re w ater pressures w ere m easu red in th e undrained
tests, th e effective stresses a t failure are k now n. F ro m these
values th e angle o f in te rn a l frictio n can be c o m p u ted in the
sam e w ay as d o n e fo r the d rain ed tests. In Fig. 8 th e friction

45 45

5° O o
40 40
+
+
++ + + 4-
+ — o
35 a; 3 5
+

- 30 30

o c o n s o lid a te d \ +-
u n d ra in e d te s t
° 25 o 25
4- c o n s o lid a te d 3 \
c o n s t a n t v o lu m e
+\
te st 0
- 20 20 ° 1
% +
•>
O ° 1
.+
< 15 < 15

10
34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48
10
34 36 38 40 42 44
\
46
+
48
I n it ia l p o r o s i t y in p e r c e n t P o r o s ity a t fa ilu re in p e r c e n t

Fig. 8 U ndrained tests. Angle o f internal friction plotted against initial porosity (left) and porosity at failure (right).
Essais à teneur en eau constante. Angle de frottem ent interne en fonction de la porosité initiale (à gauche), et de la
porosité à rupture (à droite).
33
angles are show n in tw o diag ram s, p lo tte d
initial p o ro sity an d in the o th er ag ain st the
T he curves in Fig. 8 show clearly th a t
o f the dense an d m edium dense sam ples
in th e one ag ain st n o rm a l ran g e o f values, 41° to 34°. F o r sam ples w ith higher
p o ro sity a t failure. po ro sities th a n 44 per cent, how ever, a m o st su rp risin g an d
the frictio n angle un ex p ected d ro p in friction angle w ith increasing p o ro sity is
varies w ithin the o bserved. F ro m the 34° w hich is m easu red in th e m edium
dense sam ples, the frictio n angle decreases to a b o u t 10° in
the very loose sam ples w ith initial po ro sities o f 47-48 per cent.
In o rd e r to co m p a re th e results o f th e d rain e d tests with
those o f the u n d ra in e d tests, it is necessary to p lo t the friction
angles ag ain st the p o ro sity a t failure. Such a p lo t o f the friction
angle observ ed in d rain ed a n d u n d ra in e d tests is show n
in Fig. 9. As seen fro m the d iag ram , the cp values o b served in
the u n d ra in e d tests are sm aller th a n the values co m p u ted
from th e d ra in e d tests. T h e difference is sm allest in th e m edium
dense ran g e o f p orosities. T h e g reatest difference is found
in the very loose san d w here it am o u n ts to as m u ch as 10°.
T his m eans th a t th e frictio n angle observ ed a t failu re in the
u n d ra in e d test is a b o u t h alf th e value fo u n d in th e d rain ed
tests.

T he effective principal stress ratio

T he friction angles p lo tte d in Fig. 7 a n d F ig. 8 a re c o m p u ted

Poro sity at fa ilu re p e rce n t
Fig. 9 C om parison of the angle of internal friction observed
in drained and undrained tests.
Com paraison des angles de frottem ent interne observés
aux essais drainés à ceux à teneur en eau constante.
for th e failu re values o f th e effective stresses o b serv ed in the
tests. F ailu re is h ere d efined as th e p o in t w here th e d e v ia to r
stress (<7/ —c h i ' ) show s a m ax im u m o n th e stress-strain d ia­
gram . F o r th e d ra in e d tests th e p o in t o f failu re defined in
this w ay is identical w ith th e p o in t a t w hich th e p rin cip al
stress ra tio reaches a m ax im u m . In th e u n d ra in e d tests this is
g en erally n o t th e case. T his fact is clea rly illu strated in Fig. 10,
w hich show s th e p rin cip al stress ratio p lo tte d ag a in st th e
strain fo r ty p ical tests o n dense, m edium a n d loose sand. T w o
diag ram s are sh o w n in Fig. 10, giving cu rv es fo r th e d rain ed
tests a n d th e u n d ra in e d tests. O n each c u rv e is in d icated the
p o in t o f failu re w here a i —a n i h as a m axim um .
Fig. 10 show s th a t th e failu re p o in ts d o n o t coincide w ith
the p o in ts o f m ax im u m p rin cip al stress ra tio in th e u n d rain ed
tests. In th e dense a n d m edium dense sa n d g i — g i u continues
to increase after th e p e a k value o f th e p rin cip al stress ra tio

5 10 15 5 1Q 15
S tr a in p e rc e n t S tra in in p e r c e n t
D rained tests U nd rained tests
Fig. 10 Typical curves of principal stress ratio plotted against strain for drained tests (left) and undrained tests (right), with dense,
medium and loose sand.
Courbes typiques du rapport des tensions principales, en fonction de la déform ation aux essais drainés (à gauche) et
aux essais non drainés (à droite).

34
has been reached, the m ax im u m value being first observed
a t a higher strain th a n th a t a t w hich cn /o m is a m axim um .
A t this higher strain a re d u ctio n in a ila u i has occurred so
th a t the m easured frictio n angle co rresp o n d in g to m ax.
g ¡ —a m is som ew hat sm aller th a n th a t a t m ax. g i / g h i . T he
m axim um prin cip al stress ra tio represents o f co u rse the
p o in t o f m ax im u m o b liq u ity o f th e resu lta n t force o n the
failure plan e w hich m eans th a t a t this p o in t friction is fully
m obilized. T he reason w hy g i — g h i can still be increased is
th a t the d ila ta n t stru ctu re o f the dense an d m edium dense
san d will cause a stead y re d u ctio n in p o re pressures o v er the
ran g e o f strain s before a n d after the friction has been fully
m obilized an d the effective stress o n th e failure p lan e will
therefore c o n tin u e to increase. T his m eans fu rth er th a t the
sh ear resistance o f the sam ple will co n tin u e to increase and
the d e v iato r stress can co n seq u en tly be raised a b o v e the value
c o rresp o n d in g to th e m ax im u m p rin cip al stress ratio .
In loose san d the co n d itio n s are ju s t th e opp o site. A s seen
from Fig. 10, a n increase in p rin cip al stress ra tio is observed
b efore an d a fte r failure. T h e m ax im u m value o f this ra tio is,
thus, first reach ed a t a strain w hich is 10-20 tim es the strain
a t the peak value o f the d e v ia to r stress. T h is finding is a
resu lt o f the stead y a n d ra p id increase in p o re pressu re which
occurs d u rin g the tests w ith loose sand. T his increase in p o re
pressure w ith increasing strain causes a red u ctio n in effective
stress o n the failure p lan e w hich m o re th a n com pensates the
c o rresp o n d in g increase in friction, w ith th e result th a t g i — g h i
decreases. T he friction a n g l: a t m ax. g i — a m is th u s c o n sid era­
bly sm aller th an the m ax im u m value observ ed a t m ax.
G l/G lll.
Fig. 11 show s a d iag ram in w hich a c o m p ariso n is m ade
betw een th e cp— values c o rresp o n d in g to th e m axim um
p rin cip al stress ra tio as ob serv ed in d rain ed a n d u n d ra in e d
tests. T he co m p ariso n show s th a t there is a general ag reem en t
P o r o s it y at f a i l u r e in p e r c e n t
Fig. 11 The “ friction angle ” determined at maximum principal
stress ratio as observed in drained and undrained
tests.
“ L ’angle de frottem ent ” déterminé au rapport maximal
des tensions principales, observé aux essais drainés
et aux essais non drainés.
betw een th e cp— values fo u n d in the d rain ed a n d u n d rain ed
tests o n the loose a n d m edium dense sand. T h e friction
angles o bserved in the u n d rain ed tests o n dense san d , how e­
ver, are som ew hat sm aller th a n th e values from the d rain ed
tests.
A s discussed by T a y l e r (1948) a n d B i s h o p (1950), a p a rt
o f th e drain ed sh ear stren g th o f a dense san d can be a ttrib u ­
ted to th e force req u ired to cause d ilatan cy ag ain st the confining
pressure. T his force can be co m p u ted from the observed
ra te o f v olum e change a t failure. Such a c o m p u ta tio n has
been m ade fo r all d rain ed tests an d th e d ilatan cy c o m p o n en t
su b stracted fro m th e to ta l stren g th . T he values o f th e internal
friction angle corrected for the d ilatan cy co m p o n en t are also
p lo tted in Fig. 11 w hich show s th a t th ere is alm o st co m plete
ag reem en t betw een th e friction angle co m p u ted from the
d ra in e d an d the u n d rain ed tests o v er the w hole ran g e o f
porosities.
T h e p resen t test results thus confirm a recent finding fro m a
review o f av ailab le triax ial tests o n u n d istu rb ed n o rm ally
co n so lid ated clay ( B j e r r u m , S i m o n s , 1960), th a t th ere is
general ag reem ent betw een the friction angles observed in
d rain ed a n d u n d ra in e d tests if the u n d ra in e d values are
co m p u ted fo r th e m ax im u m principal stress ratio . T his result
indicates th a t in cases w here a long-term stab ility p ro b lem
has to be an aly sed on th e basis o f a series o f u n d ra in e d tests
w ith p o re p ressure m easu rem en t, failure sh cu ld be selected
a t th a t p o in t w here th e p rin cip al stress ra tio reaches a m ax ­
im um ( H o l t z , 1947).
O n the o th er h a n d , practical pro b lem s w here excess pore
p ressures are set u p b y a change in stress should, in principle,
be analysed in term s o f effective stresses o n th e basis o f
u n d rain ed tests w ith p o re pressure m easurem ents, th e failure
p o in t co rresp o n d in g to th e m ax im u m value o f g i — a m being
used. T his p o in t o f view is stro n g ly su p p o rted b y the results
o f th e u n d rain ed tests o n th e very loose sand, w here th e use
o f th e m ax im u m p rin cip al stress ra tio as failure criterion
w ould lead to a n overestim ate o f the frictio n angle o f 5° to 8°.
Earth pressure a t rest
T h e m a jo rity o f the tests were carried o u t o n sam ples ini­
tially co n so lid ated u n d e r an all-ro u n d cell pressure. Several
tests in w hich the sam ples w ere c o n so lid ated a n iso tro p ically
w ere p erfo rm ed , how ever, using a p rin cip al stress ra tio such
th a t th ere w as n o change in d iam eter o f th e sam ple d u ring
co n so lid atio n . T he ra tio o f the m in o r a n d m a jo r p rincipal
stresses observed d u rin g c o n so lid a tio n is th e coefficient o f
e a rth p ressure a t rest, K 0. T he observed values o f K0 are
36 38 40 42 44 46 48
I n itia l p o r o s i t y in p e r c e n t
Fig. 12 Coefficient of earth pressure at rest plotted against
initial porosity.
Coefficient de pression du sol en repos, en fonction de
la porosité initiale.
p lo tted against the initial p o ro sity in Fig. 12. T he values v ary
from 0-25 in dense san d to 0-65 in very loose san d . T he high
values observed in loose san d a re c o n sid erab ly h igher th a n
fo u n d in p revious tests o n san d , a n d th ey a re ap p ro x im ate ly
o f the sam e o rd er as m easu red in n o rm a lly co n so lid ated clay.
T h ere w ere n o essential differences in th e results o f the
sh ear tests o n isotropically a n d an iso tro p ically c o n so lid ated
sam ples. I t w as surprising to see, how ever, th e sm all increase
in d e v ia to r stress required to cause failu re in the u n d rain e d
tests on loose sand. T his finding is illu strated in Fig. 13
to
- 1«
S tra in in p e rc e n t
Fig. 13 D eviator stress, principal stress ratio and pore pressure
plotted against strain as observed in an undrained
test on a loose anisotropically consolidated sand
sample.
Difference entre tensions principales, rap p o rt de ten­
sions principales, et pression d ’eau interstitielle, en
fonction de la déform ation observée dans un essai non
drainé sur un échantillon de sable meuble consolidé
de façon anisotrope.
w hich gives typical stress-strain a n d p o re p ressu re read in g s
fro m a n u n d ra in e d test o n a n an iso tro p ic a lly c o n so lid ated
loose sam ple.
Ratio of undrained shear strength and consolidation pressure
In n o rm a lly co n so lid ated clays, th e ra tio o f th e u n d ra in e d
sh e a r stren g th to the pressu re u n d e r w hich th e clay w as co n so li­
d a te d , is co n stan t. T his c o n sta n t is a c h a racteristic p aram ete r
36
w hich, in th e case o f m arin e d eposits, seem s to be a fu n ction
o f th e p lasticity in d ex o f th e clay. ( S k e m p t o n , 1948). In n a tu ­
rally o ccu rrin g stra ta o f soils w ith low plasticity , th e value
o f the ra tio o f u n d ra in e d stren g th a n d effective o v erb u rd en
p ressu re is o f th e o rd e r 0-10 — 0-15 ( B j e r r u m , 1954). It is
o b v io u sly o f in terest to co m p a re the results o f th e u n d ra in ed
tests o n th e loose san d w ith these values.
In o rd e r to d o this, th e u n d ra in e d tria x ia l tests w ere in ter­
p reted in a sim ilar w ay to th a t used fo r clay. T h e u n d ra in e d
sh ear stren g th w as ta k e n equal to h a lf o f th e d e v ia to r stress a t
failure, a n d this value w as d ivided b y th e pressure fo r w hich
the sam ple w as initially co n so lid ated . W h ere th e sam ples
c o n so lid ated u n d e r an an iso tro p ic a l stress co n d itio n , the
m ax im u m p rin cip al stress w as used.
T est results in d icate clearly th a t th e sh ear stre n g th ratio
decreases w ith in creasing p o ro sity . T h e value o b serv ed in
dense san d show som e scatterin g , b u t th e y a re o f less in terest
in this co n n ectio n . T h e values c o m p u ted fro m th e tests w ith
loose san d a re p lo tte d ag ain st th e initial p o ro s ity in F ig. 14.
In itia l p o r o s ity in p e r c e n t
Fig. 14 R atio o f undrained shear strength and consolidation
pressure observed on loose sand.
R ap p o rt entre la résistance au cisaillement (échantillon
non drainé) et la pression de consolidation, rap port
calculé à la base d ’essais effectués sur du sable meuble.
T h e sh ear stre n g th ra tio m easu red in th e lo o sest co n d itio n
o f the san d (see F ig. 14), is believed to be c o m p a ra b le w ith
th e c o rre sp o n d in g values in n o rm a lly co n so lid a te d m arin e
clays, as th e loose san d a n d th e m arin e c la y b o th rep re sen t
th e loosest p ossible d e p o sitio n o f a m a te r ia l1. A s seen from
Fig. 14, th e ra tio o f th e u n d ra in e d sh ear stren g th to the
c o n so lid a tio n p ressu re o f th e loosest sa n d , in itial p o ro sity
47-48 p er cent, is o f th e o rd e r 0-11 to 0-18. T hese values are
very sim ilar to the values o b serv ed fo r n o rm a lly co n so lid ated
clay w ith low p lasticity. A fu rth e r discussion o f th e sim ilar­
ities betw een loose san d a n d n o rm a lly c o n so lid a te d clays is
given in a se p arate p a p er p re p a re d fo r th e C onference.
Conclusions
F ro m th e a b o v e tria x ia l tests o n fine sa n d the follow ing
m ain con clu sio n s c a n be d raw n :
1. It has been p ro v e d th a t sh ear tests o n a fine sa n d are
useful in a general stu d y o f som e o f th e facto rs w hich c o n tro l
th e sh ear stren g th o f soils. B y v ary in g th e p o ro sity o f the
san d , its sh ear stren g th p ro p e rtie s c a n be ch an g ed o v er a
v e ry w ide ra n g e fro m th e m o st h eav ily o v erco n so lid a te d to
th e lo o sest a n d m o st sensitive soils.
1. Concerning the effect of initial deposition on the shear strength,
see Bjerrum, 1954, and Bjerrum and Rosenqvist, 1956.
 2. T he tests hav e sho w n th a t th e frictio n angle varies w ith
the p o ro sity o v er a m uch w ider ra n g e th a n h ith e rto supposed.
It is o f special in terest to ob serv e th a t th e frictio n angle
decreases very rap id ly w hen th e p o ro sity exceeds a certain
value. In the d rain ed tests th e frictio n angle w as fo u n d to
vary fro m 19° to 42°, w hereas th e u n d ra in e d tests o n th e very
loose sand show ed values as low as 11°.
3. In th e co n so lid ated u n d ra in e d tests o n loose san d it
was observed th a t the m ax im u m value o f the d e v ia to r stress
w as reached before the frictio n was fully m obilized, w hich
is explained as resulting fro m the rap id increase in p o re p res­
sure w ith strain . In the tests o n dense san d , o n the o th er
h an d , th e u n d rain ed sh ear stren g th c o n tin u ed to increase
som ew hat after the frictio n w as fully m obilized, as a resu lt o f
a stead y decrease in p o re pressure. T he friction angle observed
a t m ax im u m d ev iato r stress w as for all po ro sities sm aller
th a n fo u n d a t th e m ax im u m p rin cip al stress ra tio an d th e
difference is greatest fo r the densest a n d th e loosest sam ples.
4. T he friction angle ob serv ed in th e d rain e d tests agrees
very well w ith the values fro m th e c o n so lid ated u n d rain e d
tests p ro v id ed th a t th e m ax im u m p rin cip al stress ra tio is
used as failure criterio n an d th a t th e d rain ed values a re c o r­
rected fo r the d ilatan cy co m p o n en t.
5. T h e ra tio o f the u n d ra in e d sh ear stren g th to th e effective
pressure u n d e r w hich th e sam ple w as c o n so lid ated is in the
loosest sand o f th e o rd er o f 0 -11-0T8. T hese values are su rp ris­
ingly sim ilar to the ra tio s ob serv ed from vane tests in n o r­
m ally co n so lid ated clay w ith low p lasticity. T h e test results
th u s in d icate a general v alid ity o f th e w ell-know n co rre la tio n
o f decreasing u n d ra in e d sh ear stren g th ra tio w ith decreasing
plasticity index observed in n o rm a lly co n so lid ated m arin e
clays.
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37