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Oil & Gas Science and Technology – Rev. IFP Energies nouvelles, Vol. 66 (2011), No. 3, pp. 521-530
Copyright © 2011, IFP Energies nouvelles
DOI: 10.2516/ogst/2010027
* Corresponding author
Résumé — Analyse des risques des conditions d’extinction de torche au sein d’une installation de
traitement de gaz — Le torchage est un procédé courant d’élimination des gaz résiduaires inflammables
dans les industries de traitement. L’extinction de la torche (par décollage ou soufflage de flamme)
provoque souvent une émission de vapeurs toxiques. Ces gaz toxiques libérés peuvent présenter des
effets dangereux sur le milieu environnant. Pour étudier l’effet d’une exposition par inhalation de ces gaz
toxiques sur la santé, cet article croise les quatre étapes de la démarche de l’EPA (Environmental
Protection Agency, Agence de protection de l’environnement) avec les données d’exploitation afin de
quantifier le risque sanitaire cancérologique et non cancérologique. Dans le cadre de l’estimation
d’exposition, une modélisation de dispersion des gaz utilisant AERMOD et UDM-PHAST est évaluée
dans deux configurations différentes de torchage normal et d’extinction de torche à l’occasion de
conditions climatiques particulières dans la région du Khangiran. L’article propose également des
recommandations destinées à éviter les conditions d’une extinction de flamme de torche.
Abstract — Risk Analysis of Flare Flame-out Condition in a Gas Process Facility — Flaring is a
common method of disposal of flammable waste gases in the downstream industries. Flare flame out
(flame lift-off or blow-outs) often occurs causing toxic vapors to discharge. The toxic gases released
may have hazardous effects on the surrounding environment. To study the effect of inhalation
exposure of these toxic gases on human health, the four steps of the EPA (Environmental Protection
Agency) framework with the field data to quantify the cancer and non-cancer health risks are
integrated in this paper. As a part of exposure assessment, gas dispersion modeling using AERMOD
and UDM-PHAST is applied in two different conditions of normal flaring and flare flame out during
a particular climate condition in Khangiran region. Recommendations to avoid flare flame out
conditions are also presented here.
ogst100008_Zadakbar 22/07/11 17:35 Page 522
522 Oil & Gas Science and Technology – Rev. IFP Energies nouvelles, Vol. 66 (2011), No. 3
Hazard identification
– Gathering and analyzing of data
in the flare flameout
– Identifying Chemical of Potential
Concern (CPC) in these data
Risk characterization
– Characterizing potential for
adverse effects to occur
1. Estimating cancer risk
2. Estimating non-cancer
hazard quotients
– Summarizing risk information
Figure 1
ERA methodology for evaluating the human health risk of the flare emissions.
ogst100008_Zadakbar 22/07/11 17:35 Page 523
O Zadakbar et al. / Risk Analysis of Flare Flame-out Condition in a Gas Process Facility 523
Risk-based evaluation of chemical concentrations during determine the direction of the prevailing wind in the vicinity
normal flaring as well as flare flame out via a case study in of Khangiran. During 10% of the year, the wind direction is
the Khangiran gas process facility (Sarakhs-Iran) is consid- 160 degrees [10], which causes the wind to carry toxic gases
ered in this paper. Recommendations for precluding the to the personnel dormitory. This dormitory is located 1050
flame out conditions are also presented. meters away from the flare stack and it is 200 meters in
length. The release time was considered to be 1 h.
Figure 2
Khangiran gas process facility and surrounding areas [9].
ogst100008_Zadakbar 22/07/11 17:35 Page 524
524 Oil & Gas Science and Technology – Rev. IFP Energies nouvelles, Vol. 66 (2011), No. 3
500 ppm for 30 minutes produces headache, dizziness, the meteorology will be the same greater than 10 km away as
excitement, staggering, and gastroenteric disorders, followed at the source [17-18]. Since the distance between the speci-
in some cases by bronchitis or bronchial pneumonia. fied location (personnel dormitory), which should be consid-
Concentrations above 600 ppm can be fatal within 30 min- ered as the critical point during flare flame out, from the flare
utes through respiratory paralyses [14]. stack is 1 km, the plume model would be the proper model in
Furthermore, SO2 is a colorless gas which smells like comparison with puff model.
burnt matches. It can be oxidized to sulphur trioxide, which
in the presence of water vapor is readily transformed to sul- 1.3.1 Contaminants Transport Modeling using AERMOD
phuric acid mist. SO2 with acute exposure of 5 ppm may There are some Gaussian plume dispersion models such as
cause dryness of nose and throat and a miserable increase in AERMOD, ISCST3, AUSPLUME and CTDMPLUS.
resistance to bronchial air flow. SO2 increasing up to 6 to
AERMOD is the most common Gaussian plume dispersion
8 ppm causes a decrease in tidal respiration volume.
model which is recommended to use [16-18]. AERMOD was
Sneezing, cough & eye irritation occur at 10 ppm. SO2 con-
developed in 1995, reviewed in 1998 and formally proposed
centration of 20 ppm may cause Bronchospasm and 50 ppm
by the USEPA as a replacement for ISCST3 in 2000 [18-19].
causes extreme discomfort, but no injury in less than a 30
AERMOD is a near field, steady state guideline model. It
minute exposure. Finally, inhalation of 1000 ppm more than
uses boundary layer similarity theory to define turbulence
10 minutes causes death [15]. The Concentrations of H2S and
and dispersion coefficients as a continuum, rather than as a
SO2 in two different conditions considered in this modeling
discrete set of stability classes. Also, dispersion coefficients
scenario can be seen in Table 1. It is assumed that H2S is
for unstable conditions are non-Gaussian, to represent the
completely oxidized during normal flaring.
high concentrations that can be observed close to a stack
under convective conditions [20]. The modeling system con-
TABLE 1 sists of AERMOD, as the main program, and AERMET and
Concentrations of H2S and SO2 in two different conditions AERMAP as two pre-processors. AERMET is used to calcu-
considered in this modeling scenario [8] late boundary layer parameters. The meteorological interface
Conditions Concerns Release rate
uses these parameters to generate profiles of the needed
meteorological variables. It passes all meteorological obser-
Flare flame out H2S 100.63 kmole/h
vations to AERMOD. In addition, AERMAP characterizes
Normal flaring SO2 100.63 kmole/h the terrain, and generates receptor grids for the dispersion
model [16]. BREEZE® AERMOD [21] was used to model
gas dispersion during flare flame out in the present study.
1.3 Exposure Assessment This model is an air quality modeling system used to support
There has been a significant increase in awareness of envi- both regulatory and non-regulatory modeling requirements
ronmental issues in recent years and there is a great concern worldwide.
among people over how their health is affected by environ-
mental factors. Exposure assessment includes estimating the 1.3.2 Contaminants Transport Modeling
using UDM - PHAST
dose or concentration of the contaminant taken in by human
or ecological receptors per unit of time. Characterization of DNV PHAST [22] as a comprehensive hazard analysis
the exposure setting, identification of exposure pathways and software tool is also used for gas dispersion modeling to
quantification of exposure are different steps in exposure corroborate AERMOD results. PHAST uses a proprietary
assessment. dispersion model called the Unified Dispersion Model (UDM).
Gas dispersion modeling helps to predict the ground level It was formulated as a similarity model in which concentra-
concentration and deposition of air pollutants. One of the key tion and other variables are assumed to have a predefined
elements of an effective dispersion modeling study is to profile. It also assumes generalized Gaussian profiles.
choose an appropriate tool to match the scale of impact and Entrainment and spreading are calculated from a numerical
complexity of a particular discharge [16]. (Runge-Kutta-Milne) solution to differential equations for
In medium-complex atmospheric and topographical con- mass, momentum and heat transfer between the cloud and its
ditions as existed in the vicinity of Khangiran, Gaussian- environment [23]. The UDM is formulated as an integral
plume models can be used to produce reliable results. In model. A set of differential equations is integrated to give the
more complex atmospheric and topographical conditions, key variables as a function of distance or time. A number of
advanced puff or particle models may be required to achieve algebraic equations are then solved to obtain other variables
a comparable degree of accuracy [16-17]. Furthermore, describing the dispersing cloud. The set of differential equa-
plume models are usually applicable to near field within tions are basically the same for instantaneous and continuous
10 km from the source calculations. It is not wise to assume releases, although they are integrated with respect to time at
ogst100008_Zadakbar 22/07/11 17:35 Page 525
O Zadakbar et al. / Risk Analysis of Flare Flame-out Condition in a Gas Process Facility 525
first and then with respect to distance. The same differential The inhalation rates were received from USEPA [24] for
equations apply throughout all phases of dispersion [22]. Gas two different conditions of slow and fast activity levels. For
dispersion modeling was done for the flare flame out as well the average condition, the workers spend 12 hours inside the
as normal flaring in this study with following considerations site, and in the worst case they may spend the entire day
which can be seen in Table 2 and Table 3 (the stack diameter within the site. Some of the workers are not at the site during
is 1.5 m and the stack length is 50 m). weekends, which is 96 days of the entire year. The average
exposure duration was estimated for 70 years for a lifetime
cancerous effect [24]. The dose received by a human due to
TABLE 2
inhalation of each metal (carcinogens intake) is calculated by
Compositions of flare stream in flare header [8] the following equation:
Compositions Mole flow (kmol/h) Molar percent (%) Cair * Inhalation rate * Exposure time * Frequency (1)
Intake =
Methane 1059.40 87.42 Body weight * Averaging time
Ethane 5.66 0.46
526 Oil & Gas Science and Technology – Rev. IFP Energies nouvelles, Vol. 66 (2011), No. 3
The data from Table 5 are used to calculate the Hazard TABLE 6
Quotient (HQ) and the risk for carcinogens. The HQ is calcu- Application of AERMOD and UDM
lated from Equation (2), while the carcinogenic risk was for gas dispersion modeling in Khangiran
calculated from Equation (3). Model
Condition AERMOD UDM
HQ = Non-carcinogenic intake (mg/m3)/ (2) Flare flame out H2S dispersion H2S dispersion
Reference concentration (mg/m3)
(impact area, restricted area)
Risk = Carcinogenic intake (mg/kg/day) ×
(3) Normal flaring - SO2 dispersion
Cancer slope factor (mg/kg/day)-1
If the HQ is less than 1, it shows that the risk is slight and
little or no action is required. If the HQ is near 1, it shows 2.1 Dispersion Modeling Results using AERMOD
uncertainty in the risk estimate and additional data is
required. Finally, if the HQ is more than 1, it shows that the Figure 3 illustrates gas dispersion due to flare flame out
risk is greater and regulatory action may be indicated [28]. A condition in the study region. This figure shows that the
single specified acceptable risk level, applicable for all car- personnel dormitory is covered by a plume with a concentra-
cinogens regulated by EPA is 10-6 (one death per million tion of more than 500 ppm.
people). Whenever the risk of carcinogenic substance exceeds
this value, it shows that the component has a carcinogenic
2.2 Dispersion Modeling Results using PHAST
effect [27].
To study the gas dispersion conditions, two areas have been
2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION considered: the restricted and the impact area. The restricted
area is the area within the boundaries of the installation and
Implementing the four steps of EPA framework, with the hence is under control of the company, either automatically
contaminant concentrations released in two different conditions through appropriate systems or manually. The impact area is
of normal flaring and flare flame out (see Tab. 6) leads to the the area that extended beyond the boundaries of the installa-
following results. tion but is nevertheless affected permanently by normal
800 ppm
700 ppm
600 ppm
500 ppm
400 ppm
300 ppm
200 ppm
Figure 3
Gas dispersion due to flare flame out.
ogst100008_Zadakbar 22/07/11 17:35 Page 527
O Zadakbar et al. / Risk Analysis of Flare Flame-out Condition in a Gas Process Facility 527
Figure 4
The maximum concentration of H2S within the restricted area.
operation of the facility or exceptionally by the consequences sidered. Also, the flare flame out in this condition would be
of an emergency situation. The restricted area shall be always important for the public, as it is drawn in Figure 5. In Figure
contained inside the impacted area. The calculations have 6, the maximum concentration of SO2 dispersion for the
been done for the worst flare gas stream containing 8 molar impact and the restricted area has been shown. As demon-
percent H2S and hydrocarbon content of mostly methane. strated in this figure, the hazard distance for SO2 inhalation is
The flare burning assumed to be complete, so the combustion more than 12 000 m, which includes the entirety of the work-
calculations have been done for the complete combustion ing area as well as the personnel dormitory. Therefore, the
situations. The simulations have been done by PHAST continuous flaring in an emergency situation would endan-
software. Results are shown in Figure 4-6. ger the employee and it shall be considered during the
The maximum concentration of H2S in the restricted area emergency response plan.
has been illustrated in Figure 4. As shown in this figure, the
hazard distance for refinery employee inhalation is a circle 2.3 Risk Estimation
with a 1470 m radius. Therefore, in the particular climate
conditions in which the wind direction might be changed The concentrations of SO2 and H2S in two different condi-
toward the working area and dormitory, the flare flame out tions of normal flaring and flare flame out are calculated, as
would have the irremediable consequence and shall be con- can be seen in Table 7.
ogst100008_Zadakbar 22/07/11 17:35 Page 528
528 Oil & Gas Science and Technology – Rev. IFP Energies nouvelles, Vol. 66 (2011), No. 3
Figure 5
The maximum concentration of H2S within the impact area.
After finding the concentrations of these chemicals based Comparing the results of carcinogenic health risk with the
on two different conditions considered in this modeling sce- criteria (10-6) shows that, there is a great carcinogenic health
nario, HQs are calculated to evaluate the hazardous effect of risk by inhaling H2S during flare flame out condition in both
SO2 in the normal flaring condition. As illustrated in Table 8, scenarios (normal and worst case) considered in this study.
the HQs in both areas (NF1 & NF2) are grater than the crite- H2S release in the flare flame out condition can be so danger-
ous, that it could result in having the harmful effects on
ria, which is 1. It shows the high non-carcinogenic risk of
human health. Therefore, the following recommendations
inhaling SO2 in these areas.
selected from previous investigations [29-31, 8] are neces-
Also, the values of HQs calculated based on the inhalation sary to be considered for precluding the flare flame out and
of H2S in different areas (FFO1 to FFO4) in the flare flame limiting these hazardous conditions:
out condition are far above the criteria. This shows a great – Use of an automatic flame monitoring device to warn of
risk of inhalation of H2S in the flare flame out condition. flameout conditions;
ogst100008_Zadakbar 22/07/11 17:35 Page 529
O Zadakbar et al. / Risk Analysis of Flare Flame-out Condition in a Gas Process Facility 529
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
7000
7500
8000
8500
9000
9500
10 000
10 500
11 000
11 500
12 000
12 500
13 000
Distance downwind (m)
TABLE 8
9.41214e+006 m2 @ 2 ppm 3.01958e+006 m2 @ 5 ppm
Calculating hazard quotients and cancer health risk for different scenario
530 Oil & Gas Science and Technology – Rev. IFP Energies nouvelles, Vol. 66 (2011), No. 3
gases on human health. The fate and transport of the contam- 10 IMO, Iran Meteorological Organization (2009)
inants (H2S and SO2) are modeled using AERMOD and http://www.razavimet.gov.ir.
UDM. In medium-complex atmospheric and topographical 11 Lewis R.J. (1996) Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial
Materials, 9th ed., Vol. 1, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY.
conditions, with relatively simple effects, as may be seen in
vicinity of Khangiran, Gaussian-plume models can produce 12 Zenz C., Dickerson O.B., Horvath E.P. (1994) Occupational
Medicine, 3rd ed., St. Louis, MO.
reliable results. Comparing the results of cancer and non-can-
13 US EPA (1980) Health and Environmental Effects Profile for
cer risk values with the existing guidelines shows that the Hydrogen Sulfide.
employees are at risk of inhaling carcinogenic and non-car-
14 Matheson (1983) Guide to Safe Handling of Compressed Gases,
cinogenic contaminants. Both values of carcinogenic and 2nd ed., p. 15.
non-carcinogenic risk are much greater whenever the flare 15 Thienes C., Haley T.J. (1972) Clinical Toxicology, 5th ed., Lea
flame out condition happens. Moreover, living with such a and Febige, Philadelphia, p. 198.
condition for a long time leads to death. Therefore, evaluat- 16 Alberta Environment (2009) (http://environment.alberta.ca).
ing the flare conditions regularly and assessing alternatives to 17 NZME, New Zeeland Ministry for Environment (2009)
preclude the flare flame out is required. (http://www.mfe.govt.nz).
18 USEPA (2009) AERMOD implementation guide.
19 Keith C.S., Joan G. (2007) Comparison of the Industrial Source
ACKNOWLEDGMENT Complex and AERMOD Dispersion Models: Case Study for
Human Health Risk Assessment, Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 57,
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of 1439-1446.
Qatar National Research Foundation (QNRF) under NPRP 20 American Meteorological Society AMS (2009) Glossary of
grant, and the material support of Nargan Consulting Meteorology.
Engineers. 21 Trinity Consultants, Inc. (2009) BREEZE Software & Data,
http://www.breeze-software.com/AERMOD.
22 DNV (2009) Det Norske Veritas, DNV PHAST (www.dnc.com).
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