Journal of African Earth Sciences, Vol. 28, No, 1, pp.

9 9 - 1 1 4 , 1999
Pergamon © 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd
PII:S0899-5362/98~00084-0 A , rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain
0899-5362/99 $- see front matter

Gondwanan palaeogeography and palaeoclimatology

C. R. SCOTESE, 1'* A. J. BOUCOT 2 and W. S. MCKERROW 3

Department of Geology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76019, USA
Department of Zoology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
Department of Earth Sciences, Oxford University, Parks Road, Oxford OXl 3PR, UK

ABSTRACT--Lithological indicators of climate, such as coals, evaporites, bauxites, and tillites,

can be used to map the past position of the major climatic zones (Humid Tropics, Dry Subtropics,
Warm and Cool Temperate, and Polar) that crossed the supercontinent of Gondwana. The
early proponents of continental drift (Wegener, 1912; du Toit, 1937) recognised this fact and
inferred that apparent climatic changes (e.g. Late Ordovician tillites in the Sahara Desert) were
actually the result of Gondwana's movement across these climatic belts. It is now known that
the changing width and location of these climatic zones reflects both: (1) Gondwana's latitudinal
movement; and (2) changes in global climate from Ice House to Hot House conditions. This
paper presents seven palaeogeographic maps and seven palaeoclimatic maps illustrating
Gondwana's changing climate. @1999 Elsevier Science Limited. All rights reserved.

RI~SUMI~--Les indicateurs lithologiques du climat, comme le charbon, les evaporites, les bauxites
et les tillites, peuvent etre utilises pour cartographier la position ancienne des zones climatiques
majeures (tropical humide, subtropical sec, temp6re chaud, temper~ froid et polaire) travers6es
par le supercontinent du Gondwana. Les pionniers de la d6rive des continents (Wegener,
1912; du Toit, 1937) ont reconnu ce fait et d~duit que les changements climatiques (par
exemple, les tillites de I'Ordovician tardif dans le D~sert du Sahara) resultaient en fait du
d~placement du Gondwana ~ travers ces ceintures climatiques. Nous savons maintenant que
la largeur variable et la Iocalis~tion des zones climatiques refletent ~ la fois: (1) le d6placement
en latitude du Gondwana et (2) les changements du climat global de conditions de glaci~re
celles d'effet de serre. Ce papier pr6sente sept cartes pal~og~ographiques et sept cartes
pal6oclimatiques illustrant les changements climatiques du Gondwana. © 1999 Elsevier Science
Limited. All rights reserved.

(Received 15/8/98: accepted 30/10/98)

INTRODUCTION
A t its m a x i m u m extent, the supercontinent of
Gondwana made up more than 7 0 % of the Earth's
continental area (-107 km2). Formed during the latest
Precambrian and rifted apart in a series of ocean
forming events that stretched into the Cretaceous,
the supercontinent of Gondwana lasted 500 + 50
million years. During this vast time interval, the far
r e a c h e s of t h i s e n o r m o u s s u p e r c o n t i n e n t
experienced every climate Earth had to offer: warm,
humid equatorial rainforests, arid subtropical deserts,
temperate forests, and frigid polar ice caps.
*emaih chris@scotese.com
This paper r e v i e w s the temporal and spatial
patterns of Gondwana's changing climate. Presented
are several maps (see Appendix) s h o w i n g the
location of the major climatic zones that crossed
Gondwana and the geological evidence that is the
basis for these interpretations is reviewed.
In order to understand G o n d w a n a ' s changing
climate it is necessary to separate climatic change
into t w o components:
i) secular climate change due to the latitudinal
m o v e m e n t of Gondwana across zonal climatic
belts; and

Journal o f African Earth Sciences 9 9

 C. R. SCOTESE et al.

LO

LC

EK

TR ~ J

Figure 1. Apparent polar wander path for Gondwana from the Late Precambrian to the
Early Cretaceous (100 Ma). V: Vendian (650 Ma); LCam: Late Cambrian (525 Ma); LO:
Late Ordovician (445 Ma); S: Silurian (420 Ma); D: Devonian (380 Me); EC: Early
Carboniferous (365 Me); LC: Late Carboniferous (300 Ma); P: Permian (245 Me); TR:
Triassic (210 Ma); J: Jurassic (175 Ma); EK: Early Cretaceous (120Ma).

ii) global climate change due to world-wide shifts
from 'Hot House' to 'Ice House' conditions.
Secular climatic change
For the last 600 million years the South Pole has
resided w i t h i n , or near, the boundaries of
Gondwana. Figure 1 illustrates the best estimate
for the path the South Pole has taken across
Gondwana. This path is similar to the apparent
polar wander paths (APWPs) proposed by Grunow
(1998, 1999) and Smith (1998, 1999). This
APWP is simpler and more direct than other
proposed APWPs that include rapid meanders and
loops (Bachtadse and Briden, 1990; Kent and van
der Voo, 1990; Powell and Li, 1994). This direct
path is in accordance with:
i) the d i s t r i b u t i o n of climatically sensitive
lithofacies and faunas (Scotese and Barrett,
1990);
ii) rates of plate motion equal to or less than
than 6 cm a-1, which agrees with the observation
that supercontinents, such as Gondwana, Eurasia
and Pangaea tend to move slowly (2-5 cm a-1)
(Kraus et al., 1993); and
iii) this APWP is based on a comprehensive,
global average of reliable palaeomagnetic data
(Bocharova and Scotese, 1993) and does not rely
on single palaeomagnetic determinations, which
in the past have sometimes required wide loops
and rapid excursions (e.g. Air ring complex,
Hargraves et al., 1987).
Because of its great size the continent of
Gondwana stretched from the South Pole to the
Equator. As the APWP in Fig. 1 implies, at any
one t i m e d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of G o n d w a n a
simultaneously experienced polar, temperate,
subtropical and equatorial climates. As Gondwana
drifted across the South Pole these climatic belts
similarly shifted position.
Though the pattern of secular climatic change is
complex, some broad geographic patterns can be
recognised. From the Late Precambrian through to
the Middle Palaeozoic, the western part of Gondwana
(northern South America and north-western Africa)
moved from south polar latitudes to subtropical
latitudes. In contrast, the Indo-Australian region of
Gondwana remained at relatively low latitudes from
the Late Precambrian through to the Middle
Palaeozoic (Fig. 1). During the Late Devonian, the
Indo-Australian-Antarctic region of Gondwana moved
rapidly from a subtropical to polar position, where it
remained throughout the Carboniferous, Permian and
Triassic. In contrast, during the Late Palaeozoic and
Early Mesozoic the northern and western half of
Gondwana remained at subtropical latitudes (Fig.
1).
During the Jurassic and Cretaceous the general
tendency has been for all the Gondwana continents

100 Journal of African Earth Sciences

 G o n d w a n a n pal~eogeography and pala~oclimatology

Global climatic change

If Gondwana's changing climates were solely the
TODAY
PLEISTOCENE result of its changing latitudinal position then it
would be a simple matter to predict expected
climates through time. However, superimposed on
this pattern of secular climatic change is a signal
of global climatic change. During the 500 million
TERTIARY
years that Gondwana and its fragments existed,
the Earth's global climate system has shifted from
'Ice House' conditions to 'Hot House' conditions
four times (Fig. 2) (Frakes et al., 1992).
65
Here 'Ice House' conditions are defined as those
times when one or both of the Earth's polar regions
are covered by permanent ice. Due to orbital
CRETACEOUS
variations (Milankovitch cycles) and changing
patterns of thermo-haline oceanic circulation
(Broecker and van Donk, 1970), the size of the
polar ice cap waxes and wanes. 'Ice Ages' are
JURASSIC
those times when continental ice sheets are at
their maximum extent. The ice sheets retreat during
intervening 'Interglacial' times, like the present
day. The average global temperature during times
TRIASSIC of Ice House conditions is approximately 12-14°C
251 (Worsley et al., 1994).
PERMIAN In contrast, when the Earth is experiencing 'Hot
House' conditions, there is no permanent ice cover
CARBO N IFERO US at the poles. Seasonal snow and ice are also rare
or absent. The average global temperature in a
DEVONIAN Hot House world may be as high as 18-22°C.
Equatorial temperatures may reach 30°C and it
SILURIAN
may be as warm as 14°C at the poles (Worsley
et al., 1994).
ORDOVIClAN
Late Precambrian ice ages are not easily dated.
490
Though other Late Precambrian ice ages preceded
CAMBRIAN
54:: it, the first Gondwanan Ice House episode was
the great Vendian Ice Age, which coincided with
the assembly of Gondwana (650-550 Ma). Indeed,
VENDIAN the collisions that formed Gondwana may have
played a role in creating Ice House conditions
during the Late Precambrian. This Ice House world
650 was followed by global warming during the
T- Cambrian and Early Ordovician.
The second Ice House episode was a relatively
Figure 2. Global climate change, modified after Frakes e t al. brief (26 Ma) but extensive period of global cooling
(1992). during the Late Ordovician and earliest Silurian. It
was followed by a period of global warming from
the Silurian through the Middle Devonian.
to move northward, either from subtropical to The third episode of Ice House conditions began
equatorial positions (Africa, Arabia, India, South in the latest Devonian-earliest Carboniferous,
America) or from temperate to subtropical positions waned during the Early Carboniferous, expanded
(Australia). Only Antarctica has remained within during the early Late Carboniferous (Namurian B),
1000 km of the South Pole since the Carboniferous; and t e r m i n a t e d d u r i n g the Early Permian
and South America has not changed latitude by (Artinskian) (Ziegler et al., 1 997). This Ice House
more than 20 ° during the last 300 million years, world was followed by global warming during the
though it has drifted > 6000 km westwards. Late Permian, Triassic and Jurassic. Geological

Journal of A frican Earth Sciences 101

 C. R. SCOTESE et al.

Table 1. Koeppen classification of climates (from Lutgens and Tarbuck, 1995)

A Humid Tropical Winterless climates; all months having a mean temperature above 18°C.
B Dry SubtropicalClimates where evaporation exceeds precipitation;
there is a constant water deficiency.
C Warm Temperate Mild winters; the average temperature of the coldest month is below 18°C,
but above -3°C.
D Cool Temperate Severe winters; the average temperature of the coldest month is below -3°C
and the warmest monthly mean temperature exceeds 10°C.
E Polar Summerless climates; the average temperature of the warmest month
is below 10°C.

indicators of climate and palaeontological evidence
suggest that Earth may have experienced 'run-
away' greenhouse warming at the end of the
Palaeozoic. Whether or not this episode of global
warming was triggered by massive volcanic
eruptions in Siberia, this 'Super Hot House' world
may have been responsible for the Late Permian
mass e x t i n c t i o n event (Erwin, 1998, 1999;
8owring et al., 1998).
The third episode of global cooling, during the
Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous, by all accounts,
was a 'mild' Ice House episode (Frakes et al.,
1992). It was followed by the lengthy Late
Cretaceous and Early Cenozoic Hot House world
and in turn, the Late Cenozoic Ice House world.
These final two episodes of global climate change
will not be discussed in this paper because by
the Late Cretaceous Gondwana had completely
dispersed.
DATA AND METHODS
As stated in the introduction, the goal of this paper
is to map the c l i m a t i c belts t h a t crossed
Gondwana. In order to do this, the 'climatic belts'
must first be defined and the lithological data and
geological evidence that have been used to map
these belts discussed.

E Polar

D Cold Temperate

C Warm Temperate
B Dry Subtropical

A Humid Tropical

B Dry Subtropical

C Warm Temperate

D Cold Temperate
E Polar

Figure 3. Present day distribution of the principal Koeppen climate zones. A: Humid Tropics; B: Dry Subtropics; C: Warm Temperate;
D: Cool Temperate; E: Polar.

102 Journal of African Earth Sciences

 Gondwanan palaeogeographyand pal~eoclimatology
W HighPressure
ISOBARS ARE PARALLEL T O LATITUDE
Figure 4. Zonal pattern of atmospheric circulation. A: rising limb of Hadley
Cell; B: descending limb of Hadley Cell; C: polar front.
Definition of climatic belts
In this paper a simplified and modified Koeppen
climatic classification scheme is used (Koeppen,
1931). The Koeppen system uses the annual
pattern of temperature and rainfall to classify the
Earth's climate into five principal zones: (A) Humid
Tropical; (B) Dry Subtropical; (C) Warm Temperate;
(D) Cool Temperate; and (E) Polar. A more detailed
description of each climatic zone is given in Table
1. The present-day distribution of these climatic
zones is shown in Fig. 3.
As can be seen in Fig. 3, these five climatic zones
are primarily arrayed in a latitudinal pattern. The
Humid Tropical belt (A) lies within 20 ° of the Equator
in a region that receives high rainfall throughout the
year and there is little seasonal variation in
temperature (Fig. 4, A). The Dry Subtropical belts
(B) are centred on the Tropic of Cancer and the
Tropic of Capricorn (latitude 23.5°N and 23.5°S).
These are the regions of the Earth that lie below the
cool, dry limb of the Hadley Cell (Fig. 4, B). Most of
the world's deserts lie within the Dry Subtropical
belt (Sahara, Atacama, Sonorra, Kalahari, and Great
Sandy Deserts). The Warm Temperate (C) and Cool
Temperate (D) belts lie at mid-latitudes and are the
regions where seasonal confrontations take place
Low Pressure
between cold, dry polar air masses and warm, humid
subtropical air masses (Fig. 4, C). The area of Polar
climate (E) occurs primarily poleward of the Arctic
and Antarctic Circles (latitude 66.5°N and 66.5°S).
Asymmetries and exceptions
Though the pattern of climate zones is primarily
latitudinal, there are several major exceptions and
asymmetries that must be discussed. The most
prominent asymmetry is the East-West Longi-
tudinal Asymmetry. At low latitudes, moisture-
bearing winds blow from east to west. As a result,
in the tropics and subtropics the eastern sides of
continents are generally wetter than the western
sides of continents (e.g. Australia, Madagascar,
North America, and eastern Asia). At mid-latitudes
(40-50 ° ) the asymmetry is reversed. Because the
prevailing winds blow from west to east in tem-
perate latitudes, the western sides of continents
are wetter than the eastern sides of continents
(e.g. northwest United States, southernmost South
America, and northwest Europe).
Another important exception to the zonal model
is caused by differences in the proportion of land
and water. As one might expect, regions where
there is an equal proportion of land and water are
Journal of African Earth Sciences 103
 C. R. SCOTESE et al.

Table 2. Climatic zones and associated lithological indicators of climate

A Humid Tropical
B Dry Subtropical
C Warm Temperate
D Cool Temperate
E Polar
coal, bauxite, minor kaolinite
evaporites, calcrete
kaolinite, minor bauxite, minor coal
coal, dropstones (boulder shale), glendonite nodules,
minor tillite
tillite, dropstones (boulder shale), glendonite nodules,
minor coal during interglacial periods

w e t t e r (southeast Asia, the Caribbean, the Late Precambrian tillites compiled by W. S.

Mediterranean) than continental areas that are
land-locked and distant from a source of moisture
(central Asia). If a continent is large enough
(Pangaea-sized) moisture will not be easily carried
into the interior of the supercontinent, and
consequently deserts may occur at any latitude.
A third modification of the Koeppen climatic
classification system is required due to the fact
that the Koeppen scheme was designed to
describe the present day Ice House climate; but
the "present isn't always the key to the past".
Though we are presently living in an Ice House
w o r l d , d u r i n g the last 5 0 0 million years,
approximately 70% of the time the Earth simmered
under Hot House conditions (Fig. 2). In a Hot
House world, there is no Polar climate (E) and it
appears that at these times the Cool Temperate
belt (D) may have been absent. In a Hot House
world, the Humid Tropics (A) and the Dry
Subtropics (B) expand slightly poleward, and the
Warm Temperate belt (C) extends to the pole.
Mapping climatic zones using lithological
indicators of climate
As has been long noted (Parrish et al., 1982;
Ziegler et al., 1984, 1987), some minerals and
rock types preferentially form under certain
c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . The geological record
therefore provides us with an approximate means
to map the ancient distribution of climatic zones.
A. J. Boucot and his colleague, Chen Xu (Nanjing),
have assembled a database of climatically sensitive
l i t h o l o g i e s t h a t i n c l u d e s the P h a n e r o z o i c
occurrences of coals, b a u x i t e s , kaolinites,
evaporites, calcretes, tillites, dropstones and
glendonites (Boucot et al., in prep.). This database
has been used, in combination with a data set of
McKerrow (Oxford) (Hambrey and Harland, 1981 )
to identify the climatic zones that crossed the
supercontinent of Gondwana from the Vendian
to the Late Cretaceous. In the following section
the association of these various lithologies and
climate is discussed. These associations are also
summarised in Table 2.
Lithological indicators of the Humid Tropics (A)
High rainfall and warm temperatures favour the
luxuriant growth of plant life in the Humid Tropics
(e.g. present day Amazon rainforest). If conditions
favour preservation, then coal beds will form. The
high rainfall and warm temperatures also promote
extensive chemical weathering of silicate minerals,
producing soil profiles depleted in exchangeable
cations and enriched in clay and sesquioxides such
as kaolinite and bauxite (Retallack, 1990).
Lithological indicators of the Dry Subtropics (B)
Low, or seasonal, rainfall and warm temperatures
in the Dry Subtropics result in the net evaporation
of water bodies and subsequent concentration
and deposition of evaporitic deposits, such as
gypsum and halite. In terrestrial environments,
seasonal rainfall may be sufficient to dissolve, but
not remove, all exchangeable cations in the soil
profile. Calcium, in the form of calcrete, may
accumulate in a distinctive soil horizon near the
average maximum depth of water percolation
(Retallack, 1990; Wright and Tucker, 1991 ).
Lithological indicators of the Warm Temperate belt
(C) and Cool Temperate belt (D)
Both the Warm and Cool Temperature belts are
marked by the seasonal occurrence of moisture-
bearing, mid-latitude cyclones. In temperate

Figure 5. Vendian palaeogeographic reconstruction (650 Ma) showing the ancient distribution of mountains (dark grey), land
(medium grey), shallow sea (pale grey) and deep sea (no shading).
Figure 6. Vendian palaeoclimates (650 Ma; Ice House I). For symbols see Fig. 10.
Figure 7. Early Ordovician palaeogeographic reconstruction (500 Ma). For shading see Fig. 5.
Figure 8. Early Ordovician palaeoclimates (500 Ma; Hot House 1). For symbols see Fig. 10.

104 Journal of African Earth Sciences

Gondwanan palaeogeography and palaeoc/imatology

Journal of African Earth Sciences 105

 C. R. SCOTESE et al.
latitudes, along the western coasts of continents,
the westerlies also provide an additional source
of moisture. High rainfall and seasonally warm
temperatures favour plant growth and coal bed
formation in both the Warm and Cool Temperate
belts. In the Cool Temperate belt, snow and ice
may accumulate producing glacial deposits (tillites,
dropstones and glendonites). Conversely, in the
Warm Temperate belt, warmer conditions promote
chemical weathering of silicates and the formation
of kaolinites and rare bauxites. Because of the
varied combinations of lithological indicators of
climate, the Warm and Cold Temperate climatic
belts are the most difficult to recognise in the
rock record.
Lithological indicators o f Polar climates (E)
The Polar climate zone (E) is only present on Earth
during times of Ice House conditions. At these
times, ice sheets, sometimes several kilometres
thick and 100's to 1000's of kilometres wide,
cover continental areas near the poles. These
slowly moving ice sheets are probably the most
destructive surficial geological phenomenon-
scraping, grinding and obliterating thick sections
of rock. Because younger glacial advances destroy
much of the evidence from older glacial advances,
often only the last major glacial advance is well-
preserved in the stratigraphical record. The most
abundant lithological evidence of glacial conditions
occurs along the perimeter of the ice sheet in the
form of tillites and boulder shales (dropstone
deposits).
Because polar ice caps produce frigid bottom
water, the world's oceans cool during Ice House
times. The occurrence of glendonite nodules in
dropstone deposits has been considered evidence
for cold water conditions. Glendonite nodules are
stellar aggregates of calcite pseudomorphing after
ikaite (CaCO3.6H20), a mineral that is stable only
at near-freezing temperatures (Frakes et al., 1992).
How the maps were made
The p a l a e o g e o g r a p h i c and p a l a e o c l i m a t i c
reconstructions shown in Figs 5-18 were produced
in five steps. The first step was to create a plate
tectonic base map. The relative positions of the
continents and ocean basins are based on the
PALEOMAP Project global plate model (Scotese,
Figure 9. Latest Ordovician pala~ogeography (440 Ma). For shading see Fig. 5.
Figure 10. Latest Ordovician pal~eoclimates (440 Ma; Ice House 2). + : tillite, glendonite or dropstones; 0 : coal; II: bauxite; D:
kaolinite; A : evaporite; A: ca/crete; shaded areas: land.
Figure 1 I. Early Devonian pal~eogeography (400 Ma). For shading see Fig. 5.
Figure 12. Early Devonian palaeoclimates (400 Ma; Hot House 2). For symbols see Fig. 10.
106 Journal of African Earth Sciences
1997). The fit of the Gondwana continents, in
particular, is modified from that of Lawver and
Scotese (1987). The terranes of Cimmeria (Turkey,
Iran, A f g h a n i s t a n , Q i a n g - T a n g , Lhasa and
Sibumasu) and Cathaysia (Tarim, north China,
south China, Indochina) have been added to the
Indo-Australian margin of Gondwana for the
appropriate time intervals.
The second step in the map making process
was to orientate the plate reassembly relative to
the spin axis. This has been done using the
palaeomagnetic data assembled by van der Voo
(1993). After eliminating aberrant palaeopoles and
palaeopoles with quality factors less than Q = 3,
global mean poles were calculated at 10 million
year intervals (Fig. 1, Bocharova and Scotese,
1993). Using this palaeomagnetic summary, the
location of the South Pole (plus sign) and lines of
palaeolatitude (60 °, 30 ° and 0 °) were plotted on
the maps.
The third step was to indicate the ancient distri-
bution of mountains (dark grey), land (medium
grey), shallow sea (pale grey), and deep sea (no
shading). The principal sources of palaeogeographic
information were: general sources information
(Ronov et al., 1984, 1989; Smith et al., 1994),
Gondwana overview (Veevers et al., 1994), Africa
(Hulver, 1985; Dercourt etal., 1993; Schandelmeier
and Reynolds, 1997; Said, 1990; Walsh, 1996),
South America (Tankard et al., 1995; Walsh,
1996), Australia (Cook, 1990; Kraus, 1995),
Antarctica (Collinson et al., 1994), southeast Asia
(Hutchison, 1989), and China (Wang, 1985). The
accuracy of the palaeogeographic maps is inversely
related to the age of the reconstruction. The more
recent maps are more accurate than the older
maps. Also, the location of Late Precambrian and
Palaeozoic mouintain belts are speculative.
In the final step, after the palaeogeographic base
maps were completed, lithological indicators of
climate (coals, bauxites, kaolinites, evaporites,
calcretes, tillites, dropstones and glendonites)
(Boucot et al., in prep,) were plotted on the maps.
Using the lithological indicators of climate and
the inferred palaeolatitude, it was possible to
estimate the positions of the five major climatic
zones: (A) Humid Tropical; (B) Dry Subtropical;
(C) Warm Temperate; (D) Cool Temperate; and
(E) Polar.
Gondwanan pal~eogeography and palseoclimatology

Jouma/ of African Earth Sciences 107

 C. R. SCOTESE et al.
CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW
Vendian [Ice House 1l (Figs 5 and 6)
Between 950 Ma and the end of the Precambrian
there were 3-4 separate Ice House episodes. The
tillites shown on the Vendian map (Fig. 6),
represent the last of these glacial episodes
(Varanger stage, Hambrey and Harland, 1981 ).
The prevalence of glacial deposits at the end of
the Precambrian has led some workers to invoke
global Ice House conditions - the 'Snowball Earth'
hypothesis {Hoffman et al., 1998; Hoffman, 1999).
Though the idea of a completely frozen Earth is
tantalising, it remains to be rigourously tested.
An alternate hypothesis is proposed here to
explain the widespread occurrence of glacial
deposits during the Neoproterozoic. In this model,
the mystery of the Vendian Ice House world is
explained by the proximity of continental masses
to the North and South Poles. Ice rafted debris
and glacial deposits formed on these continents
as they travelled across the poles. As can be seen
in Fig. 5, though some tillites are found at low
latitudes (e.g. Australia), nearly 80% of the tillite
localities occur at latitudes greater than 30 °
Furthermore, Vendian evaporites and platform
carbonates almost exclusively occur at latitudes
less than 30 ° (southern Arabia, Iran and India)
(Rcnov et al., 1984).
Early Cambrian-Middle Ordovician (Hot House 1)
(Figs 7 and 8)
The break-up of Pannotia at the end of the
Precambrian ushered in a period of global warming
across Gondwana that lasted nearly to the end of
the Ordovician. Though the South Pole was located
along the northwest margin of Gondwana, no polar
ice sheets are known from this time interval.
Evaporites map out in an expanded Dry Sub-
tropical belt along the western margin of Gondwana.
Calcretes occur in Arabia at a palaeolatutude of
35°S, and in Spain at palaeolatitudes of 60°S.
Though evidence from other lithological indicators
is sparse, an Early Cambrian kaolinite from Algeria
suggests that the Warm Temperate belt extended
to mid-latitudes (palaeolatitude 45°S).
Late Ordovician-Earliest Silurian (Ice House 2)
(Figs 9 and 10)
During the latest Ordovician (Ashgill) and earliest
Siturian (Llandovery), an extensive ice sheet
Figure 13. Permo-Carboniferous pafceogeography (300 Ma). For shading see Fig. 5.
Figure 14. Permo-Carboniferous paf~eoclimates (300 Ma; Ice House 3), For symbols see Fig, 10.
Figure 15. Middle Jurassic palaeogeography (165 Ma). For shading see Fig. 5.
Figure 16. Middle Jurassic palaeoclimates (165 Ma; Hot House 3). For symbols see Fig. 10,
108 Journal of African Earth Sciences
covered much of the North African and South
American part of Gondwana. As numerous authors
have previously reported, tillites stretched in a
broad arc from Arabia, southern Europe, the
Sahara, Amazon, Argentina and South Africa (Beuf
e t a l . , 1971; Frakes e t a l . , 1992). These tillites
defined the Polar belt and the Cool Temperate belt.
An extinction event at the end of the Ordovician
has been attributed to cold bottom water produced
by the Gondwanan Ice Sheet, cooling the oceans
and spilling onto the shallow water shelves in the
tropics and subtropics (Hirnantian Event) (Sheehan
and Coorough, 1990).
The Dry Subtropical belt was also well-defined
by a broad swath of evaporites that occurred
across Australia and Cathaysia, especially north
China. A Late Ordovician kaolinite in northeast
China hints at the location of the Humid Tropical
belt. Anomalous kaolinites have been described
from Algeria, and the Amazon Basin.
Silurian-Late Devonian (Hot House 2)
(Figs 11 and 12)
Though no permanent ice existed in the Silurian-
Late Devonian Hot House world, cold water faunas
near the South Pole (Malvinokaffric Realm) and
unweathered mica flakes in muds and sands
suggest an extensive Cool Temperate belt that
extended from the pole down to mid-latitudes.
The Dry Subtropical belt, indicated by the presence
of evaporites and calcretes, hugged the perimeter
of Gondwana from Spain, across the Cimmerian
and Cathaysian terranes, and into Australia.
Scattered kaolinites in the Amazon, Algeria and
southeastern Australia hint that a Warm Temperate
belt may have lain between the Dry Subtropical
belt and the Cool Temperate belt.
Coal, an important lithological indicator of
climate, makes its appearance in Gondwana in
the Middle Devonian. Coal beds in south China
were deposited in the Humid Tropical belt, whereas
the coal beds in Sudan probably represent Warm
Temperate conditions.
Latest Devonian-Early Permian (Ice House 3)
(Figs 13 and 14)
The Late Devonian-Early Permian Ice House
interval was actually two Ice House worlds
separated by a warmer period. The first Ice House
world began in the Late Devonian (Famennian)
 Gondwanan palaeogeography and pala~oclimatology

o~

Journal of African Earth Sciences 109

 C. R. SCOTESE et al.
and lasted through the Tournaisian, however, the
ice cap formed during that time was of limited
geographic extent. Late Devonian tillites have been
found in Bolivia, the Amazon Basin and Niger. An
Early Carboniferous tillite has been described from
the Himalayas, and a similar-aged diamictite has
been described from the Miller Formation of South
Africa (J. Almond and F. Evans, pers. comm. 1998).
Though no tillites are reported from the late Early
Carboniferous (Visean-Namurian A), there may still
have been some polar ice. This inference is based
on the occurrence of glendonite in shales from
western Alberta. The glendonite nodule indicates
that the deep oceans were still refrigerated, with
near-freezing bottom water upwelling near the
equator (10°N). Cold bottom water can only form
from a melting ice mass in a polar region.
The Permo-Carboniferous Ice House world, and
the growth of the great Gondwanan ice cap,
commenced in the early Late Carboniferous
(Namurian B) and lasted until the Early Permian
(Artinskian). The extent and nature of this ice
cap have been discussed and described by
numerous authors (Frakes et al., 1992; Martini,
1997). The Permo-Carboniferous ice cap covered
the southern half of South America, the southern
two-thirds of Africa (as far north as southernmost
Saudi Arabia), India, Antarctica and Australia.
Early Permian coal deposits are often associated
with these tillites and certainly represent warmer
(Cool Temperate), interglacial conditions (e.g.
South African coal; LeBlanc-Smith and Ericksson,
1979). Dropstone deposits are known from the
fringes of the ice sheet, including the Cimmerian
terranes of Qiang-Tang, Lhasa, and Sibumasu.
In addition to a well-defined Polar belt, litho-
logical indicators of climate clearly reveal the
location of the Humid Tropical, Dry Subtropical,
and Temperate belts. Abundant coal deposits and
some bauxites can be found in the Humid Tropical
belt that crossed the mid-continent of North
America and western Europe. The Dry Subtropical
belt is delineated by evaporites in the Amazon
Basin, Libya and Chad, and calcretes in Bolivia.
Coal and kaolinites in southern South America,
east-central Africa, India and Australia formed in
a condensed Warm/Cool Temperate belt.
Middle Permian-Middle Jurassic (Hot House 3)
(Figs 15 and 16)
By the beginning of the Sakmarian (late Early
Permian) the Gondwanan ice cap had melted and
the next period of global warming had begun.
Though there are tillites from the Late Permian
(Kazanian) of northeastern Siberia, there is no
1 10 Journal of African Earth Sciences
evidence of polar ice on Gondwana from the
Middle Permian through to the Jurassic.
The Permo-Triassic mass extinction took place
during this Hot House interval and it has been
suggested that massive global warming, triggered
by the eruption of the Siberian Traps, may have
caused this mass extinction (Erwin, 1998, 1999;
Bowring et al., 1998). The pattern of the Permo-
Triassic extinction seems to fit with an episode of
super-greenhouse global warming. After the coal-
producing, rainforest flora of the Late Carboniferous
and Early Permian became extinct, the plants that
replaced them were descendents of the xerophytic
'Zechstein' flora. Consequently, a 'coal-gap' (Faure
et al., 1995) follows the Permo-Triassic extinction.
Widespread and significant amounts of coal do
not appear in the Mesozoic rock record until the
late Middle Triassic (Ladinian).
A n o t h e r interesting feature of the Middle
Jurassic palaeoclimatic reconstruction (Fig. 15) is
the absence of the Humid Tropical belt. There are
no equatorial coals or bauxites. Instead, coals and
bauxites occur on the eastern edge of the
continent, at subtropical latitudes. This absence
of a Humid Tropical belt has been attributed to
'mega-monsoonal' atmospheric circulation
(Parrish, 1993). The Inter-Tropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ), which on average lies near the
Equator, is the locus of rainfall in the Humid
Tropics. According to this theory, strong seasonal
monsoons can shift the ITCZ northward and
southward, distributing the rainfall over a large
area, resulting in generally drier conditions than
expected. According to the mega-monsoon theory,
intense monsoonal circulation caused by severe
seasonal heating of the Pangaean landmass caused
an extreme deflection of the ITCZ. Consequently,
a distinct zone of seasonal, constant rainfall did
not develop along the Equator.
Middle Jurassic-Early Cretaceous (Ice House 4)
(Figs 17 and 18)
By the Early Cretaceous, oceans began to separate
the major fragments of Gondwana (Fig. 16). Ice-
rafted debris and glendonite nodules from the
northern hemisphere and from central Australia (Fig.
17) indicate that the Earth had returned to Ice House
conditions. The Late Jurassic Ice House world was
not as severe as the preceding Ice Ages. No large
ice cap or system of continental glaciers developed,
and it is likely that much of the ice was seasonal.
In addition to the Polar climatic zone, lithological
indicators of climate from the Late Jurassic-Early
Cretaceous help to identify three other climatic
zones: Warm and Cool Temperate, Dry Subtropical
 Gondwanan palaeogeography and palaeoclimatology

Figure 17. Early Cretaceous palaeogeography (140 Ma). For shading see Fig. 5.

Figure 18. Early Cretaceous palaaoclimates (140 Ma; Ice House 4). For symbols see
Fig. 10.

and Humid Tropical. The transition from the Cool
toWarm Temperate is delineated by the occurrence
of coals throughout Australia, India, southern
Africa and southernmost South America, grading
into kaolinites and calcretes in central Africa and
central South America. Equatorward, the abundance
of calcretes and evaporites increases, suggesting
dry, subtropical conditions. Finally, in the vicinity
of Arabia, Sudan and North Africa coals, kaolinites
and bauxites are encountered, suggesting more
humid conditions (Humid Tropical belt).
S U M M A R Y A N D CONCLUSIONS
Lithological indicators of climate, such as coals,
evaporites, bauxites and tillites, can be used to

Journal of African Earth Sciences 111

 C. R. SCOTESE et al.
map the approximate location of the major climatic
zones (Humid Tropics, Dry Subtropics, Warm and
Cool Temperate, and Polar) that crossed the
supercontinent of Gondwana. The changing width
and location of these belts reflects: (1) Gondwana's
latitudinal movement; and (2) changes in global
climate from Ice House to Hot House conditions.
During the past 600 million years the Earth's
climate has alternated five times between Ice
House and Hot House conditions (Fig. 1). Most
of the time has been spent under Hot House
conditions. Ice House worlds, like the present, are
characterised by permanent ice and snow at the
pole(s). In a Hot House world there is no polar
ice, and Warm Temperate conditions may exist
above the Arctic Circle. Though climatic modelling
programs, such as Genesis or the GCM (Gobal
Climate Model) (Crowley and North, 1991), can
successfully model Ice House worlds, at present
these computer models seem to have less success
simulating Hot House conditions. Future climate
models must integrate geological indicators of
climate in order to establish the best possible
boundary conditions for palaeoclimatic simulations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CRS and AJB would like to thank the organisers
of Gondwana-10, for the invitation to present and
publish this work. CRS would also like to thank
Maarten de Wit for his encouragement, support
and review of this paper, Doug Cole for his review,
and P. Richmond for help editing this manuscript.
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Journal of African Earth Sciences 113
 C. R. SCOTESE et al.

APPENDIX

Pal~eogeographic maps by C.R. Scotese, PALEOMAP Project (www.scotese.com).

1 14 Journal of African Earth Sciences