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(0-2-5-C/21,51 .323 62 0146:5/73 71 51,5/5-C/4 71 21:B30/0 / 18-.-<,.-/ 71 2E>6-,/4 / C/(30"
7-4(34-5-C34 ,34 >6/-4 BE 62/ /:-21,5/?@3 ,/ 8302/ 71 ./:30 1 .6K3 (037653 G 50/A/:B3 21.F,-.3
44-2" .323 3 ,321 46;101" / 510237-,F2-./ 41 01810-/ 5/,53 / .3,.1-534 5G02-.34 >6/,53 /
.3,.1-534 21.F,-.34" 36 41K/" 7-,F2-.34 32 3 7141,C3:C-21,53 7/ 2/5G0-/ 1 3 1,51,7-21,53
2/-4 (:1,3 71 46/4 :1-4 AE4-./4" 416 /:./,.1 1 4164 3AK15-C34 530,/0/2 41 2/-4 /2(:34 4
(0-,.=(-34 7/ 510237-,F2-./ 4@3 64/734 /;30/ (30 1,;1,B1-034 ,3 (03K153 71
3 4 5 6 4 7 5
4 8 8 8 7 5 4 9 4 6: 4 6
6 9 .-<,.-/ 7/ 8=4-.3 >6=2-./ .3,4-451" 12 ;0/,71 217-7/" 12 /(:-./?D14 71
510237-,F2-./ / >6=2-./ 1 /3 1>6-:=A0-3 >6=2-.3 (0376?@3 71 512(10/560/4 1H5012/21,51
A/-H/4" ,/ C-J-,B/,?/ 73 J103 /A43:653" 1,C3:C1 / /(:-./?@3 71 (0-,.=(-34 510237-,F2-.34 /
4-4512/4 71 -2@4 23:1.6:/014 1 ,6.:1/014 5130-/ 7/ .326,-./?@3" / 5130-/ 7/ -,8302/?@3 1
21423 .10534 (03.14434 A-3:9;-.34 4@3 1H12(:34 7/4 C/45/4 E01/4 12 >61 3 2373 510237-,F2-.3
71 0/.-3.-,/0 G /(:-.EC1:
3 71.30010 71 ,3443 145673" 714.3A0-01234 >61 / 510237-,F2-./ 1H(:-./ 34 81,L21,34 >61
01;12 34 .-.:34 5G02-.34 734 8:6=734 1,.3,50/734 ,/4 2E>6-,/4 1 1>6-(/21,534 >61 65-:-J/2
7-8101,?/4 71 512(10/560/ 30/ (/0/ (0376J-0 50/A/:B3" .323 34 2353014" 30/ (/0/ / 015-0/7/ 71
./:30" .323 34 0180-;10/73014 ,3443 (09H-23 (/443 G 718-,-0 510237-,F2-./ 1 12 41;6-7/
145/A1:1.10 /:;6,4 .3,.1-534 /6H-:-/014
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6,7/21,534 7/ 510237-,F2-./ .:E44-./ 14.01C1O P ; 2
3 < 4 2 8 8 3
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E53234 4@3 50/5/734 .323 (/05=.6:/4 -,7-C-4=C1-4 1 41;6,73 3 2371:3 71 3B0 / 8302/ 714514 G /
71 62/ 14810/ .32(:15/21,51 0=;-7/
8-;60/ ,34 23450/ 3 14>612/ .3,.1-56/: 73 E5323 71 3B0 1 / 8-;60/ 62 /;06(/21,53 71
E53234 71 .:303 1 497-3 8302/,73 62/ .G:6:/ 71 4/: 71 .3J-,B/

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2371:3 /5L2-.3 71 3B0

-;60/
2/ .G:6:/ 71 4/: 71
.3J-,B/"
36 / :" /;06(/7/
12 530,3 71 62
015=.6:3 .0-45/:-,3

/ 1H(10-<,.-/" .3,41;6-234 -71,5-8-./0 50<4 5-(34 71 145/734 71 /;01;/?@3 7/ 2/5G0-/O

♦ " = 30?/4 71 .314@3 -,51,4/4Q 8302/ 1 C3:621 A12 718-,-734

♦ " 2 = 30?/4 71 .314@3 21,34 -,51,4/4 >61 /4 73 145/73 49:-73" 2/4 /-,7/
/(01.-EC1-4" 8302/ C/0-EC1: 1 C3:621 A12 718-,-73
♦ " 5 = 30?/4 71 .314@3 26-53 80/./4Q ,@3 /(0141,5/,73 8302/ 1 ,12 C3:621
718-,-734

46A45F,.-/ .32 / >6/: 51,B/234 2/-30 8/2-:-/0-7/71" 5/:C1J 41K/ / E;6/" 12 0/J@3 7/ 46/
-2(305F,.-/ (/0/ 3 ,3443 .-.:3 71 C-7/ 1 5/2AG2 (30 1:/ 410 1H5012/21,51 /A6,7/,51 12 ,3443
(:/,15/ G .32 3 643 7/ E;6/ >61 1H12(:-8-./01234 34 50<4 5-(34 71 145/734 71 /;01;/?@3 7/
2/5G0-/" C1K/ / 8-;60/

-;60/ 4 145/734 71 /;01;/?@3 7/ E;6/" 3 49:-73 R;1:3S" 3 :->6-73 1 3 ;/4343 RC/(30 7TE;6/S

4 ;/414 1 :=>6-734 4@3 .B/2/734 71 7 9 (30 14.3/012 R23C-21,5/012S >6/,73 ,1:14

/(:-./234 830?/4 5/,;1,.-/-4" (30 21,3014 >61 1:/4 41K/2 4 8:6=734 4@3 34 2/510-/-4
12(01;/734 ,34 (03.14434 1 .-.:34 510237-,F2-.34 1 / /C/:-/?@3 71 46/4 (03(0-17/714 1
50/,48302/?D14 G -2(305/,51 (/0/ 1,51,710234 34 1>6-(/21,534" 1 2/-4 715/:B/7/21,51 4164
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-,510,/4 73 01.-(-1,51 4@3 /4 803,51-0/4 71 62 4-4512/" 1,5@3 (371234 /8-02/0 >61 3 4-4512/ G
.3,45-56=73 (30 73-4 145/734 7/ 2/5G0-/" 3 :->6-73 1 3 ;/4343 1451 ./43" 7-J1234 >61 3 4-4512/
(3446- 76/4 8/414" 36 41K/" 1:1 G A-8E4-.3

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4G.6:34" /-,7/ B3K1 ,@3 51234 .3,7-?D14 71 718-,-0 / (03(0-17/71 510237-,F2-./ .B/2/7/ 71
8
302/:21,51" .3,4-710/234 / 512(10/560/ 510237-,F2-./ .323 41,73 / 5
5 3 2 8-;60/
-:6450/ / 7-8101,?/ ,34 ;0/64 71 /;-5/?@3 7/4 23:G.6:/4 71 E;6/" 12 73-4 01.-(-1,514O
• (0-21-03 01.-(-1,51 145E 81.B/73 1" (305/,53 (371 410 .3,4-710/73 .323 62 4-4512/
.3,51,73 76/4 8/414O ;6/ ,3 145/73 :->6-73 1 C/(30 7TE;6/ ,3 145/73 ;/4343
• 41;6,73 01.-(-1,51 145E /A1053" 36 41K/" (371 410 .3,4-710/73 .323 62 C3:621 71
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2-4560/ B323;<,1/ 71 C/(30 7TE;6/ 1 /0 ,3 145/73 ;/4343

-;60/ :6450/?@3 73 ;0/6 71 /;-5/?@3 7/4 23:G.6:/4 71 73-4 01.-(-1,514 .3,51,73 E;6/

512(10/560/ (371 410 217-7/ 12 CE0-/4 14./:/4" /4 2/-4 .326,4 4@3O

♦ " = 4./:/ 01:/5-C/ 71 512(10/560/" 3,71 G /735/73 3 C/:30 *3 (/0/ 3 (3,53 71
864@3 73 ;1:3 1 **3 (/0/ 3 (3,53 71 1A6:-?@3 7/ E;6/
♦ " ) < < = 4./:/ 01:/5-C/ 71 512(10/560/" 3,71 G /735/73 3 C/:30 3
(/0/ 3 (3,53
3
71 864@3 73 ;1:3 1 (/0/ 3 (3,53 71 1A6:-?@3 7/ E;6/
♦ " > 6 = 4./:/ /A43:65/ 71 512(10/560/" 018101,51 / 14./:/ 1:.-64" 3,71 G /735/73 3
C/:30 $ (/0/ 3 (3,53 71 864@3 73 ;1:3 1 $ (/0/ 3 (3,53 71 1A6:-?@3 7/ E;6/
♦ " ? = 4./:/ /A43:65/ 71 512(10/560/" 018101,51 U 14./:/ /B01,B1-5" 3,71 G
/735/73 3 C/:30 # " (/0/ 3 (3,53 71 864@3 73 ;1:3 1 $ " (/0/ 3 (3,53 71 1A6:-?@3 7/ E;6/

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 1 .3,C1,.-3,/0234 /4 41;6-,514 C/0-EC1-4 .323 41,73 018101,514 /4 >6/503 14./:/4 71
512(10/560/" 5101234

→ 12(10/560/ 12 ;0/64 .1,5=;0/734 36 ,/ 14./:/ 1:.-64Q

V → 12(10/560/ ,/ 14./:/ W1:C-,Q
→ 12(10/560/ 12 ;0/64 /B01,B1-5Q
→ 12(10/560/ ,/ 14./:/ 0/,W-,1

8-;60/ /(0141,5/ /4 >6/503 14./:/4 71 8302/ .32(/0/5-C/ 12 01:/?@3 / 62 5102L21503 71

210.I0-3" C1K/O

-;60/ 4>612/ 01(0141,5/5-C3 7/4 14./:/4 71 512(10/560/ 2/-4 646/-4

1,73 >61" / (09H-2/ -;6/:7/71" / 1>6/?@3 " 718-,1 /4 01:/?D14 1,501 /4 14./:/4 .321,5/7/4
/.-2/" 36 41K/

TC TF − 32 TK − 273 TR − 491,4
= = = R S
5 9 5 9

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5G02-./ 71 62 4-4512/ 36 62 C3:621 71 .3,503:1 G / 432/ 7/ 1,10;-/ .-,G5-./ 71 537/4 /4
(/05=.6:/4 >61 (1051,.1,514 / 14514
1451 2321,53" 530,/ 41 /(03(0-/73 3 145/A1:1.-21,53 7/4 7-8101,?/4 .3,.1-56/-4 1,501
512(10/560/ 1 1,10;-/ 5G02-./ 512(10/560/ G / (03(0-17/71 >61 2171 3 ;0/6 2G7-3 71
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21,460/ / 432/ 7/4 1,10;-/4 .-,G5-./4 71 537/4 /4 (/05=.6:/4 1,C3:C-7/4 ,/ /;-5/?@3" 36 41K/" /
>6/,5-7/71 535/: 71 1,10;-/ .-,G5-./ 73 4-4512/
30 1H12(:3" 7/734 73-4 4-4512/4 .3,45-56=734 (1:/ 2142/ 46A45F,.-/ 1 >61 145@3 / 2142/

"$ " 6
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-;60/ $ 3-4 4-4512/4 / 2142/ 512(10/560/" (3012 .32 2/44/4 7-8101,514

1,10;-/ 5G02-./ (371 50/,4810-0 41 71 62 .30(3 (/0/ 36503 >6/,73 1,501 1:14 B36C10 62/
7-8101,?/ 71 512(10/560/ 1,10;-/ 5G02-./ 12 50/,4-53 G 71,32-,/7/ 14>612/
(03(3453 / (/05-0 7/ 8-;60/ & 23450/ .323 1451 81,L21,3 3.3001

-;60/ & ./:30 .323 8302/ 71 1,10;-/ 12 50/,4-53 3./4-3,/73 (1:/

7-8101,?/ 71 512(10/560/4 1,501 34 4-4512/4 1

A410C/,73 3 81,L21,3 7/ 503./ 71 ./:30 1,501 34 73-4 4-4512/4 1 " (371234 .3,.:6-0 >61 3
./:30 G 62 8:6H3 71 1,10;-/ 5G02-./ >61 (/051 71 62 4-4512/ .32 2/-30 512(10/560/" 4-4512/ "
(/0/ 3 36503 .32 21,30 512(10/560/" 4-4512/ 8:6H3 71 ./:30 73 4-4512/ (/0/ 3 4-4512/ "
.3,5-,6/0E / 3.30010 /5G >61 -453 41 50/76J/ 12 62/ -;6/:7/71 71 512(10/560/ 1,501 1
Y6/,73 /4 512(10/560/4 71 1 83012 -7<,5-./4" 3 8:6H3 71 ./:30 .144/0E" 1 .32 -453"
(37101234 /8-02/0 >61 3 4-4512/ ,@3 2/-4 .1710E 1,10;-/ 5G02-./ (/0/ 3 4-4512/ " 7145/
8302/ 5101234 3 .B/2/73 2 93 1,501 1:14
3,41>X1,5121,51" (371234 C10-8-./0 >61 43A .3,7-?D14 ,302/-4" 12 73-4 4-4512/4 .32 / 2142/
512(10/560/ /4 503./4 71 ./:30 410@3 /:;1A0-./21,51 ,6:/4" 36 41K/" BE 3 1>6-:=A0-3 5G02-.3" C1K/
/ 8-;60/ #

-;60/ # -4512/4 U 2142/ 512(10/560/" 3,71 3 ./:30 503./73 G /:;1A0-./21,51

,6:3 36 3,71 3.3001 3 1>6-:=A0-3 5G02-.3 1,501 4-4512/4

"$ " 7
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@ 2 93 4
2 93 @

217-7/ 7/ 2 503./7/ 1,501 73-4 4-4512/4 G" (305/,53" 62/ 217-7/ 71

1,10;-/ ./:30 ,3 -4512/ ,510,/.-3,/: 71 6,-7/714 G 217-73 12 A 36 B 3,5673 50<4
3650/4 6,-7/714" / 4 3 2 5 1 3 0 R ,-7/71 G02-./ 0-5F,-./S .3,5-,6/2
41,73 26-53 65-:-J/734" .32 /4 46/4 718-,-?D14 1 .3,C104D14

A G / >6/,5-7/71 71 1,10;-/ .30014(3,71,51 /3 50/A/:B3 71 62/

830?/ 71 62 ,1Z 53, /(:-./7/ U 62/ 7-45F,.-/ 71 62 21503 & B C & D
G / >6/,5-7/71 71 ./:30 ,1.144E0-/ (/0/ 1:1C/0 / 512(10/560/ & C -4&E B
71 62 ;0/2/ 71 E;6/ 71 " 3 (/0/ " 3 /3 ,=C1: 73 2/0 & ? C &F F F
& ? C F 4F F &&G * ?H <
2 5 G / >6/,5-7/71 71 1,10;-/ .30014(3,71,51 /3 50/A/:B3 & ?5 C &?57D
71 62/ 830?/ 71 W-:3;0/2/ 830?/ /(:-./7/ U 62/ 7-45F,.-/ 71 21503 & ?5 C I 4E F J B
& ? C -'J ?5
3
0 G / >6/,5-7/71 71 ./:30 ,1.144E0-/ (/0/ 1:1C/0 71 /
512(10/560/ 71 62/ :-A0/ 2/44/ -,;:14/ 71 E;6/ & 0 C F 4'/ ' ?

./:30 1 46/ -,8:6<,.-/ 43A01 / 512(10/560/ 734 4-4512/4 /(0141,5/2 41 71 76/4 8302/4O

♦ 96 G 3 8:6H3 71 1,10;-/ 5G02-./ >61 (03(30.-3,/ /621,53 71

512(10/560/ 412 >61 3.300/ / 267/,?/ ,3 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3
7/ 2/5G0-/ >61 .32(D1 3 4-4512/ >61 3 01.1A1
♦ G 3 8:6H3 71 1,10;-/ 5G02-./ >61 (03(30.-3,/ 267/,?/ 71 145/73 71
/;01;/?@3 7/ 2/5G0-/ 412 >61 3.300/ / C/0-/?@3 ,/ 512(10/560/
73 4-4512/ >61 3 01.1A1

4 8-;60/4 * 1 23450/2 145/4 76/4 .3,7-?D14 71 8:6H3 71 1,10;-/ 5G02-./ 36 ./:30" 36 41K/"
3 ./:30 41,4=C1: 1 :/51,51" 014(1.5-C/21,51

-;60/ * ./:30 41,4=C1:

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2/ 7-4.644@3 43A01 3 4-;,-8-./73 7/ /7-?@3 1 7/ 015-0/7/ 71 ./:30 71 62 4-4512/ 41 8/J /;30/

,1.144E0-/ (/0/ (3710234 145/A1:1.10 62/ .3,C1,?@3 >61 34 7-8101,.-1
30 1H12(:3" /3 -,50376J-0234 1,10;-/ 5G02-./ 12 62 4-4512/" 145/234 (03C3./,73 62 8:6H3 71
./:30 7/ C-J-,B/,?/ (/0/ 3 416 -,510-30" 71 5/: 43051 >61" / 46A45F,.-/ .3,5-7/ ,3 4-4512/ 4380/ 62
/621,53 71 46/ 512(10/560/" C1K/ 8-;60/
2 3(34-?@3 / -453" /3 015-0/0234 1,10;-/ 5G02-./ 71 62 4-4512/" 145/234 (03C3./,73 62 8:6H3
71 ./:30 73 416 -,510-30 (/0/ / C-J-,B/,?/" 71 5/: 2373 >61" / 46A45F,.-/ .3,5-7/ ,3 4-4512/ 4380/
62/ 7-2-,6-?@3 12 46/ 512(10/560/" C1K/ 8-;60/

-;60/ -;60/
/:30 -,50376J-73 12 4-4512/ /:30 015-0/73 71 62 4-4512/

.3,C1,?@3 71 4-,/-4 /735/7/ (/0/ 3 ./:30 410EO

♦ 7 K >61 6 / 512(10/560/ 71 62 4-4512/ G .3,4-710/73 8 6

♦ 7 K >61 / 512(10/560/ 71 62 4-4512/ G .3,4-710/73 5 6

! "

/ ,344/ 1H(10-<,.-/ (0E5-./" 4/A1234 >61 53734 34 2/510-/-4 .3,B1.-734 438012 C/0-/?D14 71
512(10/560/ >6/,73 34 />61.1234 36 01480-/234 /0/ /;6?/0 ,3443 41,5-73 71 -,C145-;/?@3"
(3710=/234 51,5/0 014(3,710 / 41;6-,51 (10;6,5/O
3734 34 4-4512/4 .32 -7<,5-./4 >6/,5-7/714 71 2/44/" (30G2" .3,45-56=734 (30 7-8101,514
2/510-/-4" 41 .32(305/2 7/ 2142/ 8302/" >6/,73 -,50376J-234 ,1:14 >6/,5-7/714 -;6/-4 71 ./:30"
36 41K/" /(0141,5/2 / 2142/ C/0-/?@3 71 512(10/560/[
014(345/ / 145/ (10;6,5/ G " 12 0/J@3 7/4 7-8101,?/4 /5L2-./4" 5-(34 71 :-;/?@3 >6=2-./"
/00/,K34 14506560/-4 1 145/A-:-7/71 1,501 /4 (09(0-/4 46A45F,.-/4 >61 .3,45-5612 34 2/-4
C/0-/734 2/510-/-4" K/2/-4 / 2142/ >6/,5-7/71 71 ./:30 (3710E ./64/0 / 2142/ C/0-/?@3 71

"$ " 9
512(10/560/ 12 76/4 46A45F,.-/4 7-45-,5/4
(03(0-17/71 510237-,F2-./ >61 145/A1:1.1 / 01:/?@3 1,501 3 ./:30 01.1A-73 36 015-0/73 71 62
4-4512/ 1 / C/0-/?@3 71 512(10/560/ G 71,32-,/7/ 71 8 97 ./:30 14(1.=8-.3 71
62/ 46A45F,.-/ (371 410 ./:.6:/73 (1:/ 1>6/?@3 "

Q
c=
m.∆T R S

3,71 . G 3 ./:30 14(1.=8-.3 7/ 46A45F,.-/" Y G / >6/,5-7/71 71 ./:30 01.1A-7/ 36 015-0/7/ 7/

46A45F,.-/ 1 ∆ G / C/0-/?@3 71 512(10/560/ 7/ 46A45F,.-/" 36 41K/" ∆ \ 8 - " 41,73 8 1 -
/4 512(10/560/4 8-,/: 1 -,-.-/: 73 4-4512/" 014(1.5-C/21,51
C/0-/?@3 71 512(10/560/ 1 3 ./:30 145@3 :-;/734 71 8302/ 26-53 (/05-.6:/0" C1K/ 3 14>612/
/A/-H3O

"."L ( M # $" " +" $ ( M # $" " +"

∆T = T f − Ti > 0 ∆T = T f − Ti < 0
∴Q > 0 ∴Q < 0

145/ 2/,1-0/" / C/0-/?@3 71 512(10/560/ ∆ ,3 -,510-30 71 62 4-4512/ (371 410 I5-: (/0/
714.3A0-0234 3 4-,/: .3,C1,.-3,/73 (/0/ 3 ./:30
Y6/,53 /4 6,-7/714 73 -4512/ ,510,/.-3,/:" 3 ./:30 G 217-73 12 K36:14" / 2/44/ 12 >6-:3;0/2/
1 / 512(10/560/ 12 W1:C-, 36 1:.-64" .3,5673 G /.1-5EC1: 1 26-53 .3262 3 643 7/ ./:30-/ (/0/
21,460/0 3 ./:30 1 7/ ;0/2/ (/0/ 21,460/0 / 2/44/ ,3 145/ 8302/" /4 6,-7/714
,302/:21,51 12(01;/7/4 (/0/ 3 ./:30 14(1.=8-.3 410@3

cal J kcal kJ
g .o C g .o C kg.K kg.K
/0/ 1,51,710234 21:B30 3 4-;,-8-./73 7/ (03(0-17/71 ./:30 14(1.=8-.3" 3A410C1234 / 6,-7/71
cal
" 1 1,5@3" (1,41234 12 62/ 2/44/ 71 ; >61 01.1A1,73 62/ >6/,5-7/71 71 ./:30 71 ./:
g .o C
3
1:1C/ / 46/ 512(10/560/ 12 45/ 2/,1-0/ 71 -,510(015/0 3 ./:30 14(1.=8-.3 C/:1 (/0/
>6/-4>610 6,-7/714
5/A1:/ /(0141,5/ C/:3014 2G7-34 (/0/ 3 ./:30 14(1.=8-.3 71 /:;6,4 215/-4 ,3 145/73 49:-73

cal
8 8 97
g .o C
1003 *" *
/5@3 *"*#
0/5/ *"*
603 *"*
/A1:/ !/:3014 2G7-34 (/0/ ./:30 14(1.=8-.3 (/0/ /:;6,4 215/-4 ,3 145/73 49:-73

"$ " 10
 5/A1:/ /(0141,5/ C/:3014 (/0/ 3 ./:30 14(1.=8-.3 71 /:;6,4 ;/414 .3,4-710/734 (1081-534 /
$ 3 " 3A410C1 >61 3 ./:30 14(1.=8-.3 734 ;/414 (371 410 217-73 / (0144@3 .3,45/,51 R.(S 36 /
C3:621 .3,45/,51 R.CS

cal cal
8 51 8 6
g .o C g .o C
0 *" $ *" &
)-703;<,-3 " *# " &
-503;<,-3 *" *" $
H-;<,-3 *" & *"
3
/A1:/ ./:30 14(1.=8-.3 (/0/ /:;6,4 ;/414 .3,4-710/734 (1081-534 / $

./:30 14(1.=8-.3 71 62/ 46A45F,.-/ 71(1,71 73 416 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3 1 7/ 46/ 512(10/560/"
/44-2 41,73" 1:1 510E C/:3014 7-8101,514 12 86,?@3 7145/4 76/4 ./0/.510=45-./4 5/A1:/ 13
;0E8-.3 -:6450/2 .323 3 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3 1 / 512(10/560/ -,51081012 ,3 C/:30 73 ./:30
14(1.=8-.3" 014(1.5-C/21,51

cal
8 51 8 97
g .o C
9:-73 R;1:3S *" **
;6/ :->6-7/ "***
!/(30 7TE;6/ *" & *
/A1:/ 4 C/:3014 2G7-34 73 ./:30 14(1.=8-.3 7/ E;6/ ,34 50<4 145/734 71 /;01;/?@3

0E8-.3 ./:30 14(1.=8-.3 73 81003 1 / C/0-/?@3 71 512(10/560/

3,5673" / 1>6/?@3 (371 410 0114.0-5/" 532/,73 / 8302/ 7/ 1>6/?@3 "

Q = m.c.∆T R S

1 145/ G .3,B1.-7/ .323 "2 ) " (3-4 86,7/21,5/ / 50/,4810<,.-/

71 96 (/0/ 62 4-4512/ 1 46/ .3,41>X1,51 C/0-/?@3 71 512(10/560/

(037653 7/ 2/44/ 71 62 4-4512/ (1:3 416 ./:30 14(1.=8-.3 G .B/2/73 71 8

" 1 (371 410 14.0-53 .323 23450/ / 1>6/?@3

C = m.c R S

1 1,5@3O

"$ " 11
 Q = C .∆T R S

#3 6 =

♦ ./:30 14(1.=8-.3 G 62/ 8 8 6 73 4-4512/" (3-4 ,@3 71(1,71 7/ 2/44/ 73

4-4512/ 65034 1H12(:34 71 (03(0-17/714 -,51,4-C/4 4@3O 512(10/560/" / (0144@3" 3 C3:621
14(1.=8-.3 1 / 2/44/ 14(1.=8-./
♦ ./(/.-7/71 5G02-./ G 62/ 8 8 K 6 73 4-4512/" (3-4 71(1,71 7/ 2/44/ 73
4-4512/ 65034 1H12(:34 71 (03(0-17/714 1H51,4-C/4 4@3O 1,10;-/ 5G02-./" 3 C3:621" /
(09(0-/ 2/44/ 1 / 1,10;-/ -,510,/

8 97 71 62/ 46A45F,.-/ G / 0/J@3 1,501 / 2/44/ 71 62/ (30?@3 7/ 46A45F,.-/ 1 3

C3:621 >61 1:/ 3.6(/ 451 .3,.1-53" (371 410 1,6,.-/73 2/512/5-./21,51 43A / 8302/ 7/
1>6/?@3 " 36

m
ρ= R S
V
3,71 ρ G / 2/44/ 14(1.=8-./" 2 G / 2/44/ 1 ! G 3 C3:621

4 6,-7/714 71 217-7/ 646/-4 (/0/ / 2/44/ 14(1.=8-./ 4@3 23450/7/4 /A/-H3

kg g
m3 cm 3

2 3(34-?@3 /3 .3,.1-53 71 2/44/ 14(1.=8-./" BE 3 6 8 97 " >61 145/A1:1.1 / 0/J@3

1,501 3 C3:621 >61 62/ 46A45F,.-/ 3.6(/ 1 / 46/ 2/44/ 1>6/?@3 $ 718-,1 3 C3:621 14(1.=8-.3

V
v= R $S
m
4 6,-7/714 646/-4 (/0/ 3 C3:621 14(1.=8-.3 4@3 /(0141,5/7/4 /A/-H3O

m3 cm 3
kg g

323 / 2/44/ 1 C3:621 14(1.=8-.34 4@3 (03(0-17/714 -,C104/4" 3A51234 / 1>6/?@3 & " 36

1 1
ρ= ou v=
v ρ R &S

(03(0-17/71 510237-,F2-./ (0144@3" (371 410 1,51,7-7/ .323 / 0/J@3 1,501 / 830?/ ,302/:
535/: /56/,51 , 1 / E01/ 43A01 / >6/: 145/ 830?/ 83- /(:-./7/" 36 2/512/5-./21,51 .323
23450/ / 1>6/?@3 #

"$ " 12
 Fn
p=
A R #S

6,-7/714 2/-4 .326,4 64/7/4 (/0/ 21,460/0 (0144@3 4@3 23450/4 /A/-H3

N kgf lb
Pa = = psi bar atm
m2 cm 2 pol 2

217-?@3 7/ (0144@3 G 81-5/ 65-:-J/,73 41 2/,L215034 ,302/-4" 2/,L215034 71 CE.63 1

A/0L215034 14>612/ 23450/73 ,/ 8-;60/ -:6450/ / /(:-./?@3 714514 50<4 5-(34 71
217-73014

-;60/ ,510C/:34 71 (0144@3 217-7/ 1 4164 014(1.5-C34 217-73014

(0144@3 /52348G0-./ 512 34 41;6-,514 C/:3014

lb kgf
1 atm = 101325 Pa = 14,69 2
= 1,01325 bar = 1,033 2
pol cm
1 01(0141,5/ / (0144@3 ,3 ,=C1: 73 2/0 .32 >61 3 (143 7/ .3:6,/ 71 /0 7/ /5234810/ /56/
43A01 62/ E01/ >6/:>610
2 2/,L21503 >61 64/ 62/ .3:6,/ 71 8:6=73 (/0/ 217-0 / (0144@3 ,3 -,510-30 71 62 4-4512/ G
23450/73 ,/ 8-;60/

-;60/ /,L21503 71 .3:6,/ 71 8:6=73

"$ " 13
 (0144@3 ,3 -,510-30 73 4-4512/ (4-4 (371 410 ./:.6:/7/ (1:/ 1>6/?@3 *" C1K/

∆p = ρ .L.g R */S

36

psis − patm = ρ .L.g R *AS

(30 8-2

psis = ρ .L.g + patm R *.S

3,71 (/52 G / (0144@3 /52348G0-./ :3./:" ρ G / 2/44/ 14(1.=8-./ 73 8:6=73 73 2/,L21503" G /

/:560/ 7/ .3:6,/ 71 8:6=73 1 ; / /.1:10/?@3 7/ ;0/C-7/71 :3./:

' ! $ ( $" ) "

2 4-4512/ .3,45-56=73 (30 46A45F,.-/ (60/ (371 41 /(0141,5/0 43A 62 36 2/-4 71,501 34 50<4
145/734 71 /;01;/?@3O 9:-73" :->6-73 36 ;/4343 8-;60/ /(0141,5/ 14514 50<4 145/734 71
/;01;/?@3 7/ 2/5G0-/

-;60/ 4 145/734 71 /;01;/?@3 7/ 2/5G0-/

H12(:-8-./234 -453" -:6450/,73 3 8/53 7/ E;6/ (3710 145/0 ,/ 8302/ 49:-7/ R;1:3S" :->6-7/ 1 ;/434/
RC/(30 7TE;6/S" 71471 >61 1H-45/2 .3,7-?D14 8/C30EC1-4 (/0/ 145/4 3.300<,.-/4

4 7-8101,?/4 2-.034.9(-./4 1,501 34 145/734 71 /;01;/?@3 7/ 2/5G0-/ 4@3 23450/7/4 ,/4

8-;60/4 " 1

"$ " 14
 3 145/73 49:-73 /4 23:G.6:/4 (102/,1.12
C-A0/,73 12 530,3 71 46/4 (34-?D14 ,/ 0171
.0-45/:-,/ 1423 145/ (1>61,/ :-A107/71 71
23C-21,53 ,@3 G 468-.-1,51 (/0/ 714506-0 / 0171
12 >61 /4 23:G.6:/4 145@3 7-4(345/4" (30>61 /
/50/?@3 1,501 1:/4 G ;0/,71 145/ 2/,1-0/" 4@3
,1.144E0-/4 ;0/,714 >6/,5-7/714 71 1,10;-/
R./:30S (/0/ >61 /4 23:G.6:/4 41 530,12 2/-4
:-C014" 36 41K/" 26712 71 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3

-;60/ 145/73 49:-73

3 145/73 :=>6-73 3 23C-21,53 23:1.6:/0 1 /

/50/?@3 1,501 /4 23:G.6:/4 145@3 12 /(03H-2/73
1>6-:=A0-3 4 23:G.6:/4 73 -,510-30 73 :=>6-73 145@3
:-C014 (/0/ 41 23C1012 12 537/4 /4 7-01?D14"
(30G2 ,/ 46(108=.-1 46/4 23:G.6:/4 4@3 /50/=7/4
(/0/ 71,503" 3./4-3,/,73 3 81,L21,3 .B/2/73 71
51,4@3 46(108-.-/: 3,5673" 41 -,50376J-0234
1,10;-/ R./:30S 1 / (0144@3 1H510-30 ,@3 830 26-53
1:1C/7/ (37101234 267/0 3 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3
(/0/ ;/4343 (03.1443 3(3453 267/0E 3 145/73 71
/;01;/?@3 (/0/ 49:-73

-;60/ 145/73 :=>6-73

3 145/73 ;/4343 3 23C-21,53 23:1.6:/0

C1,.1 / /50/?@3 1,501 /4 23:G.6:/4 :/4 145@3
:-C014 1 / 51,7<,.-/ 73 ;E4 G 3.6(/0 3 2/-30
C3:621 (344=C1: .3001 .3:-4@3 1,501 /4
23:G.6:/4 1 .3,50/ /4 (/01714 73 01.-(-1,51

-;60/ 145/73 ;/4343

4 267/,?/4 ,3 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3 734 2/510-/-4 145@3 -,7-./7/4 ,/ 8-;60/

"$ " 15
 -;60/ 4>612/ -:6450/5-C3 7/4 267/,?/4 71 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3
71 62/ 46A45F,.-/ (60/

145/ 8302/" 5101234O

♦ ) (03.1443 71 (/44/;12 73 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3 49:-73 /3 :=>6-73Q

♦ 7 (03.1443 71 (/44/;12 73 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3 :=>6-73 /3 49:-73" 5/2AG2
.B/2/73 71 N Q
♦ "6 8 ! (03.1443 71 (/44/;12 73 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3 :=>6-73 /3 ;/4343" 5/2AG2
.B/2/73 71 6 8 N 1 3 Q
♦ .2 7 (03.1443 71 (/44/;12 73 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3 ;/4343 /3 :=>6-73" 5/2AG2
.B/2/73 71 Q
♦ 3 (03.1443 71 (/44/;12 73 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3 49:-73 /3 ;/4343 7-015/21,51"
1 C-.1 C104/Q

267/,?/ 71 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3 71 62 2/510-/: 3.3001 >6/,73 / 1,10;-/ 5G02-./ 71451

/621,5/ 36 7-2-,6- / 5/: (3,53" >61 /4 23:G.6:/4 73 2/510-/: 4@3 830?/7/4 / (03.60/0 62 /00/,K3
/5L2-.3 2/-4 145EC1: (/0/ 41 7-4(3012 C/0-/?@3 7/ 1,10;-/ 5G02-./ ,@3 G / I,-./ 014(3,4EC1:
(1:/4 267/,?/4 71 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3" (/05-.-(/2 1815-C/21,51 71451 (03.1443 5/2AG2 /
(0144@3" / 512(10/560/ 1 3 C3:621 14(1.=8-.3" /:G2 71 3650/4 (03(0-17/714 510237-,F2-./4 2
014623" (371234 7-J10 >61 /4 267/,?/4 ,3 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3 7/ 2/5G0-/ 71(1,712 71
(03(0-17/714 510237-,F2-./4 8/C30EC1-4 / 145/ 3.300<,.-/

'D'D& ! 8 7 ↔ 7
>6/,5-7/71 71 ./:30 01.1A-7/ (30 62/ .105/ 2/44/ 71 62/ 46A45F,.-/ 760/,51 / 864@3 36 .17-7/
760/,51 / 43:-7-8-./?@3 G 1H(0144/ (1:/ 1>6/?@3 " 36 41K/"

QL = ± m.L f R S

3,71 Y G / >6/,5-7/71 71 ./:30 :/51,51 01.1A-73 R(34-5-C3S 36 .17-73 R,1;/5-C3S" 2 G / 2/44/ 1 8

G 3 ./:30 :/51,51 14(1.=8-.3 71 864@3 36 43:-7-8-./?@3 7/ 46A45F,.-/
4 5/A1:/4 1 /(0141,5/2 C/:3014 (/0/ 3 (3,53 71 864@3 1 (/0/ 3 ./:30 :/51,51 14(1.=8-.3
71 864@3 (/0/ /:;6,4 2/510-/-4" 014(1.5-C/21,51

"$ " 16
 8 + ) [ C]
o

:62=,-3 $*
3A01 *#*
1003 (603 *
B62A3
;6/ (60/ R;1:3S *
0/5/ #
/A1:/ 3,53 71 864@3 (/0/ /:;6,4 2/510-/-4

kcal
8 .7
kg
:62=,-3 $ $ "**
3A01 "**
1003 (603 *"**
B62A3 " $
;6/ R;1:3S $ #"
0/5/ "$ *
/A1:/ /:30 :/51,51 71 864@3 (/0/ /:;6,4 2/510-/-4

'D'D' ! 8 6 8 N ↔ 2 7

>6/,5-7/71 71 ./:30 01.1A-7/ (30 62/ .105/ 2/44/ 71 62/ 46A45F,.-/ 760/,51 / C/(30-J/?@3 36
.17-7/ 760/,51 / :->618/?@3 G 1H(0144/ (1:/ 1>6/?@3 " 36 41K/"

QL = ± m.Lv R S
3,71 Y G / >6/,5-7/71 71 ./:30 :/51,51 01.1A-73 R(34-5-C3S 36 .17-73 R,1;/5-C3S" 2 G / 2/44/ 1 C
G 3 ./:30 :/51,51 14(1.=8-.3 71 C/(30-J/?@3 36 :->618/?@3 7/ 46A45F,.-/
4 5/A1:/4 1 /(0141,5/2 C/:3014 (/0/ 3 (3,53 71 C/(30-J/?@3 1 (/0/ 3 ./:30 :/51,51
14(1.=8-.3 71 C/(30-J/?@3 (/0/ /:;6,4 2/510-/-4" 014(1.5-C/21,51

8 + 6 8 N [ C]
o

H-;<,-3 &
)-703;<,-3
10.I0-3 &
:.33: 15=:-.3 $&
;6/ (60/ R;1:3S **
23,=/.3 &
/A1:/ 3,53 71 C/(30-J/?@3 (/0/ /:;6,4 2/510-/-4

kcal
8 .6
kg
H-;<,-3
)-703;<,-3
10.I0-3 &
:.33: 15=:-.3 *&
;6/ (60/ *
23,=/.3 #
/A1:/ /:30 :/51,51 71 C/(30-J/?@3 (/0/ /:;6,4 2/510-/-4

"$ " 17
'D'D* ! 8 3
267/,?/ ,3 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3 71 49:-73 (/0/ ;/4343 1 ;/4343 (/0/ 49:-73" 36 46A:-2/?@3"
3.3001 412 >61 / 46A45F,.-/ (/441 (1:3 145/73 :=>6-73 4 46A45F,.-/4 >61 (344612 145/4
./0/.510=45-./4 U 512(10/560/ /2A-1,51" 4@3 26-53 (36.3 1,.3,50/7/4 ,/ ,/5601J/ 1 71 (36./
/(:-./?@3 -,76450-/:
46A:-2/?@3 73 145/73 49:-73 (/0/ 3 ;/4343" ,302/:21,51 3.3001 ,/ (0141,?/ 71 A/-H/4 (0144D14
R(0144D14 21,3014 >61 / /5234810/S 1 /:5/4 512(10/560/4 R512(10/560/4 /.-2/ 7/ /2A-1,51S ] E
/ 46A:-2/?@3 ;/4343 (/0/ 49:-73" 801>X1,5121,51 3.3001 / /:5/4 (0144D14 1 A/-H/4 512(10/560/4
./:30 :/51,51 71 46A:-2/?@3 ,@3 (3710 410 8/.-:21,51 >6/,5-8-./73 (3-4 1:1 C/0-/ .32 / C/0-/?@3
7/ (0144@3

267/,?/ ,3 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3 71 62/ 46A45F,.-/ (60/ 1 /4 >6/,5-7/714 71 ./:30 712/,7/7/4

(/0/ >61 / 512(10/560/ /621,51 R./:30 41,4=C1:S 1 (/0/ >61 3 145/73 41 237-8->61 R./:30 :/51,51S"
(3712 410 .3,C1,-1,5121,51 23450/7/4 (30 62 ;0E8-.3O 512(10/560/ C10464 ./:30 30 1H12(:3" 3
;0E8-.3 -:6450/ /4 267/,?/4 71 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3 (/0/ 62/ 2/44/ 71 W; 71 E;6/ >61 145E
41,73 />61.-7/

0E8-.3 7-/;0/2/ 71 267/,?/ 71 145/73 71 /;01;/?@3 7/ E;6/

8 98 G />61:1 3,71 34 50<4 145/734 71 /;01;/?@3 7/ 2/5G0-/ (3712 .31H-45-0 12

"$ " 18
1>6-:=A0-3 510237-,F2-.3" .3,83021 -:6450/ 3 ;0E8-.3

0E8-.3 (3,53 50=(:-.1

30 1H12(:3" 34 145/734 510237-,F2-.34 >61 ./0/.510-J/2 3 (3,53 50-(:3 7/ E;6/ 1 73 ;E4 71

./0AL,-.3 4@3 718-,-734 (30O 0144@3 71 " & 22); 1 512(10/560/ *"* 3 " (0144@3 71 /52 1
" 3
2/ >6145@3 / 410 .321,5/7/" G >61 3 145/73 :=>6-73 4321,51 (3710E 3.30010 /.-2/ 73 (3,53
50=(:-.1" 36 41K/" / (0144D14 1 512(10/560/4 46(10-3014 /4 73 145/73 50-(:3
1451 2321,53" 71C1234 8/J10 62/ 3A410C/?@3 .32 014(1-53 / >6/503 718-,-?D14 71 145/734
510237-,F2-.34" >61 4@3O =>6-73 4/560/73" C/(30 4/560/73" C/(30 46(10/>61.-73 1 ;E4 RC/(30
/:5/21,51 46(10/>61.-73S

• .92 G 3 ,321 >61 41 7E /3 :=>6-73 >61 /(/01.1 760/,51 / 267/,?/ 71

8/414 :=>6-7/ (/0/ ;/434/" 36 ;/434/ (/0/ :=>6-7/" 1 >61 3.3001 ,/ .60C/ 71 ! R36 71
C/(30-J/?@3S 3,71 34 145/734 71 /;01;/?@3 :=>6-73 1 C/(30 (3712 .31H-45-0
• L 8 G 3 ,321 >61 41 7E /3 C/(30 >61 /(/01.1 760/,51 / 267/,?/ 71 8/414
:=>6-7/ (/0/ ;/434/" 36 ;/434/ (/0/ :=>6-7/" 1 >61 3.3001 ,/ .60C/ 71 ! R36
C/(30-J/?@3S 3,71 34 145/734 71 /;01;/?@3 :=>6-73 1 C/(30 (3712 .31H-45-0
• L 8 8 2 G 3 .B/2/73 C/(30 >61 (371 C3:5/0 / 530,/0 41 C/(30 4/560/73 1
(34510-3021,51 :=>6-73 (30 62 (03.1443 71 .32(0144@3 -435G02-./ (/44/,73 (1:/
.60C/ 71 :->618/?@3 R !S 36 (/44/0 (1:/ .60C/ ! R46A:-2/?@3S
• , 1 36 6 8 8 2 G 62/ 8/41 ;/434/" (30G2 ,@3 (371 410
50/,48302/73 12 C/(30 4/560/73 (30 .32(0144@3 -435G02-./ 1 (34510-3021,51
:->X181-53

;0E8-.3 -:6450/ 145/4 7-8101,?/4

"$ " 19
 0E8-.3 (3,53 .0=5-.3 1 /4 01;-D14 71 C/(30 46(10/>61.-73 1 ;E4

,514 71 .3,.1-56/0234 3 8 9 " C/234 718-,-0 512(10/560/ 1 (0144@3 .0=5-./4

♦ 8 9 G / 512(10/560/ :-2-51 1 /.-2/ 7/ >6/: 4321,51 510 41 E / 8/41

.3,B1.-7/ .323 51 36 6 8 8 2 D
♦ + 9 G / (0144@3 :-2-51 .30014(3,71,51 / 512(10/560/ .0=5-./" 8302/,73
3 I:5-23 (3,53 7/ :-,B/ !

(3,53 .0=5-.3 G 718-,-73 .323 />61:1 3,71 / 512(10/560/ 1 (0144@3 .0=5-./4 41 1,.3,50/2"
8302/,73 62 145/73 510237-,F2-.3 >61 G :-2-5/730 7/4 50/,48302/?D14 :=>6-73 C/(30 (1:3
(03.1443 -435G02-.3
5/A1:/ /(0141,5/ (/0/ /:;62/4 46A45F,.-/4" 3 (3,53 .0=5-.3" 36 41K/" 46/ 512(10/560/ 1
(0144@3 .0=5-./4

3 [K ] 8 [atm]
)G:-3 "
)-703;<,-3 "& *
1L,-3 $ "**
-503;<,-3 "**
H-;<,-3 *"**
^ H-73 71 ./0A3,3" "**
-9H-73 71 ./0A3,3" * $ "**
;6/ $ & "**
/A1:/ 12(10/560/ 1 (0144@3 .0=5-./4 (/0/ /:;62/4 46A45F,.-/4

#3 6 =
.32(305/21,53 71 62/ 46A45F,.-/ (60/" >6/,73 1:/ 41 1,.3,50/ ,/ 8/41 ;E4 36 C/(30 /:5/21,51
46(10/>61.-73" 410E .3,4-710/73 -7<,5-.3 /3 71 62 ;E4 (1081-53" 41 / 46/ 512(10/560/ /A43:65/
830 2/-30 36 -;6/: >61 3 73A03 7/ 512(10/560/ .0=5-./ 71:/ 30 1H12(:3" ./43 / 512(10/560/ 71
62 4-4512/ .3,51,73 3H-;<,-3 41K/ -;6/: / ** V" 1451 4-4512/ (371 410 /,/:-4/73 .323 41 83441
.32(3453 (30 62 ;E4 (1081-53

"$ " 20
 4 ' !
(

145/ 41?@3 7-4.65-01234 /4 267/,?/4 71 145/73 >61 3.30012 12 62/ 46A45F,.-/ (60/" /50/CG4
71 62 7-/;0/2/ 71 8/414 12 1>6-:=A0-3 ( R(0144@3 512(10/560/S A410C1 1 /,/:-41 /4
50/,48302/?D14 U (0144@3 .3,45/,51" >61 4@3 23450/7/4 ,3 ;0E8-.3

0E8-.3 :;62/4 50/,48302/?D14 U (0144@3 .3,45/,51 ,62 7-/;0/2/ 71 8/414 (

♦ 7 !0 → 145/73 G 43:-73 1 / 50/,48302/?@3 G 01/:-J/7/ / (0144@3

.3,45/,51 -,810-30 / (0144@3 73 (3,53 50-(:3 1 /621,5/,73 / 512(10/560/" 1 /44-2 /50/CG4 7/
46A:-2/?@3 5101234 .B1;/73 /3 145/73 " 8/41 71 C/(30 46(10/>61.-73
♦ 7 !$ → 145/73 G 43:-73 1 / 50/,48302/?@3 G 01/:-J/7/ / (0144@3
.3,45/,51 -7<,5-./ / (0144@3 73 (3,53 50-(:3 1 /621,5/,73 / 512(10/560/" 1 /44-2 3A5101234
3 145/73 R8/41 C/(30 46(10/>61.-73S" /50/CG4 7/ (/44/;12 (1:3 (3,53 50-(:3" 3,71 34 50<4
145/734 71 /;01;/?@3 (3712 3.30010 12 1>6-:=A0-3
♦ 7 "!) → 145/73 G 49:-73 1 / 50/,48302/?@3 G 01/:-J/7/ / (0144@3
.3,45/,51 46(10-30 / (0144@3 73 (3,53 50-(:3 1 -,810-30 / 73 (3,53 .0=5-.3 1 /621,5/,73 /
512(10/560/" 7145/ 8302/" BE 62/ 864@3 1 / (/44/;12 (/0/ 3 145/73 :=>6-73 1 12 41;6-7/ 62/
C/(30-J/?@3 .B1;/,73 41 /3 145/73 ;/4343 " 8/41 71 C/(30 46(10/>61.-73
♦ 7 , !O → 145/73 G :=>6-73 1 / 50/,48302/?@3 G 01/:-J/7/ / (0144@3
.3,45/,51 46(10-30 / (0144@3 73 (3,53 .0=5-./ 1 /621,5/,73 / 512(10/560/" 71 5/: 8302/ >61
3.30010E 62/ 50/,48302/?@3 -,45/,5F,1/ 71 5373 3 :=>6-73 12 ;E4" .B1;/,73 /3 145/73 )" 36
/ 8/41 71,32-,/7/ 71 ;E4 RC/(30 /:5/21,51 46(10/>61.-73S

* ! # +# " # # $# , " +" )" #

323 KE .321,5/234" 34 ;/414 ,@3 512 8302/ (09(0-/ R4@3 8:6=734S (344612 ;0/,71
.32(0144-A-:-7/71 1 3.6(/2 5373 3 14(/?3 >61 :B14 38101.1
4 23:G.6:/4 ;/434/4 /.B/2 41 26-53 /8/45/7/4 62/4 7/4 3650/4 1 /,-2/7/4 71 23C-21,534
26-53 0E(-734 1 7143071,/734 14514 23C-21,534 1:14 41 1,501.B3./2 1 .B3./2 /4 (/01714 734
01.-(-1,514 >61 34 .3,5G2 4514 .B3>614 (0376J12 62/ 14(G.-1 71 A32A/071-3 43A01 145/4
(/01714" ./64/,73 .323 0146:5/73 / (0144@3 2 /621,53 7/ 512(10/560/ " (0376J 62 /621,53
"$ " 21
7/ C1:3.-7/71 7/4 23:G.6:/4 ;/434/4 1 .3,41>X1,5121,51 62 /621,53 7/ (0144@3 41 830 2/,5-73
3 21423 C3:621 ! -,-.-/:" 36 41K/" >61 3 C3:621 (102/,1?/ .3,45/,51 8-;60/ /(0141,5/ 62
23C-21,53 /5L2-.3 12 62 4-4512/ -43:/73

A410C/234 1,5@3 >61 .105/ 2/44/

;/434/ G ./0/.510-J/7/ (30 50<4 (03(0-17/714
8=4-./4 -2(305/,514 >61 4@3O (0144@3" C3:621
1 512(10/560/ R(" !" S 44/4 50<4 ;0/,71J/4
,302/:21,51 4@3 64/7/4 (/0/ 718-,-0 3
145/73 73 ;E4 44-2" 1:/4 4@3 .B/2/7/4 71
6 16 51 8 7

-;60/ 23C-21,53 /5L2-.3

4 C/0-EC1-4 71 145/73 4@3 ;0/,71J/4 -,5-2/21,51 01:/.-3,/7/4 3 145673 7/4 01:/?D14 0146:5/2
/4 :1-4 734 ;/414
45/4 1-4 4@3O

♦ 1- 71 3N:1 /0-3551 R(03.1443 -435G02-.3SQ

♦ 0-21-0/ :1- 71 B/0:14 /N 644/. R(03.1443 -43AE0-.3SQ
♦ 1;6,7/ :1- 71 B/0:14 /N 644/. R(03.1443 -43C3:62G50-.3 36 -43.90-.3SQ
♦ 1- 36 1>6/?@3 71 :/(1N03, R1>6/?@3 71 145/73SQ
♦ 1- 71 C3;/703 R,I2103 71 C3;0/73SQ
♦ 1- 36 1>6/?@3 71 /(:/.1 R(03.1443 /7-/AE5-.3SQ

*D'D& ! + R50/,48302/?@3 -435G02-./S

_ ! 8 4 6 51 6
6 8 @

/05-,73 73 145/73 -,-.-/: .32 / (0144@3 ( " 1 3 C3:621 ! /3 145/73 8-,/: ( " ! C/:1 / 01:/?@3
23450/7/ ,/ 1>6/?@3 " 36

p1 .V1 = p 2 .V2 R S
>61 G / :1- 71 3N:1 /0-3551

8 145/A1:1.-73 (1:/ 1>6/?@3 " (371 410 01(0141,5/73 12 62 ;0E8-.3

(0144@3 C10464 C3:621" 1 64/,73 3 .3,.1-53 71 267/,?/ 71 145/73 510237-,F2-.3" 1:1 412(01
(/44/0E (30 62/ -435102/" >61 G 62/ .60C/ .32(345/ (30 145/734 / 2142/ 512(10/560/
A410C1 / 8-;60/ 1 3 ;0E8-.3 (/0/ 62 (03.1443 -435G02-.3

"$ " 22
 -;60/ 32(0144@3 -435G02-./ 0E8-.3 03.1443 -435G02-.3

132150-./21,51" / -435102/" G 62/ B-(G0A3:1 .32 /44=,535/4 ,34 1-H34 .33071,/734

*D'D' ! 5 R50/,48302/?@3 -43AE0-./S

P 8 4 6 51 6
8 8 8 3 P

/05-,73 73 145/73 -,-.-/: .32 3 C3:621 ! 1 512(10/560/ /3 145/73 8-,/: ! " C/:1 / 01:/?@3
1H(0144/ (1:/ 1>6/?@3 "

V1 V2
=
T1 T2 R S

>61 G / (0-21-0/ :1- 71 B/0:14 /N 644/.

8 31 R(0144@3 .3,45/,51S 145/A1:1.-73 (1:/ 1>6/?@3 " (371 410 01(0141,5/73

12 62 ;0E8-.3O (0144@3 C10464 C3:621" 1 64/,73 3 .3,.1-53 71 267/,?/ 71 145/73 510237-,F2-.3"
1:1 412(01 (/44/0E (30 62/ -43A/0/" >61 G 62/ :-,B/ .32(345/ (30 145/734 / 2142/ (0144@3
A410C1 / 8-;60/ 1 3 ;0E8-.3 (/0/ 62 (03.1443 -43AE0-.3

-;60/ 32(0144@3 -43AE0-./ 0E8-.3 03.1443 -43AE0-.3

"$ " 23
 .60C/ 3A5-7/" / -43A/0/" G (10(1,7-.6:/0 /3 1-H3 71 (0144@3 1 (/0/:1:/ /3 1-H3 71 C3:621

*D'D* ! R50/,48302/?@3 -43.90-./ 36 -43C3:62G50-./S

@ 6 4 8 51 6
8 8 8 3 D@

/05-,73 73 145/73 -,-.-/: .32 / (0144@3 ( 1 512(10/560/ /3 145/73 8-,/: ( " C/:1 / 1>6/?@3
"

p1 p 2
= R S
T1 T2

>61 G / 41;6,7/ :1- 71 B/0:14 /N 644/.

8 6 RC3:621 .3,45/,51S 145/A1:1.-73 (1:/ 1>6/?@3 " (371

410 01(0141,5/73 12 62 ;0E8-.3O (0144@3 C10464 C3:621" 1 64/,73 3 .3,.1-53 71 267/,?/ 71
145/73 510237-,F2-.3" 1:1 412(01 (/44/0E (30 62/ -43.30/" >61 G 62/ :-,B/ .32(345/ (30 145/734
.32 3 21423 C3:621
A410C1 / 8-;60/ 1 3 ;0E8-.3 (/0/ 62 (03.1443 -43C3:62G50-.3

-;60/ ` !3:621 .3,45/,51 0E8-.3 03.1443 -43C3:62G50-.3

.60C/ 3A5-7/ G 62/ 015/ (10(1,7-.6:/0 /3 1-H3 73 C3:621 1 (/0/:1:/ /3 1-H3 71 (0144@3

*D'D- ! "2 8 P
4 50<4 :1-4 734 ;/414 (3712 410 01462-7/4 ,/ 2 8 P 4 36 /-,7/ 2

4 ;/414 4@3 .3,4-710/734 (1081-534" ./43 3A171?/2 / 1>6/?@3 "

p.V = m.R.T R S
3,71O
( (0144@3 73 ;E4Q
! C3:621 14(1.=8-.3 23:/0 73 ;E4Q
2 2/44/ 73 ;E4Q
512(10/560/ /A43:65/ 73 ;E4 RW1:C-, 36 VSQ
.3,45/,51 6,-C104/:" .3,45/,51 23:/0 734 ;/414 (1081-534Q

3 -4512/ ,510,/.-3,/: 71 ,-7/714 5101234O

"$ " 24
 8 8 L 6 ! 8
(/4./: a /b 2 W; W1:C-, aVb J
kg.K

1 -453 71C1 410 3A171.-73 (/0/ 64/0234 / 1>6/?@3

6503 2373 71 14.01C10 / 1>6/?@3 " G ,/ 8302/ 7/ 1>6/?@3

p1.V1 p2 .V2
=
T1 T2 R S

(/0/ 62 (03.1443 (/05-,73 73 145/73 -,-.-/: /3 145/73 8-,/:

#3 6 =
.3,45/,51 734 ;/414 (1081-534 (371 410 714.3A105/ (1:/ 41;6-,51 01:/?@3
R = c p − cv
3,71 .( 1 .C 4@3 34 ./:3014 14(1.=8-.34 / (0144@3 1 C3:621 .3,45/,514" 014(1.5-C/21,51

:G2 7-443" BE 62/ 3650/ .3,45/,51 734 ;/414 (1081-534" 7-5/ 1H(31,51 /7-/AE5-.3 γ" 718-,-73 (30
cp
γ =
cv
>61 G /7-21,4-3,/:

5/A1:/ 23450/ C/:3014 (/0/ /:;62/4 (03(0-17/714 (/0/ ;/414 (1081-534 .3,4-710/734
-2(305/,514

/A1:/ 03(0-17/714 734 ;/414 (1081-534

"$ " 25
*D'DG ! "2 . 8 R50/,48302/?@3 /7-/AE5-./S
Y6/,73 62 ;E4 43801 62/ 50/,48302/?@3 /7-/AE5-./" 36 41K/" 412 503./0 ./:30 .32 3 /2A-1,51"
1:1 51,71 / 41 />61.10 41 G .32(0-2-73 36 / 41 01480-/0 >6/,73 43801 62/ 1H(/,4@3
/05-,73 41 71 62 145/73 -,-.-/: .32 / (0144@3 ( " C3:621 ! 1 512(10/560/ /3 145/73 8-,/: ( "
! 1 C/:12 /4 41;6-,514 1>6/?D14

p1 .V1γ = p 2 .V2γ R $S
1

T1 .V1γ −1 = T2 .V2γ −1 R &S

3,71 γ G 0/J@3 1,501 34 ./:3014 14(1.=8-.34 / (0144@3 .3,45/,51 1 / C3:621 .3,45/,51 73 ;E4

5/A1:/ /(0141,5/ /:;6,4 C/:3014 71 γ (/0/ ;/414 23,3/5L2-.34" A-/5L2-.34 1 50-/5L2-.34"

>61 (3712 410 .3,4-710/734 ;/414 (1081-534 / 512(10/560/ /2A-1,51

, 8 7 "K8 31
8 3 γ
3,3/5L2-.34O )1" 1" " V0" % 1 "
-/5L2-.34O " " ) " *
0-/5L2-.34O "

/A1:/ 1H(31,51 /7-/AE5-.3 γ

8-;60/ /(0141,5/ 62/ .32(0144@3 /7-/AE5-./ 1 3 ;0E8-.3 23450/ 3 (03.1443

0E8-.3 03.1443 /7-/AE5-.3 -;60/ 32(0144@3 /7-/AE5-./

- ! + " " ", $ ." $ " #$ %

21.F,-./ 718-,1 / ;0/,71J/ 3 < ,3 23C-21,53 015-:=,13 .323 41,73 3 (037653 14./:/0 73
C1530 830?/ (1:3 C1530 714:3./21,53" 36 .323 23450/ / 1>6/?@3 "

"$ " 26
 ℑ = F.L R S

3,71 ℑ G 3 50/A/:B3" G / 830?/ 1 G 3 714:3./21,53

/ 510237-,F2-./ / ;0/,71J/ 50/A/:B3 145E /443.-/73 / 1H(/,4@3 36 .32(0144@3 71 62 ;E4 36

C/(30 30 1H12(:3" .3,4-7101234 62 ;E4 1,.100/73 12 62 .-:-,703 735/73 71 62 <2A3:3 36
(-45@3 .32 E01/ " .323 23450/ / 8-;60/

-;60/
E4 12 1H(/,4@3 (0376J-,73 50/A/:B3

1 3 ;E4 7/ 8-;60/ 41 1H(/,71 2/,51,73 / (0144@3 ( .3,45/,51" 3 (-45@3 410E 714:3./73 (/0/
.-2/ 1 3 50/A/:B3 01/:-J/73 ℑ " (371 410 ./:.6:/73 .32 3 /6H=:-3 7/ 1>6/?@3 12A0/,73 >61 /
830?/ (371 410 46A45-56=7/ (1:3 (037653 7/ (0144@3 ( (1:/ E01/ 73 (-45@3 " .3,83021 / 1>6/?@3
" 36

ℑ = F.L = p.S.L R S

1 /-,7/ 4/A1,73 >61 3 (037653 S .L = ∆V " 3,71 ∆V = V2 − V1 G / C/0-/?@3 73 C3:621" >61

(371 410 14.0-53 .323 / 1>6/?@3 "

ℑ = p.∆V = p.(V 2 − V1 ) R S

>61 G / 1>6/?@3 73 50/A/:B3 510237-,F2-.3 1,C3:C-73 ,/ 267/,?/ 73 145/73 (/0/ 3 145/73 "
>6/,73 3 (03.1443 G -43AE0-.3
/0/ 3 (03.1443 -43AE0-.3" 3 ;0E8-.3 -:6450/ 3 .3,.1-53 71 50/A/:B3 01/:-J/73 (30 62/ 1H(/,4@3
/ (0144@3 .3,45/,51" 71 5/: 8302/" >61 / E01/ 12 7145/>61 3 01(0141,51

"$ " 27
 0E8-.3 01(0141,5/?@3 73 50/A/:B3 ,3 (03.1443 -43AE0-.3

50/A/:B3 510237-,F2-.3 ;1,10-./21,51 (371 410 718-,-73 .323 41,73 / E01/ 43A01 / .60C/ 73
(03.1443 71 50/,48302/?@3 71 145/73" 71471 >61 .3:3./7/ 12 62 7-/;0/2/ (0144@3 C10464
C3:621" 36

Área sobre a curva do gráfico

Trabalho ≡ pressão versus volume, limitada
pela variação do volume

/4 50/,48302/?D14 23450/7/4 /A/-H3" 3 50/A/:B3 410E 7/73 (1:/ E01/ 7145/./7/" :-2-5/7/ (1:34
C3:6214 ! 1 ! " 73 732=,-3 73 (03.1443 30 1H12(:3" 34 (03.14434 -43.90-.3" /7-/AE5-.3 1
-435G02-.3 >61 3.30012 ,34 ;/414 (1081-534" 4@3 /(0141,5/734 ,34 ;0E8-.34 " 1 "
014(1.5-C/21,51

0E8-.3
50/A/:B3 ,3 (03.1443 -43.90-.3

50/A/:B3 12 62 (03.1443 -43.90-.3

36 / C3:621 .3,45/,51 G ,6:3" C-453 >61"
,@3 3.30016 1H(/,4@3 36 .32(0144@3 73
;E4 (1:3 23C-21,53 7/ 803,51-0/ 73
4-4512/

"$ " 28
 0E8-.3 0E8-.3
50/A/:B3 ,3 (03.1443 /7-/AE5-.3 50/A/:B3 ,3 (03.1443 -435G02-.3

Y6/,73 62 ;E4 41 1H(/,71" 1:1 01/:-J/ 50/A/:B3" .171,73 1,10;-/ 21.F,-./ /3 /2A-1,51" ./43
.3,50E0-3" .32(0-2-,73 41 62 ;E4 145E 41 01/:-J/,73 .3,50/ / 46/ (0144@3 62 50/A/:B3 21.F,-.3"
1 /44-2 3 ;E4 145/0E 01.1A1,73 1,10;-/ 21.F,-./ .3,C1,?@3 /735/7/ (/0/ 34 4-,/-4 >61
./0/.510-J/0/2 / 1,50/7/ 36 4/=7/ 73 50/A/:B3 71 62 4-4512/ G /(0141,5/7/ ,3 14>612/ -:6450/73
(1:/4 8-;60/4 1

-;60/
50/A/:B3 .3,C1,.-3,/73
.323 ,1;/5-C3

-;60/
50/A/:B3 .3,C1,.-3,/73
.323 (34-5-C3

5 71 62 4-4512/ G / 217-7/ 7/ >6/,5-7/71 71 1,10;-/ /02/J1,/7/ ,3 416

-,510-30 1,10;-/ -,510,/ 01(0141,5/ / 432/ 7/4 (/0.1:/4 71 1,10;-/ .30014(3,71,514 / 1,10;-/
5G02-./ 71 46/4 23:G.6:/4" /3 416 (351,.-/: 71 .3,8-;60/?@3 23:1.6:/0" / 1,10;-/ .-,G5-./
/5L2-.3 23:1.6:/0" / 035/?@3 1 / C-A0/?@3 -,50/23:1.6:/014" 71,501 3650/4
323 KE .321,5/234" / 510237-,F2-./ .:E44-./ ,@3 41 (013.6(/ .32 34 81,L21,34 2-.034.9(-.34"
2/4 4-2 .32 34 2/.034.9(-.34" 71 5/: 43051" >61 / 1,10;-/ -,510,/ 01(0141,5/0E / 1,10;-/
/02/J1,/7/ (30 62/ >6/,5-7/71 71 2/5G0-/

"$ " 29
 1,10;-/ -,510,/ 71(1,71 7/ >6/,5-7/71 71 2/44/ 73 4-4512/" 7/ (09(0-/ 46A45F,.-/ >61
.3,45-56- 3 4-4512/ 1 73 416 145/73 510237-,F2-.3 21,460/?@3 7/ 1,10;-/ -,510,/ 71 62/
46A45F,.-/ >61 41 /(0141,5/ 12 715102-,/73 4-4512/ G 1H5012/21,51 7-8=.-:" .3,5673" 3
145/A1:1.-21,53 7/ C/0-/?@3 7/ 1,10;-/ -,510,/ G 26-53 2/-4 4-2(:14 1 -2(305/,51 (/0/
/C/:-/0234 /4 267/,?/4 71 145/73 510237-,F2-.3 >61 3.30012 12 62 (03.1443
1,10;-/ -,510,/ 410E 4-2A3:-J/7/ (30 1 46/ C/0-/?@3 (1:/ 1>6/?@3 "

∆U =1 U 2 = U 2 − U 1 R S

,71 G / 1,10;-/ -,510,/ /443.-/7/ /3 145/73 8-,/: 1 G / 1,10;-/ -,510,/ /443.-/7/ /3

145/73 -,-.-/:
1,10;-/ -,510,/ G 62/ (03(0-17/71 1H51,4-C/ 734 4-4512/4" (3-4 71(1,71 7/ 2/44/" 1 ,/
510237-,F2-./ /:;62/4 C1J14 G -,510144/,51 50/A/:B/0234 .32 / 5 8 97 " >61
G 718-,-7/ 2/512/5-./21,51 (1:/ 1>6/?@3 " 36

U
u=
m
R S
3,71 6 G / 1,10;-/ -,510,/ 14(1.=8-./ 1 2 / 2/44/

2/ 3650/ (03(0-17/71 510237-,F2-./ -2(305/,51 G / 1,5/:(-/ :/ 01(0141,5/ / 432/ 7/ 1,10;-/

-,510,/ .32 3 50/A/:B3 / (0144@3 .3,45/,51 73 4-4512/ /512/5-./21,51" / 1,5/:(-/ G 1H(0144/
(1:/ 1>6/?@3 " C1K/"
H = U + p.V R S

3,71 ) G / 1,5/:(-/" ( G / (0144@3 1 ! G 3 C3:621

1,5/:(-/ 14(1.=8-./ G 7/7/ (1:/ 1>6/?@3 $

h = u + p.v R $S

1>6/?@3 $ (371 410 I5-:" 41 (3446-0234 5/A1:/4 71 (03(0-17/714 71 145/73 .3,51,73 34

C/:3014 7/ 1,5/:(-/ 14(1.=8-./" (0-,.-(/:21,51 12 0180-;10/?@3
1C1234 :12A0/0" >61 / 1,10;-/ -,510,/ 1 / 1,503(-/ (344612 /4 2142/4 6,-7/714 7/ ;0/,71J/
1,10;-/ 36 50/A/:B3

(0-21-0/ :1- 7/ 510237-,F2-./ (371 410 /44-2 1,6,.-/7/O

P C/0-/?@3 7/ 1,10;-/ 21.F,-./ 71 62 4-4512/ G 7/7/ (1:/ 7-8101,?/ 1,501 3 ./:30 503./73 .32 /
C-J-,B/,?/ 1 3 50/A/:B3 01/:-J/73 ,3 (03.1443 510237-,F2-.3P
1,10;-/ 21.F,-./ .321,5/7/ G / 432/ 7/4 (/0.1:/4 71 1,10;-/ -,510,/" 1,10;-/ .-,G5-./" 1,10;-/
(351,.-/: ;0/C-5/.-3,/: 1 1:E45-./ 73 4-4512/" 36

" 5 C Q" 5 R S Q" 5 R S Q" 5 8 R

>61 2/512/5-./21,51 532/ 8302/ 7/ 1>6/?@3 &"

"$ " 30
 E =U + C + P R &S

3,71 G / 1,10;-/ 21.F,-./" G / 1,10;-/ -,510,/" G / 1,10;-/ .-,G5-./ 1 G / 1,10;-/

(351,.-/:

C/0-/?@3 71 1,10;-/ 21.F,-./ G 1H(0144/ (1:/ 1>6/?@3 #

∆E = ∆U + ∆C + ∆P R #S

/4 /(:-./?D14 7/ 510237-,F2-./ U 2E>6-,/4 5G02-./4" 714(01J/ 41 /4 C/0-/?D14 71 1,10;-/

.-,G5-./ 1 (351,.-/: 734 4-4512/4" >61 4-2(:-8-./ / 1>6/?@3 #" .3,83021 / 1>6/?@3 *" 36

∆E ≅ ∆U R *S

145/ 8302/ / (0-21-0/ :1- (371 410 0114.0-5/ .323O

@ 6 5 8
7 6N < 3 <
N 8 @

32/73 / 8302/ 2/512E5-./ 7/ 1>6/?@3 "

∆U = 1 Q2 − 1 ℑ 2 R S

3,71 34 =,7-.14 1 01(0141,5/2 34 145/734 -,-.-/: 1 8-,/: 73 (03.1443

(0-21-0/ :1- 7/ 510237-,F2-./ G 3 /:-.10.1 >61 86,7/21,5/ 3 (0-,.=(-3 7/ .3,410C/?@3 71

1,10;-/" 1 G C/:-73 (/0/ >6/-4>610 5-(34 71 50/,48302/?@3 36 (03.1443 ,/560/: 1,C3:C1,73 503./4
71 1,10;-/
(0-21-0/ :1- (371 410 1H12(:-8-./7/ /50/CG4 7/ 3A410C/?@3 71 62 (03.1443 -43AE0-.3 !/234
-2/;-,/0 62 .-:-,703 .32 (-45@3 .3,51,73 62/ 715102-,/7/ >6/,5-7/71 71 C/(30 7TE;6/
(03.1443 (/44/0E (1:3 145/73 -,-.-/: 36 145/73 1 5102-,/0E ,3 145/73 8-,/: 36 145/73 " C1K/ /
8-;60/

-;60/ 2 (03.1443 -43AE0-.3

(03.1443 3.30010E / (0144@3 .3,45/,51" 760/,51 3 >6/: -,50376J-01234 ./:30 (03C3./,73 /

1H(/,4@3 73 C/(30" 36 41K/ 01/:-J/?@3 71 50/A/:B3 -;/234 >61 51,B/234 -,50376J-73 62/
>6/,5-7/71 71 ./:30 71 ** K36:14 1 >61 3 50/A/:B3 01/:-J/73 83- 71 * K36:14" 1,5@3" / C/0-/?@3 7/
1,10;-/ -,510,/ 410E 71 & * K36:14

"$ " 31
/ ! .# " #$ % #

-.:3 36 50/,48302/?@3 .=.:-./ 510237-,F2-./ 71 62/ 7/7/ 2/44/ ;/434/ G 62 .3,K6,53 71

50/,48302/?D14 /(94 /4 >6/-4 3 ;E4 C3:5/ / /(0141,5/0 / 2142/ (0144@3" 3 21423 C3:621 1 /
2142/ 512(10/560/ >61 (3446=/ -,-.-/:21,51
(/05-0 71451 2321,53" 41 530,/ ,1.144E0-3 62 .321,5E0-3 43A01 / 1,10;-/ -,510,/ 1 46/
C/0-/?@3 760/,51 62 .-.:3 1,10;-/ -,510,/ G 62/ 86,?@3 73 145/73 510237-,F2-.3 1 (305/,53
(371 410 718-,-7/ (1:3 .3,B1.-21,53 7/4 (03(0-17/714 (0144@3" 512(10/560/ 1 C3:621 14(1.=8-.3
35/7/21,51" 41 / 46A45F,.-/ 1,C3:C-7/ ,62 .-.:3 G 62 ;E4 (1081-53" 1,5@3" / 1,10;-/ -,510,/ 410E
86,?@3 4321,51 71 46/ 512(10/560/ 323 62 .-.:3 510237-,F2-.3 01(0141,5/ 3 ./2-,B3 718-,-73
(30 62 .3,K6,53 71 (3,534 .B/2/734 71 145/734 510237-,F2-.34" 1 3 (3,53 -,-.-/: .30014(3,71 /3
(3,53 8-,/:" (371234 .3,.:6-0 >61 34 145/734 -,-.-/: 1 8-,/: 4@3 -7<,5-.34 44-2" / C/0-/?@3 7/
1,10;-/ -,510,/ 760/,51 62 .-.:3 510237-,F2-.3 G ,6:/" .3,83021 -:6450/ 3 ;0E8-.3

0E8-.3

2 .-.:3 10237-,F2-.3
01(0141,5/,73 / ,6:-7/71 7/
C/0-/?@3 7/ 1,10;-/ -,510,/

3 ;0E8-.3 /,510-30" 3 .3,K6,53 71 (3,534 !0! !$!" 01(0141,5/2 62 .-.:3 1 34 145/734 -,-.-/:
1 8-,/: 4@3 01(0141,5/734 (30 1 "" >61 ,/ C107/71 4@3 -7<,5-.34 44-2" -,71(1,71,5121,51 73
./2-,B3 50-:B/73 (1:3 .-.:3" / C/0-/?@3 7/ 1,10;-/ -,510,/ 410E ,6:/

145/ 2/,1-0/" / (0-21-0/ :1- 7/ 510237-,F2-./ (/0/ 62 .-.:3 (371 410 14.0-5/ .3,83021 /
1>6/?@3
∆U = Qlíquido − ℑlíquido
.323 ∆ \ *" 512 41
0 = Qlíquido − ℑlíquido
1 (30 8-2
Qlíquido = ℑlíquido R S

,/:-4/,73 62 .-.:3 510237-,F2-.3 5190-.3 1,C3:C1,73 /(1,/4 62 21./,-423 .-:-,703 (-45@3

!/234 (1,4/0 12 (03.14434 -43AE0-.34 1 -43.90-.34 (/0/ 4-2(:-8-./0 3 145673

"$ " 32
 &!'!*!-!&

03.1443 O 43AE0-.3 .32

-,50376?@3 71 ./:30 Y
03.1443 O 43.90-.3 .32
015-0/7/ 71 ./:30 Y
03.1443 O 43AE0-.3 .32
015-0/7/ 71 ./:30 Y
03.1443 O 43.90-.3 .32
-,50376?@3 71 ./:30 Y

,/:-4/,73 715/:B/7/21,51 3 .-.:3 " 1H(01443 (1:3 ;0E8-.3

"$ " 33
 0E8-.3 2 .-.:3 5190-.3 1,C3:C1,73 (03.14434 -43AE0-.3 1 -43.90-.3

/J1,73 62 A/:/,?3 71 1,10;-/ R./:30S 1 50/A/:B3 ,3 .-.:3 01(0141,5/73 ,3 ;0E8-.3 /,510-30

./:30 :=>6-73 503./73 .32 3 4-4512/ 760/,51 3 .-.:3 410E"

Qlíquido =1 Q2 + 2 Q3 + 3 Q4 + 4 Q1

3,71 Y 1 Y 4@3 >6/,5-7/714 71 ./:30 -,50376J-7/4 ,3 4-4512/ 1 (305/,53" (34-5-C/4" 1,>6/,53

>61 Y 1 Y 4@3 >6/,5-7/714 71 ./:30 015-0/7/4 1 /44-2" ,1;/5-C/4

50/A/:B3 :=>6-73 (0376J-73 760/,51 3 .-.:3 410E"

ℑlíquido =1 ℑ2 + 2 ℑ3 + 3 ℑ4 + 4 ℑ1

>61 (371 410 4-2(:-8-./73" (3-4 34 (03.14434 1 " 4@3 -43.90-.34" 36 41K/" .32 50/A/:B3 ,6:3
145/ 8302/" 5101234
ℑlíquido =1 ℑ2 + 3 ℑ4

3,71 ℑ 1 ℑ 4@3 >6/,5-7/714 71 50/A/:B3 ,/ 1H(/,4@3 1 .32(0144@3" 014(1.5-C/21,51" 1

(305/,53" 3 (0-21-03 .32 4-,/: (34-5-C3" 1,>6/,53 >61 3 41;6,73 .32 4-,/: ,1;/5-C3

4/,73 / 1>6/?@3 (/0/ / (0-21-0/ :1-" 36

Qlíquido = ℑlíquido

36" 14(1.-8-./21,51 (/0/ 3 .-.:3 7/ 8-;60/

1 Q2 + 2 Q3 + 3 Q4 + 4 Q1 =1 ℑ2 + 3 ℑ4

#3 6 = 3 .-.:3 /(0141,5/73 (1:3 ;0E8-.3 " 3 50/A/:B3 :=>6-73 83- (34-5-C3 1

/44-2" 3 ./:30 :=>6-73 503./73 5/2AG2 3 410E 453 23450/ >61 / -,50376?@3 71 ./:30 8/J .32 >61
41 (0376J/ 50/A/:B3

2 .-.:3 510237-,F2-.3 (371 510 73-4 41,5-734 71 (10.6043 0/ 3 (10.6043 (371 410 ,3 41,5-73
B30E0-3 30/ 3 (10.6043 (371 410 ,3 41,5-73 /,5- B30E0-3

"$ " 34
 14>612/ /A/-H3" 01(0141,5/73 (1:34 ;0E8-.34 1 " -:6450/4 14514 73-4 ./434" 3,71 34
41,5-734 71 (10.6043 4@3 B30E0-3 1 /,5- B30E0-3 351 >61 ,3 .-.:3 B30E0-3 3 50/A/:B3 :=>6-73 G
(34-5-C3" 1,>6/,53 >61" ,3 .-.:3 /,5- B30E0-3 3 50/A/:B3 :=>6-73 G ,1;/5-C3

0E8-.3 0E8-.3
-.:3 12 41,5-73 B30E0-3O -.:3 12 41,5-73 /,5- B30E0-3O
./:30 G .3,C105-73 12 50/A/:B3 50/A/:B3 G .3,C105-73 12 ./:30

2 .-.:3 B30E0-3 41 ./0/.510-J/ (1:/ -,50376?@3 71 ./:30 ,3 4-4512/" 3AK15-C/,73 / (0376?@3 71

50/A/:B3 :=>6-73 (34-5-C3" 36 41K/" 3 4-4512/ 01.1A1 ./:30 1 01/:-J/ 50/A/:B3 4 1H12(:34 7/
65-:-J/?@3 71451 .-.:3 4@3 /4 2E>6-,/4 5G02-./4 2350-J14 36 23530/4
2 .-.:3 /,5- B30E0-3 41 ./0/.510-J/ (1:/ -,50376?@3 71 50/A/:B3 ,3 4-4512/" 3AK15-C/,73 /
015-0/7/ 71 ./:30" 36 41K/" 3 4-4512/ 01.1A1 50/A/:B3 1 015-0/ ./:30 4 1H12(:34 7/ 65-:-J/?@3
71451 .-.:3 4@3 /4 2E>6-,/4 5G02-./4 80-;30=8-./4
C-46/:-J/?@3 71 73-4 .-.:34 01/-4" 62 23530 1 36503 71 0180-;10/?@3" (3712 410 C-4534 ,/4
8-;60/4 1

-;60/ -.:3 510237-,F2-.3 23530 R41,5-73 B30E0-3S

"$ " 35
 -;60/ -.:3 510237-,F2-.3 71 0180-;10/?@3 R41,5-73 /,5- B30E0-3S

34 .-.:34 510237-,F2-.34 01/-4" BE 412(01 62/ -,50376?@3 71 ./:30 1 62/ 015-0/7/ 71451 44-2
41,73" 5101234 73-4 ./434O

♦ 2 .-.:3 23530" -,50376J 2/-4 >6/,5-7/71 71 ./:30 73 >61 3 015-0/" 36 41K/" Y c Y "
50/,48302/,73 3 1H.171,51 12 50/A/:B3 I5-: R560A-,/S 94 (371234 /8-02/0 >61 1:1
(01.-4/ 503./0 ./:30 .32 76/4 83,514O 2/ >61,51 R./:71-0/S 1 / 3650/ 80-/ R.3,71,4/730S
♦ 2 .-.:3 71 0180-;10/?@3 -,50376J 50/A/:B3 R.32(014430S" (/0/ 830?/0 62 8:6H3 >61
/A430C10E ./:30 7/ 83,51 80-/ R1C/(30/730S 1 1H(6:4/0E ./:30 ,/ 83,51 >61,51
R.3,71,4/730S

Y6/,73 62 4-4512/" (30 1H12(:3" 62 ;E4" 01/:-J/ 62 .-.:3 12 41,5-73 B30E0-3 ,3 7-/;0/2/
(0144@3 C10464 C3:621" BE 50/,48302/?@3 71 ./:30 12 50/A/:B3 37/C-/" 71 /.3073 .32 / 41;6,7/
:1-" 144/ 3.300<,.-/ ,@3 G (344=C1:" C-453 >61 62 4-4512/ 015-0/,73 ./:30 71 62/ 83,51 ,@3 (3710E
.3,C1051 :3 .32(:15/21,51 12 50/A/:B3
4 2E>6-,/4 5G02-./4" .323" (30 1H12(:3" / 2/>6-,/ / C/(30" 830/2 -,C1,5/7/4 1 86,.-3,/C/2
/,514 >61 416 (0-,.-(-3 5190-.3 83441 145/A1:1.-73
4567/,73 144/4 2/>6-,/4" 1C-71,.-36 >61 62/ 7-8101,?/ 71 512(10/560/ 10/ 5@3
-2(305/,51 (/0/ 62/ 2E>6-,/ 5G02-./ >6/,53 62/ 7-8101,?/ 71 ,=C1: 7TE;6/ (/0/ 62/ 2/>6-,/
B-70E6:-./ 45/A1:1.16" 1,5@3" >61O

@+ 2 2 5 6 3 < 4 4 6
8 7 4 2 7 = 7
2 T 2U4 6 ! 8 3 < 8 6 4 T 7U A 8
7 7 @D

01,7-21,53 1 / 18-.-<,.-/ 734 .-.:34 510237-,F2-.34 4@3 76/4 C/0-EC1-4 >61 145/A1:1.12
>6/:-5/5-C/21,51 3 >6/,53 G A3/ / .3,C104@3 71 ./:30 12 50/A/:B3 1 C-.1 C104/
51023 G 64/73 (/0/ 21,460/?@3 ,/4 12 1 3 51023
7 ; (/0/ 21,460/?@3 7/4 12 7 5
A410C1 / 8-;60/ " 01(0141,5/5-C/ 7/ 7-01?@3 1 41,5-73 73 8:6H3 71 ./:30 1 73 50/A/:B3
01/:-J/73 (30 62/ 2E>6-,/ 5G02-./ 23530/

"$ " 36
 -;60/ -01?@3 1 41,5-73 73 8:6H3 71 ./:30 1 73 50/A/:B3 ,62/ 2E>6-,/ 23530/

01,7-21,53 η ,62/ 2E>6-,/ 23530/ 410E ./:.6:/73 (1:/ 1>6/?@3 "

Trabalho positivo ou útil

η=
Calor absorvido da fonte quente
36
ℑlíquido Qq − Q f Qf
η= = =1− R S
Qq Qq Qq

:12A0/,73 >61 ℑlíquido = Qq − Q f

!1K/ / 8-;60/ " 01(0141,5/5-C/ 7/ 7-01?@3 1 41,5-73 73 8:6H3 71 ./:30 1 73 50/A/:B3 01/:-J/73
(30 62/ 2E>6-,/ 5G02-./ 71 0180-;10/?@3

-;60/ -01?@3 1 41,5-73 73 8:6H3 71 ./:30 1 73 50/A/:B3 ,62/ 2E>6-,/ 80-;30=8-./

18-.-<,.-/ ε ,62/ 2E>6-,/ 71 0180-;10/?@3 410E ./:.6:/7/ (1:/ 1>6/?@3 "

Calor absorvido da fonte fria

ε=
Trabalho negativo
"$ " 37
36
Qf
ε=
ℑlíquido R S

2 & " /0,35 -71/:-J36 62 .-.:3 >61 (03(30.-3,/0-/ 1K 12

.-.:3 71 /0,35" >61 (371 410 C-453 ,3 ;0E8-.3 " .3,45/ 71 76/4 50/,48302/?D14 31
/:510,/7/4 .32 76/4 50/,48302/?D14 4 537/4 1:/4 01C104=C1-4" 41,73 3 .-.:3 5/2AG2
01C104=C1:

0E8-.3 .-.:3 71 /0,35

Y6/,73 3 .-.:3 G (10.300-73 ,3 41,5-73 B30E0-3" 3 50/A/:B3 :=>6-73 01/:-J/73 G (34-5-C3 1 217-73
,6210-./21,51 (1:/ E01/ 73 .-.:3 RE01/ 12 7145/>61 ,3 ;0E8-.3 S
2/;-,1 62/ 2E>6-,/ 5G02-./ ,/ >6/: 3 ;E4 4380/ 1H(/,4D14 1 .32(0144D14" 01/:-J/,73 3 .-.:3 71
/0,35 1K/ 2 / 512(10/560/ 7/ 83,51 >61,51" 7 / 512(10/560/ 7/ 83,51 80-/" 2 G 3 ./:30
/A430C-73 7/ 83,51 >61,51 1 7 G 3 ./:30 01K1-5/73 ,/ 83,51 80-/
,/:-4/,73 3 ;0E8-.3 " C/234 (/05-0 73 145/73 &4 3 ;E4 01/:-J/ 62/ 1H(/,4@3 -435G02-./ &!'"
01.1A1,73 / >6/,5-7/71 71 ./:30 2 7/ 83,51 >61,51 >61 145E / 512(10/560/ 2 41;6-0" 3.3001
/ 1H(/,4@3 /7-/AE5-./ '!*" 760/,51 / >6/: ,@3 BE 503./ 71 ./:30 .32(0144@3 -435G02-./ *!-
41 C10-8-./ U 512(10/560/ 7 7/ 83,51 80-/ 1" ,144/ 15/(/" 3 ;E4 01K1-5/ / >6/,5-7/71 71 ./:30 7
>61 ,@3 41 .3,C1051 12 50/A/:B3 .32(0144@3 /7-/AE5-./ -!&" >61 .32(:15/ 3 .-.:3" 41 01/:-J/
412 503./ 71 ./:30

/0,35 7123,45036 >61" ,1441 .-.:3" /4 >6/,5-7/714 71 ./:30 503./7/4 .32 /4 83,514 >61,51 1 80-/
4@3 (03(30.-3,/-4 U4 014(1.5-C/4 512(10/560/4 /A43:65/4 7/4 83,514" 36 71 /.3073 .32 / 1>6/?@3

"$ " 38
 " (/0/ 1451 .-.:3 5101234

Qf Tf
= R S
Qq Tq
01,7-21,53 1 / 18-.-<,.-/ 71 62/ 2E>6-,/ 5G02-./ >61 01/:-J/ 3 .-.:3 71 /0,35 R2E>6-,/ 71
/0,35S (3712 1,5@3 410 1H(01443 .3,83021 / 1>6/?@3 " >61 G 62/ 4-2(:-8-./?@3 7/ 1>6/?@3

Tf
η =1− R S
Tq

45/ 89026:/ (102-51 145/A1:1.10 -2(305/,51 .3,.:64@3O

@# 7 K 6 8 3 7
2 7 4 8 48 4 3 3 < N D@

30 36503 :/73" /0,35 (03C36 >61 144/ 89026:/ .30014(3,71 /3 2EH-23 01,7-21,53 >61 (371 410
3A5-73 (30 62/ 2E>6-,/ 5G02-./ 3(10/,73 1,501 76/4 512(10/560/4 2 R83,51 >61,51S 1 7 R83,51
80-/S
)E .-.:34 5190-.34 01C104=C1-4 >61 (3712 510 01,7-21,53 -;6/: /3 73 -.:3 71 /0,35" 2/4 ,6,./
2/-30
A410C1 >61 3 01,7-21,53 73 -.:3 71 /0,35 G 3 2EH-23 (344=C1: (/0/ 62/ 2E>6-,/ 5G02-./" 2/4
,6,./ (371 /:./,?/0 &F F V 71 01,7-21,53 Tη η C S 1/:21,51" (/0/ >61 -453 3.3001441"
71C10=/234 510 537/ / .3,C104@3 71 ./:30 12 50/A/:B3

/0/ 62/ 2E>6-,/ 71 /0,35 510 01,7-21,53 **d " 1:/ 71C10-/ 3(10/0 1,501 62/ 83,51 >61,51 1
62/ 83,51 80-/ U 512(10/560/ 73 J103 /A43:653 T 7 C * VS" 3 >61 G -001/:-JEC1: ,/ (0E5-./ :12
7-443" 5/: 2E>6-,/ 145/0-/ .3,50/0-/,73 / 41;6,7/ :1- 7/ 10237-,F2-./" (3-4 .3,C10510-/
-,51;0/:21,51 ./:30 12 50/A/:B3

3 .-.:3 71 /0,35 / 18-.-<,.-/ G 7/7/ (30O

Tf
ε=
Tq − T f R S

1:/ (371234 3A410C/0 >61 3 416 C/:30 G 2/-30 >61 " /3 .3,50E0-3 73 01,7-21,53 30 1H12(:3"
62/ 18-.-<,.-/ 71 $ O 410-/ /44-2 1H(:-./7/O
_ 1 / 18-.-<,.-/ G 71 $ " (371234 /8-02/0 >61 /3 015-0/0234 $ 6,-7/714 71 1,10;-/ 43A / 8302/ 71
./:30 71 62 /2A-1,51 / 410 0180-;10/73" 145/234 ;/45/,73 6,-7/71 71 1,10;-/ 43A / 8302/ 71
50/A/:B3 21.F,-.3 71 .32(0144@3e

0 0. # , )

L H ." 4 D4 ) 1 D @3 /6:3O 7 7;/07 06.B10

57/
# W 4f g D" 12 D 7 /2(64

"$ " 39