Interpreting by Design:

A Study of Aptitude, Ability and Achievement

in Australian Sign Language Interpreters




Karen Michele Bontempo
Bachelor of Arts
Bachelor of Psychology
Graduate Diploma of Education
Postgraduate Certificate in Linguistics Research




This thesis is presented for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Linguistics
Faculty of Human Sciences
Macquarie University

April 2012

i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents.... i
List of Tables, Figures and Appendices......... vi
Abstract.. vii
Statement of Candidate...... viii
Acknowledgments.. ix

Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Introduction.. 1
1.2 Research hypothesis..... 6
1.3 Background and rationale for the study........ 6
1.4 Organisation of the thesis. 8
1.5 The anticipated contribution of the study... 13
1.6 References.. 13

Chapter 2: Interpreting Down Under: Sign language interpreter education and training in
Australia
2.1 Introduction. 19
2.2 Accreditation of Auslan interpreters... 21
2.3 Interpreter education programs.. . 25
2.4 Challenges in interpreter training 26
2.5 Training interpreter educators............. 29
2.6 Ongoing interpreter training and revalidation of accreditation....... 30
2.7 Deaf interpreters in Australia. 31
2.8 Conclusion. . 37
2.9 References................... 38

THE RESEARCH STUDY
Chapter 3: Mind the Gap! A skills gap analysis of sign language interpreters
3.1 Introduction.. 42
3.1.1 Sign language interpreters in Australia. 43
3.1.2 Statement of the problem....................... 44
3.2 Literature review....................... 44
3.2.1 Perceptions of performance....................... 46
ii


3.2.2 Improving competence. 47
3.3 Methodology 48
3.3.1 Design... 48
3.3.2 Participants.... 49
3.3.3 Materials 49
3.3.4 Procedure...................... 49
3.4 Results.. 50
3.4.1 A profile of respondents 50
3.4.2 Ratings of competence and level of accreditation.......................... 51
3.4.3 Skills gap analysis..... 51
3.4.4 Skills gap and level of accreditation. 54
3.5 Discussion..................... 56
3.5.1 Demographics... 57
3.5.2 Competence.. 58
3.5.3 Skills gap findings..... 60
3.5.4 Study limitations... 63
3.6 Implications and conclusion. 64
3.7 References.... 66

Chapter 4: Emotional stability as a predictor for interpreter competence: A consideration in
determining aptitude for interpreting
4.1 Introduction.. 72
4.2 Literature review.. 73
4.2.1 Personality and job performance.. 74
4.2.2 Research on personality and interpreters........................... 75
4.2.3 Self-efficacy, goal orientation and negative affectivity......................... 77
4.3 Research hypotheses. 80
4.4 Methodology. 80
4.4.1 Participants 81
4.4.2 The instrument... 83
4.4.3 Procedure....................... 85
4.5 Results... 85
4.6 Discussion and conclusions.. 87
4.7 References. 90
iii
APPLICATION OF THE RESEARCH FINDINGS
Chapter 5: Getting it right from the start: Program admission testing for sign language
interpreters
5.1 Introduction 96
5.1.1 Program admission testing...................... 97
5.1.2 Screening for aptitude or ability?.............................................................................. 100
5.1.3 Other factors influencing student achievement 104
5.1.4 Program admission testing in Australia.. 105
5.2 The context for interpreting and interpreter education in Australia. 107
5.3 Study procedure.. 111
5.3.1 Research questions. 112
5.4 Methodology for study 1: The survey instrument... 113
5.4.1 Participants.. 113
5.4.2 Materials.. 115
5.4.3 Procedure. 117
5.5 Results and discussion. 117
5.5.1 Skills gaps reported by practitioners 117
5.5.2 Perception of interpreter education programs in Australia............................... 118
5.5.3 Developing a program admission test...... 123
5.6 Methodology for study 2: Program admission test.. 124
5.6.1 Participants...... 125
5.6.2 Materials ..... 125
5.6.2.1 Essay English... 128
5.6.2.2 Interview Auslan .... 129
5.6.2.3 Shadowing Auslan .. 130
5.6.2.4 Paraphrasing / identification of main ideas Auslan to English. 131
5.6.2.5 Dual task exercise / memory English .......................... 131
5.6.2.6 Consecutive interpreting English to Auslan 132
5.6.2.7 Individual traits... 132
5.6.2.8 End of year examination. 133
5.6.3 Procedure for admission test 134
5.7 Results and discussion. 135
5.7.1 Limitations of study 2.... 139
5.8 Conclusion.. 142
5.9 Recommendations... 143
5.10 References... 145
iv
Chapter 6: Striving for an A grade: A case study in performance management of interpreters
6.1 Introduction 154
6.2 Background and rationale... 155
6.3 Structure and process... 158
6.4 Data collection and analysis... 160
6.5 Training opportunities and professional development action plans 162
6.6 Performance and progress... 163
6.6.1 Skills gaps.. 163
6.6.2 Positive aspects... 164
6.6.3 Concerns identified by interpreters. 165
6.6.4 Progress.. 166
6.7 Recommendations, resources and project evaluation. 168
6.8 Conclusion.. 169
6.9 References... 171
6.10 Appendix - Figure 6.1: Performance evaluation rubric... 173

Chapter 7: An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure: Educating interpreters about the
risk of vicarious trauma
7.1 Introduction 175
7.2 Vicarious trauma defined 176
7.3 Challenges of healthcare settings for interpreters 177
7.4 Dispelling the myth of neutrality 179
7.5 Research on vicarious traumatisation of interpreters.. 181
7.6 Personality and coping 183
7.7 Negative coping strategies.. 185
7.8 Positive coping strategies 187
7.9 Interpreting specific coping strategies..................... 189
7.10 Organisational strategies 190
7.11 Education and training perspective...................... 191
7.12 Conclusion.. 194
7.13 References.. 195

Chapter 8: Conclusion... 201
8.1 A review of the chapters. 202
8.2 A tangential study................... 212
8.3 Limitations of the study.. 214
v

8.4 Final recommendations and further research........ 216
8.5 Concluding comments.. 219
8.6 References 220

Full reference list.... 224
Appendices. 247

vi
LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES AND APPENDICES
Table Number (linked to chapter) Page
3.1 Overall gap analysis of importance vs. competence questions ............52
3.2 Professional interpreter ratings of importance and competence..........54
3.3 Paraprofessional ratings of importance and competence ....................55
4.1 Means, standard deviations and correlations .......................................86
4.2 Multiple regression analysis for interpreter competence.....................87
5.1 Level of NAATI accreditation held by respondents..........................117
5.2 Program admission test items.............................................................126
5.3 Comparison of admission test score and final examination result ....135


Figure Number (linked to chapter) Page
5.1 Determinants of human performance and their interaction................139
6.1 Educational interpreter performance evaluation rubric.....................173
7.1 Negative coping strategies .................................................................186
7.2 Positive coping strategies...................................................................187



Appendices Page
1 Recruitment flyers .................................................................................242
2 Information and consent form...............................................................244
3 Ethics approval 1...................................................................................245
4 Ethics approval 2...................................................................................246
5 Surveys ..................................................................................................248




vii
ABSTRACT

This thesis is comprised of a series of thematically linked work that explores and investigates
factors that may be predictors of interpreter performance. The research study identifies the
skills, knowledge and abilities deemed necessary for competent performance as a signed
language interpreter; measures perceived competence in interpreters; gathers data on the skills
gaps of interpreters and a range of personality constructs; and applies this potentially
predictive data. The application of the findings of the research study include piloting an
interpreter education program admission screening procedure; establishing a diagnostic skills
analysis and performance management process for educational interpreters; and documenting
the risk associated with interpreting in traumatic settings, and introducing strategies to
enhance the personal coping skills of interpreters working in such environments.

The data gathered from this unified corpus of research, and the efforts outlined to apply the
findings in purposeful ways in a series of practical projects, will contribute to the field of
interpreter education by increasing the body of knowledge about interpreter aptitude, ability
and achievement. Knowing what qualities may be predictive of successful performance in the
profession may lead to the development of more effective screening tools for assessing
occupational suitability for interpreting; the potential for better predicting achievement in
programs of study; improved capacity for addressing skills gaps in interpreters; and better
training opportunities and safeguards for working practitioners. It will also provide direction
and guidance to interpreter educators, employers, and practitioners themselves, in regard to
curricula; staff supervision and support; interpreter performance management; and individual
awareness of the aptitudes and abilities recommended for effective interpreting practice. The
results of the study have implications for both spoken and signed language interpreting fields
in regard to research, pedagogy and practice.
viii
STATEMENT OF CANDIDATE

I certify that the work in this thesis entitled Interpreting by Design: A Study of Aptitude,
Ability and Achievement in Australian Sign Language Interpreters has not previously been
submitted for a degree nor has it been submitted as part of requirements for a degree to any
other university or institution other than Macquarie University.
I also certify that the thesis is an original piece of research and it has been written by me. Any
help and assistance that I have received in my research work and the preparation of the thesis
itself have been appropriately acknowledged.
In addition, I certify that all information sources and literature used are indicated in the thesis.
The research presented in this thesis was approved by Macquarie University Ethics Review
Committee, as noted in Ethics Approval HE27MAY2005-PG04112 and HE01MAY2009-
D06449.

Karen Bontempo
Student ID: 40605191
April 2012

ix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my deepest appreciation and sincere gratitude to all those who have
contributed to the realization of this dissertation.

To begin with, I am indebted to my supervisor, Dr Jemina Napier, for her generous assistance,
profound wisdom, gentle but clear direction, and her constant encouragement. Jemina has been
an inspiration to me, and I am extremely grateful for all her help in refining my thinking and
enhancing my learning throughout my PhD journey. I would also like to acknowledge my
associate supervisor Dr Linda Cupples for her professional expertise, insight and constructive
feedback in regard to my thesis, particularly when Jemina was on maternity leave for a period
of time during my candidature. The advice, mentorship and unfaltering support of my local
adjunct supervisor in Western Australia, Leanne Potter, is also greatly valued.

I am extremely grateful to Dr Debra Russell, of the University of Alberta, Canada, for her
interest in my work, and for her time in reviewing my manuscript before submission for
examination. I recognize the significance of her generosity and her willingness to support
emerging researchers, and thank her sincerely for her feedback.

I greatly appreciate the assistance of my co-authors on different papers, and their willingness to
work with me Patricia Levitzke-Gray, Bethel Hutchinson, Karen Malcolm and Jemina Napier.
I am grateful to Dr Laurence Hayes, Vicki Brashear and Dr Jerry Palmer, the US-based research
team at Eastern Kentucky University for their work with Jemina and I in regard to the
international study of interpreter disposition a collaboration still in progress, but conceived
directly as a result of this PhD study.

The feedback I received from journal and volume editors and anonymous reviewers of the
published papers herein was very good advice and improved the quality of my submissions. I
am grateful for the direction and guidance offered by these international scholars, and for the
opportunity to have published so much work in peer-reviewed publications so early in my
research career.

I have been fortunate enough to be able to present my research findings and the content of each
of the published chapters in this thesis at a variety of conferences, both in Australia and
x
overseas. I am grateful to conference organizers in regard to the opportunity to deliver these
presentations, and I am thankful for the financial sponsorship I received at times to support my
attendance. I would like to acknowledge Macquarie University, the Australian Sign Language
Interpreters Association (state branch and the national association), the Conference of
Interpreter Trainers, the WA Deaf Society and Shenton College Deaf Education Centre for their
assistance at different times during my candidature. Discussions with scholars and my
interpreting peers at such events have been invaluable to me in shaping my ideas, challenging
my thoughts, and sharpening my plans in regard to my research. Attendance has also afforded
me the opportunity to widely disseminate my findings to the people who matter, including
practitioners, educators, and managers of interpreters, as well as to researchers in both the
signed and spoken language interpreting field.

Irrespective of the opportunities I have had for collaboration, advice and feedback, I note that I
alone am responsible for any inaccuracies, omissions or shortcomings in this dissertation.

Over the years I have greatly appreciated the camaraderie, support and encouragement that I
have received from many friends and colleagues in the signed language interpreting field and
from the Deaf community. I want to especially acknowledge the Deaf people who were so
instrumental in the early years in smoothing my path into the Deaf community and in sharing
their language with me, namely Dawn Harrison, Carol Chittleborough, Danielle Shaw, and the
entire Levitzke-Gray family. In addition, I would like to thank Patricia Levitzke-Gray, Josie
Hodgetts, Robyn Tsapazi, Della Goswell, and Marcel Leneham for their unique perspective,
their contribution to the progress of the interpreting profession, and for their friendship and
support. I am also very grateful to John Levitzke and Leanne Potter for having faith in me, right
from the beginning.

All my work colleagues of the past two years at Shenton College Deaf Education Centre
deserve a special mention. They have been so encouraging of me finishing, covering classes for
me when I took some unpaid leave to focus on writing, and on several occasions when I
travelled to present at conferences. My Principal, Bethel Hutchinson, could not have been more
considerate of my efforts to complete my thesis, and I am very appreciative of her support.
Thanks also to Richard Gray, Josie Hodgetts, Daniela Trimboli and Billy Quick for their
flexibility and assistance over the past two years I am very lucky to be a member of such an
accommodating team of committed educators, interpreters and support staff at Shenton College
xi
Deaf Education Centre.

The many interpreters and interpreter educators involved in various aspects of this PhD study
are all acknowledged with sincere gratitude. Without the enthusiastic contribution of their time
and their thoughts, I would not have gained this further insight into the signed language
interpreting profession. Their views and experiences will help shape future developments in
interpreter education in Australia, and they are to be commended for being so willing to extend
themselves and to actively participate in my study.

Finally, words cannot express how thankful I am for my wonderful family and friends. This
PhD journey has been challenging at times, particularly when working full time, and my family
and my friends have been extremely tolerant of my absences and of my focus being elsewhere
at times in recent years. I could not have arrived at this point without the support and
encouragement of all my family and friends and I know they will be delighted to hear when this
thesis is finally submitted!

My endless gratitude to my husband Joe and my daughter Isabella for their incredible patience,
all their love, and for their constant support during this journey. I could not have done this
without them. They bring me so much joy, and I am truly blessed to have them in my life.

In concluding, I offer my heartfelt thanks to my parents, who always encouraged me to reach
higher, do better and to always believe in myself.

A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step
This dissertation is dedicated to my parents, who set me on this path a very long time ago.



xii
1
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1.1 Introduction
Multiple factors, both internal and external, can predict and enhance human performance.
Naturally this holds true for signed language interpreters, however to date the predictive value
of various factors has been unknown, or investigated only in a limited fashion in signed
language interpreters. Yet, the capacity to accurately determine aptitude for interpreting; to
evaluate ability and measure competent performance; and to understand the factors that impact
on acquisition of the interpreting skill and interpreter performance, potentially affects the
achievement levels and outcomes for students of interpreting, and practicing interpreters. This
in turn impacts on a community of users requiring access to effective signed language
interpreting services.
The cornerstone of effective signed language interpreting services is quality. Identifying better
ways to perform is central to quality improvement, therefore determining the predictor
constructs related to interpreter competence would be highly valued in the broader interpreting
field. A predictor construct is simply a way in which people vary, and in this instance,
understanding the skills, knowledge, traits and abilities that are likely to be important for
success in the occupation of interpreting, and patterns of behaviour that differentiate effective
interpreters from ineffective interpreters, would serve the profession well. Interpreters are made,
not born (Mackintosh, 1999), and cultivating those with an aptitude for learning the interpreting
skill, and nurturing existing practitioners to further enhance their performance needs to be a
priority for the field, as demands for interpreter quality increase (Stone and Allsop, 2007;
Napier and Rohan, 2007; McKee, 2008).
This premise has even greater currency when the profile of the signed language interpreter of
today is considered. In the early days of the profession, interpreters were typically drawn
directly from the Deaf community. People with existing relationships with the Deaf community,
such as hearing children of Deaf parents, welfare workers, teachers of Deaf children, the clergy,
and other family members and friends of Deaf people who could sign were selected by the
Deaf community to act as interpreters in the past. These people were bilinguals who were
trusted and deemed fit to practice, bestowed with the responsibility to do so by members of
the local Deaf community (Bontempo and Levitzke-Gray, 2009). Interpreter education
2
programs and training did not exist, however the pioneering efforts of these early informal
interpreters paved the way for future professionalization and growth of the field.
With the eventual introduction of interpreter education programs in tertiary institutions and the
teaching of Auslan
1
moving to the higher echelons of education from the mid 1980s onward in
Australia (Napier et al, 2010), the status of the language of the Deaf community and the
perceived legitimacy of the profession of interpreting was raised considerably. However, the
academic institutionalization that increased status and credibility, also harboured a negative
consequence (Cokely, 2005). Greater social distance was created between the hearing people
learning the language and becoming interpreters, and the Deaf community. Interpreting students
today are less likely to be bilinguals, they self-select into the field, and are usually drawn
directly from institutionalized language acquisition courses. They rarely have community
sanction and support, as they typically have no relationship with the local Deaf community, so
perceptions of their trustworthiness, and their willingness and capacity to remain in the field
once they commence work is an unknown factor. This is not just increasingly the case for
signed language interpreters, but spoken language interpreters also (Zannirato, 2008). To this
end, identifying the factors that might be predictive of success in interpreter education programs
and in the field as practitioners becomes even more relevant.
The International Association of Conference Interpreters (more commonly known as AIIC) has
identified suggested requirements for spoken language interpreters considering applying to
interpreter education programs. This list
2
could reasonably be extrapolated and applied to
signed language interpreters (replacing the original reference to countries in point 3 with the
term communities instead) as a suggested range of required attributes expected to be held by a
signed language interpreting practitioner for effective job performance. The list includes:-
! a polished command of their own native language over a range of registers and domains
! a complete mastery of their non-native language/s
! a familiarity with the cultures in the communities where their working languages are
spoken
! a commitment to helping others communicate
! an interest in, and understanding of, current affairs, plus an insatiable curiosity
! world experience and a broad general education

1
An acronym for Australian Sign Language
2
http://www.aiic.net/ViewPage.cfm?page_id=56#whatkind - retrieved on 15 October 2010.
3
! good training (and usually at least an undergraduate university degree)
! the ability to concentrate and focus as a discussion unfolds
! a pleasant speaking voice
! a friendly, collegial attitude
! calm nerves, tact, judgment and a sense of humor
! a willingness to adhere to rules of conduct

Of particular interest is the number of factors on the AIIC list that are not cognitive or linguistic
in nature. A number of soft skills, or traits with a social dimension, feature strongly in the list,
which is not surprising given the findings in the broader organizational psychology literature
that affective variables, and not just ability, impact on both aptitude and achievement in
education and employment settings (Barrick & Mount, 2005; Ones et al, 2007). It seems
determining aptitude for future interpreting ability and effective job performance requires
forecasting the probability of success for individuals, not only on cognitive and linguistic
domains, but also in relation to personal disposition factors. A great deal of the early aptitude
research and admissions screening research was based on spoken language conference
interpreting (Moser-Mercer, 1985, 1994; Arjona-Tseng, 1994; Gerver et al, 1984, 1989; Russo,
1993; Russo & Pippa, 2004; Lambert, 1991), however concerns have existed for some time
about the reliability and validity of approaches to interpreter aptitude testing and performance
assessment (Dodds, 1990; Campbell & Hale, 2003; Sawyer, 2004; Timarov & Ungoed-
Thomas, 2008).
Despite reservations, the field continues to regularly screen applicants prior to entry to
interpreter education programs, however such tests in the past have usually concentrated on
cognitive or linguistic tasks - typically variants of interpreting tasks that appear to have high
face validity - rather than exploring the social dimension with candidates to determine
suitability for work in the field. Yet, evidence suggests that interpreter education programs are
potentially highly threatening environments that can provoke fear and can impact negatively on
an individuals self-confidence (Zannirato, 2008). Furthermore, anxiety is a predictor of
achievement in second language acquisition courses (Gardner et al, 1976) and likely to impair
the quality of performance in interpreter training and practice also.
As demand exceeds an individuals ability, and the resources they are able to mobilize become
insufficient for their purposes, the resulting extreme level of arousal can impact negatively on
performance. Many factors can negatively affect the acquisition of skills and performance, but
4
some people are more resilient than others, largely because of adaptive dispositional
characteristics. Interpreting is considered to be a stressful occupation (Kurz, 2003; Dean &
Pollard, 2001) and the issue of trust is considered critical (Napier & Rohan, 2007). Screening
for the soft skills personality factors is commonplace in jobs where high public trust is
required and in stressful occupations (Borum et al, 2003), yet screening on the basis of
disposition has received limited attention in the interpreting profession until relatively recently.
The signed language interpreting field has lagged somewhat behind the spoken language
interpreting sector in not being prudent about collecting and publishing evidence of aptitude
screening, and in investigating the predictive validity of various screening tools, whether based
on cognitive ability, linguistic proficiency, or disposition factors. The seminal contributions of
Dr Sherry Shaw concerning aptitude for learning signed language interpreting are an exception
to this rule (Shaw, 2011; Shaw, Timarov & Salaets, 2008; Stauffer & Shaw, 2006; Shaw &
Hughes, 2006; Shaw, Grbic & Franklin, 2004).
Understandably, effective recruitment and selection is difficult for the field to do without a clear
and comprehensive framework for appreciating the relationships between knowledge, skills,
abilities and how these may impact on job performance. Job performance is a multi-dimensional
construct and can be measured in many ways. Motowildo et al (1997) argue general cognitive
ability, task knowledge and task skills are related to task performance, whilst personality
variables, contextual knowledge and contextual skills are linked to contextual performance in a
job. Further, task performance and contextual performance are both integral to overall
successful job performance.
In the case of signed language interpreters, this would mean that an individual possesses
sufficient general cognitive ability to perform the task of interpreting, for example, the ability to
learn, perceive, understand, process, evaluate, remember, manipulate language and so on.
Essentially he or she has the intellectual resources required to perform the job, that is, an
appropriate level of verbal comprehension, fluency, perceptual speed, spatial orientation,
number facility, general reasoning, problem recognition, working memory etc. (Guion &
Highhouse, 2004). In addition, it would be expected the interpreter has task-related knowledge
such as knowing the principles and procedures related to the function of the job, including the
code of ethics for example; and task-specific skills such as the technical linguistic skill needed
to perform the task of interpreting to the standard required, a knowledge of the vocabulary of
the setting, and so on. These fore-mentioned elements influence task performance, and are
clearly essential for performing the job of interpreting.
5
On the other hand, personality refers to a mixture of values, temperament, coping strategies
traits that are predictable, enduring and that influence behaviour and reactions in a variety of
situations. Contextual knowledge refers to knowledge of how to act in various situations how
to cooperate with people and interact professionally. Contextual skills are the skills involved in
managing those interpersonal relationships and behaving effectively in a variety of
environments. Personality, contextual knowledge and contextual skills impact on contextual
performance. Contextual performance refers to aspects of performance unrelated to specific
tasks (Guion & Highhouse, 2004: 60). In regard to interpreting this might mean being a good
role model for the profession, mentoring others, being punctual, professional and flexible, and
other valued work behaviours that are not task-specific to the job of interpreting per se. To
attain successful job performance, both task performance and contextual performance at
effective levels would be expected from a professional interpreter.
Indeed, Kalina (2002) notes that an assessment of the quality of a performance by an interpreter
cannot be limited to his or her interpreted output alone. Other aspects such as the interpreters
appearance and general conduct during and around conferences, booth manners, discretion,
commitment to preparation and debriefing, further training (p. 124) are all also factors of
consideration in regard to making an assessment of interpreter quality.
Whilst general cognitive ability, task knowledge and task skills are clearly the priority for being
able to interpret successfully, neglecting the smaller, but nevertheless important, role that
personality, contextual knowledge and contextual skills likely play in efficient acquisition of the
interpreting skill and in effective job performance in a variety of work settings is nave.
Overlooking aspects related to contextual performance and concentrating only on some limited
task performance elements, typically only the technical skills, in screening tests at program
admission time, and on interpreter education programs, or in the workplace seems very short-
sighted when there is more to the picture for successful occupational performance as an
interpreter. In addition, applying a combination of predictors to determine performance
outcomes has more practical utility and is more valid than a single predictor alone (Schmidt,
2002).
To that end, developing a better understanding of the range of skills, knowledge and abilities
required for successful performance as an interpreter would have considerable benefit for the
interpreting field. Such information would have pedagogical and practical implications in
educational institutions, in places of employment, and for practitioners themselves.
6
1.2 Research hypothesis

This research study hypothesises that specific knowledge, skills and abilities will be
predictive of performance as an Auslan/English
3
interpreter. Each chapter in this thesis
addresses different research questions, all related to this central issue. Broadly, it is
hypothesised that common skills gaps will be identified in interpreters as impacting on
interpreter performance and particular disposition constructs will predict interpreter
competence and aptitude for interpreting. It will be possible to apply this predictive
information in practical projects as part of this research thesis and to make recommendations
for interpreting pedagogy and practice.

1.3 Background and rationale for the study

The rapid expansion of Auslan interpreting services in Australia over the past 20 years, and
the changing composition of interpreting recruits, as well as the Deaf communitys evolving
requirements of interpreters, has led to problems regarding interpreter availability and
performance (Orima, 2004). The demand for interpreters is evidently growing, however the
demand for quality in interpreting, weighed up with other competing demands, is a recognised
concern in the broader interpreting field (Hale, Ozolins and Stern, 2009; Kalina, 2002). How
can quality be improved in Auslan interpreters? What common skills gaps exist in
practitioners? What factors can predict competent performance in the profession? How can
the potential factors be tested and applied to interpreting students and practitioners, and
communicated to the field? Perpetuating the status quo is unhelpful and is a disservice to the
Deaf community, so action needs to be taken.

This research therefore aims to identify factors that are predictive of successful performance
as an interpreter. Such information may inform interpreting pedagogy and practice and may
impact on the future quality of interpreters and interpreting services rendered. Interest in this
research topic grew from my own involvement in the field as a practitioner and as an
interpreter educator and my concerns regarding the skills gaps of students and practitioners
and the capacity of the field to provide a quality service. In particular, the burgeoning and
disproportionate number of paraprofessional level Auslan interpreters compared to
professional interpreters was cause for concern given the changing face of the Deaf

3
Hereafter referred to as Auslan interpreter
7
community and the different demands being placed on interpreters today. As more Deaf
people access higher education opportunities and employment as professionals in their
respective fields of work, interpreters skills need to meet the needs of Deaf professionals. At
the same time, the growing number of late learners of Auslan, and Deaf people with cochlear
implants and their specific language needs, also impact on the skills needed by interpreters
and the requirement for interpreters to be adaptable with service delivery and cognisant of
what constitutes a quality service for different consumers. Although there is no agreement in
the interpreting profession on what quality interpreting is and how it can be reliably measured
(Kalina, 2000), pragmatism dictates attempts should be made to determine how one can
generally improve ones skills and increase capacity to better perform the job of interpreting.
One way to do this is to articulate the potential predictors for success in the job.

An analysis of the job is necessary in the first instance to determine the potential predictors
for the occupation. A job analysis involves asking what skills, knowledge and abilities
workers believe are needed to do the job. Then asking workers to rate their own level of
competence in relation to those important skills, knowledge and abilities will provide
information on any skills gaps that exist for practitioners. This information can then be
correlated with level of accreditation as an interpreter. The purpose of this analysis is to be
able to understand the factors that might be effective predictors of competent performance.
Such information then drives the development of a picture of the characteristics and
requirements needed to perform the job effectively. Predictors of successful job performance
can then be determined for this occupational group.

It needs to be acknowledged that the process of documenting the skills, knowledge and
abilities predictive of job performance as outlined in this thesis is subjective to a degree. It has
been extensively informed by the literature and repositories for occupation-specific
descriptors
4
, and shaped by practitioner input and observation, however, knowing precisely
which domains might be more predictive than others for interpreters remains an open question
and is currently a topic of interest to interpreting aptitude researchers such as Macnamara
(2009; et al, 2011), Timarov & Salaets (2011) and Shaw (2011).


4
O-Net online is an internationally recognised repository containing standardised occupation-specific descriptors for
hundreds of jobs. See the summary for interpreters here: http://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/27-3091.00

8
Results of a meta-analysis by Judge and Bono (2001) revealed self-esteem and emotional
stability are significant predictors of job performance, as well as job satisfaction. Mount et al
(1998) found that jobs requiring a high degree of interpersonal interaction, cooperation and
teamwork, were positively related to the specific personality constructs of emotional stability,
conscientiousness and agreeableness. Further, the relationship between these personality
predictors was even higher if the jobs involved little supervision of individual workers. It
seems quite reasonable to consider these conditions might apply to the occupation of
interpreting, so tools which could measure such disposition constructs were incorporated into
the study design, along with the other knowledge, skills and ability variables found in the
literature.

Assessing such variables across a sample of reasonable size and in a timely manner could
only be effectively undertaken by a questionnaire methodology. To that end, this study made
use of a survey, with interpreter participants responding to an extensive questionnaire
described in the following chapters. Respondents provided information on the skills,
knowledge and abilities required by interpreters for successful performance; their own ratings
of competence as an interpreter, leading to skills gaps information; and responses on a range
of personality test measures. In addition, a range of highly practical projects were developed,
implemented and evaluated, informed directly by the skills gap data and the disposition-based
information obtained from the survey respondents.

1.4 Organisation of the thesis
This thesis is written in a non-traditional format. It is preferred practice at Macquarie University
for higher degree by research students to submit dissertations in thesis by publication format.
This means the papers forming at least part of the final thesis must have been written as self-
contained, but thematically linked, articles or chapters for publication in journals or books. They
need not have actually been published at the time of submission, however the format of each
chapter of the thesis must be effectively publication-ready
5
and written as distinctly separate
texts, but forming a coherent and unified body of linked scholarly work when viewed as a

5
Theses may include relevant papers (including conference presentations) published, accepted, submitted or prepared for
publication during the period of candidature, together with a comprehensive and critical introduction and an integrative
conclusion. These papers should form a coherent and integrated body of work, which should be focused on a single project
or set of related questions or propositions. These papers may be single author or co-author for co-authored papers the
candidate must specify his/her specific contribution. The contribution of others to the preparation of the thesis or to
individual parts of the thesis should be specified in the thesis Acknowledgments and/or in relevant footnotes/endnotes. It is
not necessary to reformat published works in a thesis. Ref:
http://www.hdr.mq.edu.au/information_about/hdrguide/a/thesis/thesis_by_publications
9
whole. The publication-ready papers do not have to be reformatted or revised for inclusion in
the thesis.
In this thesis, each of the chapters, with the exception of the introduction (Chapter 1) and the
conclusion (Chapter 8), has been published. The series of chapters form a cohesive collection of
original work and are presented in a logical order. The first published paper, Chapter 2, sets the
scene, describing the education and training context for Auslan interpreters. The next two
papers, Chapters 3 and 4, report on the detail of the research study and outline the data
collected, whilst the remaining three papers, Chapters 5, 6 and 7, describe the manner in which
the research findings were applied in practical projects, such as admission testing of
interpreters; evaluating the skills of educational interpreters in an authentic occupational context
for performance management and skill enhancement purposes; and teaching healthcare
interpreters coping strategies to deal with the psychological pressures of job performance in
potentially traumatic work contexts.
In addition to each of the chapters having already been published, the research data and the
application of the findings in the various projects outlined in the thesis have all been presented
at both national and international conferences. Feedback has been received from peers and
experts in regard to the findings presented at conferences, and reviewers and editors have
provided constructive criticism and scholarly advice on chapters 2-7 inclusive. The organization
of the thesis follows the self-contained journal article or book chapter format. Although the
chapters are effectively a series of independent papers
6
, they are thematically linked with the
broader research concern of signed language interpreting pedagogy in general, and more
specifically, identifying skills gaps and personality factors that impact on interpreter
performance. The research findings are then applied to further investigations of interpreter
aptitude and program admission screening; evaluation of interpreter performance in the
workplace; and in exploring the education and preparation of interpreters for the psychological
hazards of the occupation.
Chapter 2 provides an overview of the Australian context for signed language interpreter
education and training. This offers background information regarding the educational
environment in Australia and the range and type of training available for signed language
interpreters. This information provides a foundation to scaffold later chapters, which all refer to

6
Each paper contains a list of references as required by Macquarie University guidelines, as each paper is self-contained. A full
list of references also appears at the end of the thesis, as per submission guidelines.
10
signed language interpreting pedagogy, training, and practice in Australia. The original version
of this chapter was co-authored with a Western Australian interpreter educator who is a highly
experienced Deaf interpreter, Patricia Levitzke-Gray
7
. She conducts training for Deaf people to
work as interpreters with other Deaf people who may use a foreign-signed language, or who
may have minimal proficiency in sign language for a variety of reasons, or idiosyncratic sign
knowledge due to an intellectual disability or a mental illness. This paper was published as a
chapter in a volume by Gallaudet University Press, edited by Jemina Napier and titled
International Perspectives on Sign Language Interpreter Education. A presentation based on
this chapter was delivered at the Conference of Interpreter Trainers, in Puerto Rico, USA from
28-31 October 2008.
Chapter 3 is the first paper detailing aspects of the research study. In this chapter, along with
Chapters 4 and 5, various slices of the survey study are presented, examining different
elements of the data collected. Chapter 3 provides a detailed overview of the survey
methodology applied in the study, and specifically examines the skills gaps identified by Auslan
interpreting practitioners in their survey responses. This article was published in the journal The
Sign Language Translator and Interpreter. The paper was co-authored with Jemina Napier
8
.
The findings from this aspect of the study were reported at various conferences, both as research
posters and as presentations. This includes presentations at a pre-conference workshop with
other Macquarie University research students at Critical Link 5, in Sydney, Australia on 10
April 2007; the ASLIA National Conference, in Sydney, Australia, from 18-20 August 2007;
the Conference of Interpreter Trainers, in Puerto Rico, USA from 28-31 October 2008; and at
the Macquarie University Division of Linguistics and Psychology Postgraduate Research
Festival in Sydney, Australia, on 8-9 December 2008.
Chapter 4 reports on the additional data collected in the original survey, regarding the
personality constructs of negative affectivity, goal orientation and self-efficacy in signed
language interpreters and notes how these factors relate to reported levels of interpreter
competence. This paper was selected for presentation alongside eight other research papers
from an international field of researchers investigating aptitude for interpreting in both spoken
and signed language interpreting, to be presented at the first international symposium on
Aptitude for Interpreting held at Lessius University (co-hosted by University of North

7
Patricia Levitzke-Grays contribution to the paper was in relation to specific advice and information about the state of Deaf
interpreter training and practice in Australia. She did not author any written content.
8
Jemina Napiers contribution to the paper was as PhD supervisor, i.e. reviewing writing and providing feedback on drafts
11
Florida) in Antwerp, Belgium, on 28-29 May 2009. The paper was accepted for inclusion in a
special issue of the John Benjamins journal Interpreting, and was published in February 2011.
The paper was co-authored with Jemina Napier
9
. Various versions of this paper were also
presented at the conference of the International Association for Translation and Intercultural
Studies at Monash University, Melbourne, Australia from 8-10 July 2009; the ASLIA National
Conference in Melbourne, Australia, 21-23 August 2009; and the AUSIT National Conference
in Perth, Australia, 5-6 November 2010. The findings outlined in this particular paper also
formed the basis for an invited international plenary address at the Conference of Interpreter
Trainers, held in Texas, USA from 27-30 October 2010.
Following on from this, Chapter 5 explores weaknesses in the interpreter education and training
system in Australia as identified by practitioners in the survey described in Chapter 3.
Furthermore, the skills gaps highlighted by practitioners and outlined in Chapter 3 formed the
basis for a pilot program admission test, which was implemented at one tertiary institution in
Australia. Data was gathered on admission test results and this data was compared with end of
year examination outcomes. Details are reported in the paper, which formed a chapter in a John
Benjamins publication, Testing and Assessment in Translation and Interpreting Studies, edited
by Claudia Angelelli and Holly Jacobson. The paper was co-authored with Jemina Napier
10
.
This paper was presented at a number of conferences on interpreter education and research, both
in Australia and overseas, including the University of Western Sydney 2
nd
Interpreting and
Translating Research Symposium in Sydney, Australia, 26 September 2009; the ASLIA
National Interpreter Trainers Workshop in Brisbane, Australia, 30-31 August 2010; the
Conference of Interpreter Trainers, held in Texas, USA from 27-30 October 2010; and the
Macquarie University Higher Degree Research Showcase held in Sydney, Australia from 15-16
November 2010.
Chapter 6 describes the application of the findings from the skills gap data outlined in Chapter 3
in an authentic workplace. A performance management project, evaluating the skills of
practicing educational interpreters in their school environment was undertaken, with 25
educational interpreters assessed over the duration of the project. Criteria were developed to
assess workers based on the skills gap research, and a rubric was created for scoring
performance based on an authentic work sample. Diagnostic information regarding relative
strengths and areas requiring improvement were provided to the educational interpreter

9
Jemina Napiers contribution to the paper was as PhD supervisor, i.e. reviewing writing and providing feedback on drafts
10
Jemina Napiers contribution to the paper was as PhD supervisor, i.e. reviewing writing and providing feedback on drafts
12
participants. The project appeared as an article in the November 2011 volume of the
International Journal of Interpreter Education. The paper is co-authored by Bethel Hutchinson,
Principal of the school where the project took place
11
. This paper was presented at the ASLIA
National Conference, Sydney, Australia, 26-28 August 2011, and at the Australia New Zealand
Conference for Educators of the Deaf in Melbourne, Australia, 15-17 July 2011. In addition, it
was presented in a virtual international environment at the SDP Online Conference from 9-13
February 2011.
Chapter 7 expounds on how the findings of this PhD study, in particular the data regarding
emotional stability described in Chapter 4, can have a practical implication for interpreters
working in healthcare settings, specifically with regard to dealing with traumatic interpreted
events. Interpreting is a stressful occupation (Kurz, 2003; Dean, Pollard and Samar, 2010) and
personality and individual coping strategies are linked to the effective management of
occupational stress. Chapter 7 connects psychological research on stress and coping with the
findings of the emotional stability study, commenting on the potential impact of these findings
on signed language interpreters, particularly in relation to vicarious traumatisation.
Recommendations regarding interpreter education and training are offered, as well as
suggestions for the better organisational management of interpreters. This paper was published
in March 2012, as a chapter in a Gallaudet University Press volume edited by Laurie Swabey
and Karen Malcolm on interpreter education titled, In Our Hands: Educating Healthcare
Interpreters. The chapter was co-authored with Karen Malcolm of Douglas College, Canada
12
.
Versions of this paper were presented at the ASLIA National Conference in Darwin, Australia,
5-7 September 2008; the virtual international forum of the SDP Online Conference, 3-6
February 2010; and the AUSIT National Conference in Perth, Australia, 5-6 November 2010.
This paper also provided the foundation for a number of practical workshops with interpreters,
regarding managing occupational stress and reducing the risk of vicarious traumatisation. Some
of the practical workshops were co-presented with Western Australian psychologist, Dr Valerie
van Loggerenberg
13
.

11
Bethel Hutchinsons contribution to the paper was as the Principal of the school. The project took place at her school, she
reviewed the paper and offered feedback, but did not actually author any of the written content.
12
I am first named author on the chapter with Karen Malcolm, as per academic protocol of reflecting the weight of writing
involved. I contributed the majority of original content to the chapter.
13
Dr Valerie van Loggerenberg, a psychologist in private practice and familiar with the work of interpreters, contributed ideas in
relation to positive coping strategies during the workshops and conference presentations with Karen Bontempo, some of
which were later integrated into this paper.
13
Chapter 8 draws the threads of the thesis together, offering recommendations based on the
findings, suggestions for further research, and notes the limitations of the study.
1.5 The anticipated contribution of the study
The data gathered from this original and unified corpus of research, and the efforts outlined to
apply the findings in pragmatic and purposeful ways, should contribute to the field of
interpreter education by increasing the body of knowledge about interpreter aptitude, ability
and achievement. Knowing what qualities may be predictive of successful performance in the
profession could lead to the design and development of more effective screening tools for
assessing occupational suitability for interpreting, presents potential for better predicting
achievement in programs of study, and may enhance skill development and training
opportunities for working practitioners. It also provides direction and guidance to interpreter
educators, employers, and practitioners themselves, in regard to curricula, staff supervision
and interpreter performance management, support practices of employers, and individual
awareness of the aptitudes and abilities recommended for effective interpreting practice.

There is no reason to assume the findings outlined in this thesis would be unique to signed
language interpreters only. The study is expected to impact on both spoken and signed
language interpreting fields of research and practice - Australia-wide and internationally.
Indeed, every chapter is a self-contained article or book chapter that has already been
published in the international domain, in a variety of peer-reviewed scholarly journals and
volumes concerned with translation and interpreting studies or interpreting pedagogy, well-
established in both the signed and spoken language sectors of the field.

1.6 References

Arjona-Tseng, Etilvia. (1994). Psychometric selection tests. In Silvie Lambert and Barbara
Moser-Mercer (Eds.). Bridging the Gap. 69-86.

Barrick, Murray R. and Mount, Michael K. (2005). Yes, personality matters: Moving on to
more important matters. Human Performance. 18: 359-372.

Bontempo, Karen and Levitzke-Gray, Patricia. (2009). Interpreting Down Under: Signed
language interpreter education and training in Australia. In Jemina Napier (Ed), International
14
perspectives on signed language interpreter education. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University
Press. 149-170.

Borum, Randy, Super, John and Rand, Michelle. (2003). Forensic assessment for high risk
occupations. In Irving. B. Weiner, Donald. K. Freedheim, John. A. Schinka and Wayne. F.
Velicer (Eds.), Handbook of Psychology. John Wiley and Sons. 133-147.

Campbell, Stuart and Hale, Sandra. (2003). Translation and interpreting assessment in the
context of educational measurement. In Gunilla. M. Anderman and Margaret Rogers (Eds).
Translation today: Trends and perspectives. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. 205-220.

Cokely, Dennis. (2005). Shifting positionality: A critical examination of the turning point in the
relationship of interpreters and the Deaf community. In Mark Marschark, Elizabeth Winston, &
Rico Peterson (Eds.), Interpreting and interpreter education: From research to practice. New
York: Oxford University Press. 3-28.

Dean, Robyn K. and Pollard, Robert Q. (2001). Application of demand-control theory to sign
language interpreting: Implications for stress and interpreter training. Journal of Deaf Studies
and Deaf Education. 6 (1): 1-14.
Dean, Robyn K., Pollard, Robert Q. and Samar, Vincent J. (2010). RID research grant
underscores occupational health risks: VRS and K-12 settings most concerning, VIEWS
(Winter): 41-43.
Dodds, John. (1990). On the aptitude of aptitude testing. The Interpreters Newsletter. EUT -
Edizioni Universit di Trieste. 3: 17-22.

Gardner, Robert C., Smythe, P. C., Clement, R., and Gliksman, L. (1976). Second language
acquisition: A social psychological perspective. Canadian Modern Language Review. 32: 198-
213.

Gerver, David, Longley, Patricia. E., Long, John, and Lambert, Sylvie. (1984). Selecting trainee
conference interpreters: A preliminary study. Journal of Occupational Psychology. 57 (1): 17-
31.

15
Gerver, David, Longley, Patricia. E., Long, John, and Lambert, Sylvie. (1989). Selection tests
for trainee conference interpreters. Meta. 34 (4): 724-735.

Guion, Robert. M. and Highhouse, Scott. (2004). Essentials of Personnel Assessment and
Selection. New York: Psychology Press.

Hale, Sandra, Ozolins, Uldis and Stern, Ludmila. (Eds.) (2009). The Critical Link 5. Quality
in interpreting a shared responsibility. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Judge, Timothy A. and Bono, Joyce, E. (2001). Relationship of Core Self-Evaluations Traits
self esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control and emotional stability with job
satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology. 86: 1, 80 -
92.

Kalina, Sylvia. (2000). Interpreting Competences as a Basis and a Goal for Teaching. The
Interpreters Newsletter. EUT - Edizioni Universit di Trieste. 10, 3-32.

Kalina, Sylvia. (2002). Quality in interpreting and its prerequisities: A framework for a
comprehensive view. In Garzone, G. & M. Viezzi (Eds). Interpreting in the 21
st
Century:
Proceedings of the 1
st
conference on interpreting studies, Forli, University of Bologna (9-11
Nov. 2000). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 121 130.

Kurz, Ingrid. (2003). Physiological stress during simultaneous interpreting: a comparison of
experts and novices. The Interpreters Newsletter. EUT - Edizioni Universit di Trieste. 12.
Lambert, Sylvie. (1991). Aptitude testing for simultaneous interpretation at the University of
Ottawa. Meta. 36 (4): 586-594.

Mackintosh, Jennifer. (1999). Interpreters are made not born. In Kurz, I & Bowen, M. (Eds).
History of Interpreting. Special issue of Interpreting. 4:1, 6780.

Macnamara, Brooke (2009). Interpreter cognitive aptitudes. Journal of Interpretation 2008-
2009, 9-32.

16
Macnamara, Brooke N., Moore, Adam B., Kegl, Judy A. and Conway, Andrew, R. A. (2011).
Domain general cognitive abilities and simultaneous interpreting skill. Interpreting 13 (1): 121-
142.

McKee, Rachel Locker. (2008). Quality in Interpreting: A Survey of Practitioner Perspectives.
The Sign Language Translator and Interpreter. 2 (1): 1-14.

Moser-Mercer, Barbara. (1985). Screening Potential Interpreters. Meta. 30 (1): 97-100.

Moser-Mercer, Barbara. (1994). Aptitude Testing for Conference Interpreting: Why, When and
How. In Silvie Lambert and Barbara Moser-Mercer (Eds.). Bridging the Gap. 57-68.

Motowildo, Stephan J., Borman, Walter C. and Schmit, Mark J. (1997). A Theory of Individual
Differences in Task and Contextual Performance. Human Performance, 10: 2, 71 83.

Mount, Michael K., Barrick, Murray R. and Stewart, Greg L. (1998). Five-Factor Model of
personality and performance in jobs involving interpersonal interactions, Human Performance,
11: 2, 145 165.

Napier, Jemina, McKee, Rachel and Goswell, Della (2010). Sign language interpreting: Theory
and practice in Australia and New Zealand. 2nd ed. Sydney: Federation Press.
Napier, Jemina. and Rohan, Meg. (2007). An invitation to dance: Deaf consumers perceptions
of signed language interpreters and interpreting. In Melanie Metzger and Earl Fleetwood (Eds).
Translation, sociolinguistic, and consumer issues in interpreting. Washington D.C. Gallaudet
University Press.

Ones, Denis S., Dilchert, Stephan, Viswesvaran, Chockalingam and Judge, Timothy A. (2007).
In support of personality assessment in organizational settings. Personnel Psychology 60 (4),
995-1027.

Orima. (2004). A Report on the Supply and Demand for Auslan Interpreters across Australia.
Commonwealth Department of Family and Community Services. Commonwealth of Australia.
http://www.facs.gov.au/disability/auslan_report/contents.htm (retrieved 5 October 2010).

17
Russo, Mariachiara. (1993). Testing Aptitude for Simultaneous Interpretation: Evaluation of the
First Trial and Preliminary Results. The Interpreters Newsletter. EUT - Edizioni Universit di
Trieste. 5: 68-71.

Russo, Mariachiara and Pippa, Salvador. (2004). Aptitude to Interpreting: Preliminary Results
of a Testing Methodology Based on Paraphrase. Meta 49 (2): 409-432.

Sawyer, David. B. (2004). Fundamental Aspects of Interpreter Education. Philadelphia: John
Benjamins.

Schmidt, Frank L. (2002). The Role of General Cognitive Ability and Job Performance: Why
There Cannot Be a Debate, Human Performance, 15: 1, 187 210.

Shaw, Sherry. (2011). Cognitive and motivational contributors to aptitude: A study of spoken
and signed language interpreting students. Interpreting 13 (1): 70-84.

Shaw, Sherry, Grbic, Nadja and Franklin, Kathy. (2004). Applying language skills to
interpretation. Interpreting 6 (1): 69-100.

Shaw, Sherry and Hughes, Gail. (2006). Essential characteristics of sign language interpreting
students: Perspectives of students and faculty. Interpreting 8 (2): 195-221.

Shaw, Sherry, Timarov, Srka and Salaets, Heidi. (2008). Measurement of cognitive and
personality traits in determining aptitude of spoken and signed language interpreting students.
In L. Roberson, S. Shaw (Eds.), Putting the pieces together: a collaborative approach to
educational excellence: Proceedings of the 17th National Convention of the Conference of
Interpreter Trainers Retrieved from http://www.cit-asl.org/08conf.html. Duluth: CIT. 91-109.

Stauffer, Linda. K and Shaw, Sherry. (2006). Personality characteristics for success in
interpreting courses: Perceptions of spoken and signed language interpretation students. Journal
of Interpretation. 11-24.

18
Stone, Christopher and Allsop, Lorna. (2007). Collective notions of quality of interpreting:
Insights from the British Deaf community. Unpublished paper presented at Quality in
interpreting: Critical Link 5 Congress.

Timarov, Srka and Salaets, Heidi. (2011). Learning styles, motivation and cognitive
flexibility in interpreter training: Self-selection and aptitude. Interpreting 13 (1): 31-52.

Timarov, Srka and Ungoed-Thomas, Harry. (2008). Admission testing for interpreting
courses. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer 2 (1): 29-46.

Zannirato, Alessandro. (2008). Teaching interpreting and interpreting teaching: A conference
interpreters overview of second language acquisition. In John Kearns (Ed). Translator and
Interpreter Training. London: Continuum. 19-38.



19
CHAPTER 2

Interpreting Down Under:
Sign Language Interpreter Education and Training in Australia
14


Abstract. This chapter explores interpreter education programs in the Australian context,
where tertiary level training for signed language interpreters has existed for more than 20
years. The presence of a national accreditation system and a national competency based
curriculum for training interpreters during that time has provided a degree of consistency in
outcomes across the nation. Interpreter education for Deaf people in Australia is a more recent
initiative however, and to date there has been limited access to training opportunities and less
recognition by accreditation authorities, and other stakeholders, of the role and function of the
Deaf interpreter. Despite the size of the country, Australia is sparsely populated, and
interpreter education programs are typically only delivered in the major capital cities of a
handful of states, and not always on an annual basis. Issues of critical mass and geographic
constraints have been factors in delivering quality interpreter education programs around the
country, and have also contributed to the lack of specific training, resources and networking
opportunities available to interpreter educators.

2.1 Introduction
The sheer size of Australia, and the countrys geographical settlement patterns, has presented
some challenges for the development of sign language interpreter education and training Down
Under. The land area of mainland Australia is almost as large as the United States (excluding
Alaska), about 50% greater than Europe (excluding the former USSR), and 32 times greater
than the United Kingdom (about-australia.com). Yet only 21 million people live in Australia,
mostly in urban areas and along the coastline (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2007). The most
recent estimate of the number of deaf people who use Auslan (Australian Sign Language) in
Australia is approximately 6,500 people (Johnston, 2004).

Not unlike many other countries in the world, the sign language interpreting (SLI) profession in
Australia has its origins in the Deaf Society organisations found around the nation, which

14
The original version of this chapter was published as: Bontempo, Karen & Levitzke-Gray, Patricia. (2009) Interpreting Down
Under: Sign Language Interpreter Education and Training in Australia. In Napier, Jemina. (Ed). International
perspectives on signed language interpreter education, Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press. 149-170.

20
initially employed missioners, welfare officers, and then later community workers to perform
the role of interpreter, often interchangeably with other duties (Flynn, 1996; Ozolins & Bridge,
1999). The role of interpreter would also often be filled by the hearing children of deaf parents,
hearing teachers of deaf people, other family members of deaf people, or wider community
members that could sign (Napier, McKee, & Goswell, 2006).

Until the 1980s, interpreters typically evolved from their connections with the Deaf
community and Deaf Societies. However a number of social and political factors in the 1980s
and the 1990s, including the introduction of favourable government policies regarding
multiculturalism, and the ratification of federal discrimination legislation, resulted in increased
access and opportunity for Deaf people and had a significant impact on the interpreting
profession in Australia (see Napier, McKee, & Goswell, 2006; Napier, 2004; and Ozolins &
Bridge, 1999, for more details). Pivotal events for the SLI field included the introduction of
standardized national testing of sign language interpreters in 1982 and formal interpreter
training in Australia in 1986 (Flynn, 1996). By the 1990s, the role of interpreter was clearly
delineated from that of other positions, and generic interpreting agencies had started to include
Auslan/English interpreters (hereafter referred to as Auslan interpreters) on their interpreter
registers.

An Auslan interpreters association emerged at state level in 1983. The national body of the
Australian Sign Language Interpreters Association (ASLIA), established in 1991 and
incorporated in 1992, has become an increasingly strong force in the interpreting field since that
time (Ozolins & Bridge, 1999), with a current national membership of approximately 400
Auslan interpreters.
15


Another national professional interpreter association has existed in Australia since 1987, the
Australian Institute of Interpreters and Translators, or AUSIT
16
AUSIT members number more
than 750, and are predominantly spoken language interpreters and translators
2
. Auslan
interpreters are eligible to join AUSIT and other state-based spoken language interpreter
associations.


15
Refer to the ASLIA Web site (www.aslia.com.au) for more information.
16
Refer to the AUSIT Web site (www.ausit.org.au) for more information.
21
Research led by Madden (1995, 2005), Ozolins and Bridge (1999), and Napier (1998, 2000,
2002a, 2002b), as well as changing demands from the Deaf community, resulted in a concerted
call for further professionalization of the SLI field in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Pleas for
higher education opportunities for Auslan interpreters culminated in the first Australian
university program for Auslan interpreters commencing at Macquarie University, Sydney, in
2002.

The academic endeavor of the sector has been appreciably influenced by this relatively recent
initiative, which allows Auslan interpreters to undertake relevant postgraduate, masters, or
doctoral studies and research. A growing body of Australian research and publications on SLI
has resulted. The encouraging climate for local research has had a healthy effect on the work of
Auslan interpreting practitioners as developments are feeding directly into interpreter education
programs, legitimizing or changing practice in the field, and guiding many of the recent
professional development initiatives in Australia.

2.2 Accreditation of Auslan Interpreters
The National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters (NAATI) is a national
company owned by the Australian government and managed by a board of directors appointed
by the Commonwealth Minister for Citizenship and Multicultural Affairs. It is the standards
authority responsible for accrediting practitioners working in the translating and interpreting
profession in Australia, in either a spoken or a signed language.

NAATI was established in 1977 and implemented spoken language interpreter and translation
examinations shortly thereafter. After considerable lobbying between 1979 and 1981 by John
W. Flynn, the then executive director of the Victorian Deaf Society, NAATI first included sign
language interpreters in their testing regime in 1982 (Flynn, 1996). This was a remarkable
achievement, given that the Australian government did not recognize Auslan as a legitimate
language used by the Australian Deaf community until 1984 (Lo Bianco, 1987; cited in
Johnston & Schembri, 2007) and the first Auslan dictionary did not appear until 1989
(Johnston, 1989).

Auslan is now one of 58 recognized languages assessed and accredited by NAATI (NAATI,
2006). Auslan interpreters can become accredited by either successfully completing a NAATI
approved interpreter education program, by recognition of overseas qualifications, or by taking
22
a NAATI interpreting examination without attending any course of study. It appears most
Auslan interpreters undertake interpreter education programs, with a recent research study
determining that 63.6% of respondents had completed at least entry-level interpreting studies
(Bontempo, 2005).

A NAATI Auslan panel of examiners serves as an expert group, alongside the Qualification
Assessment and Advisory Committee (QAAC) of NAATI, to guide NAATI on examination
and assessment issues for Auslan interpreters. Like the spoken language examiner panels, the
Auslan panel is comprised of native and non-native Auslan users, and is appointed annually by
NAATI upon formal application from interested parties who must list their credentials and
experience suited to service as an interpreter examiner. The Auslan panel develops the annual
test material for SLI candidates.

NAATI accreditation is the only officially accepted interpreting certification standard for all
community languages recognized throughout the nation. Presently, accreditation in Auslan
interpreting is only available at the paraprofessional or professional interpreter level. NAATI
define the levels of accreditation as follows -

Paraprofessional Interpreter
This represents a level of competence in interpreting for the purpose of general
conversations. Paraprofessional Interpreters generally undertake the interpretation of
non-specialist dialogues. Practitioners at this level are encouraged to proceed to the
professional levels of accreditation.

Professional Interpreter
This is the first professional level and represents the minimum level of competence
for professional interpreting. Interpreters convey the full meaning of the information
from the source language into the target language in the appropriate style and
register. Interpreters at this level are capable of interpreting across a wide range of
subjects involving dialogues at specialist consultations. They are also capable of
interpreting presentations by the consecutive mode. Their specializations may
include banking, law, health, and social and community services.
(NAATI, 2007)

23
The minimum standard for general practice in interpreting in Australia in both signed and
spoken languages is considered NAATI accreditation at the professional level (Ozolins &
Bridge, 1999). However, the vast majority of working Auslan interpreters are accredited as
paraprofessionals, many of whom practice in settings that could be considered the domain of
professional interpreter practitioners (Napier & Barker, 2003).

As of September 30, 2008, NAATI had accredited a total of 888 Auslan interpreters since
testing commenced in 1982. These include 768 interpreters accredited at paraprofessional level;
and only 120 practitioners accredited at the professional interpreter level (G. Lees, personal
communication, September 30, 2008). Australia currently faces a challenge where demand for
Auslan interpreters currently outstrips supply (Orima, 2004), so paraprofessionals typically
have no difficulty obtaining interpreting work in the current market, sometimes in complex
situations, and have little employment-related incentive to upgrade to the higher level of
accreditation despite the paraprofessional level of accreditation being an entry level of practice
and intended for general conversation interpreting purposes only.

By contrast, in most spoken languages tested by NAATI, paraprofessionals do not typically
undertake demanding interpreting work, and they are expected to proceed to the professional
interpreter level of accreditation. The exception to this is spoken languages of limited diffusion
that have emerged recently in Australia (for example, the increasing demand for interpreters to
work with refugees arriving in Australia from the Horn of Africa, a region which involves a
variety of languages that havent been in high demand in Australia previously). Interpreter
education and training opportunities and NAATI accreditation for languages of limited
diffusion remain in their infancy, and paraprofessional practitioners (or even recognized
practitioners rather than paraprofessional if no testing is available) commonly practice in these
languages. However, these fragile circumstances do not apply to Auslan interpreters, as a
relatively robust system of SLI education, training and accreditation has existed for more than
20 years in Australia.

Bontempo and Napier (2007) evaluated the disparity between the levels of NAATI accreditation
in SLIs by examining the self-reported skills gaps and perceived degree of competence
identified by paraprofessionals and professional level Auslan interpreters in a recent research
study. They found a significant difference in the perceived competence and skill gaps identified
by practitioners according to level of NAATI accreditation. As might be expected, professional
24
level interpreters reported fewer skills gaps, and significantly higher levels of competence
overall, in comparison to paraprofessionals. Such evidence illustrates the need to provide
paraprofessional practitioners with suitable training opportunities and systems to encourage and
support them in achieving the professional interpreter level of practice and accreditation in
order to further professionalize the SLI field in Australia.

Interpreters can be accredited by NAATI at four different levels in spoken language
interpretingparaprofessional, professional, conference, and senior conference interpreter. The
levels pertaining to conference interpreting have never been made available to Auslan
interpreters, however, the demand for Auslan interpreters to work at specialized conferences,
and in other typically monologic or predominantly didactic settings is increasing. In these
settings, interpreters are frequently required to interpret lexically dense, often complex,
information from a potentially wide variety of disciplines, at a considerable pace and in
simultaneous mode. The level of skill and competence required to work in these environments
differs from the expectations of the practitioner working at the professional interpreter level of
accreditation in a typically dialogic interpreted setting, therefore it is argued that the conference
interpreter level of accreditation should be made available to Auslan interpreters.

The number of spoken language interpreters with conference interpreter and senior conference
interpreter NAATI accreditation in Australia is extremely small. To date, these accreditations
have only been available either by recognition of overseas university qualifications in
interpreting at the masters or doctoral level with an emphasis on simultaneous conference
interpreting in the higher degree award, or by undertaking a local NAATI approved masters
level course of conference interpreting studies. There was only one such masters course in
Australia at the time of writing, in Japanese/English conference interpreting. The conference
levels of accreditation have never been available to spoken language interpreters by sitting for
an examination directly with NAATI.

In 2005, NAATI agreed to appoint a voluntary working group from the Auslan panel of
examiners to report to the QAAC on the feasibility and viability of the development of a
conference interpreter level test for Auslan interpreters. Work is under way on this matter, with
an additional level of NAATI testing and accreditation a real possibility for the SLI sector in the
near future.

25
2.3 Interpreter Education Programs
A number of Technical and Further Education (TAFE) colleges, and their vocational education
and training equivalents around the nation, provide language acquisition classes for Auslan
learners, and also conduct entry-level Auslan interpreter education programs. TAFE colleges
deliver programs at award levels below higher education university degree programs, but at a
fraction of the cost of university studies.

A national standard for the vocational education and training sector exists in Australia, founded
on competency-based training philosophies. Courses are divided into units or modules, which
are further segmented into a range of specific learning outcomes, based on standards set by
industry. Signed and spoken language interpreting courses at TAFE college level in Australia
therefore are consistent in regards to expected exit competencies. Nonetheless, there is variation
on the ground in terms of operational factors and logistics, such as student recruitment
processes, entrance screening, course delivery, actual content and material, assessment,
qualifications of teaching personnel, availability of suitable resources, equipment, and so on.

The Auslan courses for language acquisition purposes are delivered at Certificate II, III and IV
levels and also at Diploma of Auslan level in some states and territories, taking approximately
two years full time or four years part time to complete. Recognition of prior learning is
available, with unit or module exemption and placement testing available where applicable. The
national TAFE Auslan interpreter education program is available upon completion of language
acquisition studies and successful program admission screening for interpreter course entry. The
course is a diploma level award and is conducted part time over one year. A further
qualification, the Advanced Diploma of Interpreting, has previously been conducted on just a
few occasions, at Central TAFE in Perth, Western Australia, and at RMIT University in
Melbourne, Victoria.

The TAFE qualification resulting from interpreter education programs for both signed and
spoken languages are the same. The Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) provides a
national structure for the uniformity of all courses of study and qualifications issued in
Australiain schools, vocational education and training institutions, and in higher education
institutions. The diploma and advanced diploma qualifications available in the SLI field are
TAFE level vocational qualifications only, and universities do not offer them.

26
Having a national TAFE training structure that is the same for both signed and spoken language
interpreters offers pros and cons. For example, courses have a strong community interpreting
focus as this is applicable in spoken language interpreting; however educational interpreting
barely rates a mention as it is irrelevant to spoken language interpreters, yet it is the fastest
growing area of occupational demand for Auslan interpreters. Government Skills Australia has
been commissioned by the federal Department for Education, Employment and Workplace
Relations to develop a new training package for translating and interpreting for national
endorsement in 2009. The training package is expected to result in more appropriate and more
flexible training for practitioners, taking into account the current variance in work environments
and practices amongst spoken and signed language interpreters, including deaf relay
interpreters.

Macquarie University in Sydney, New South Wales, is currently the only university in Australia
offering a tailored higher education degree to Auslan interpreters. It is offered in a blended,
flexible-delivery mode to provide access to potential students throughout Australia. Rather than
entry-level training, Macquarie University provides training at the postgraduate level (akin to
fourth year university study) for experienced NAATI accredited paraprofessional Auslan
interpreters to advance their skills and to gain the professional interpreter level of accreditation
upon successful course completion. Napier (2006b) has published detailed accounts of the
blended curriculum used.
17


2.4 Challenges in Interpreter Training
No university program at the undergraduate level (Bachelor degree) currently exists in Australia
for Auslan interpreters. There is interest, however, both by educational institutions and by
practitioners in a number of states, to establish a suitable undergraduate degree program for
Auslan interpreters. There is a significant demand for interpreters and a limited supply of
competent Auslan interpreting practitioners in Australia (Orima, 2004), and current interpreter
education programs and training options do not appear to meet industry needs (Bontempo and
Napier, 2007; 2009). Anecdotal evidence demonstrates retention rates are not high in Auslan
courses over time, and that there is attrition from interpreting programs, and upon entry to the
profession. No research has been conducted to identify the reasons for this.


17
For course information, see http://www.ling.mq.edu.au/postgraduate/coursework/tip/pca.htm
27
An additional concern is there are very few indigenous sign language interpreters entering
training programs and working in the profession, and none at all working as interpreter
educators. There is only a handful of experienced indigenous deaf relay interpreters working in
Far North Queensland, despite the specialized nature of interpreting work with deaf people who
are Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander (OReilly, 2005).

Not unlike the international scene, the signed language interpreting profession in Australia is
dominated by women, at 83% of the practitioner population (Bontempo & Napier, 2007) and
this is also reflected in the composition of Auslan classes and interpreter training programs
which typically include few male students. Similarly, there are very few men working as Auslan
teachers or as interpreter educators in the SLI field in Australia. Research and strategies to
address recruitment, retention, attrition, and the racial and gender diversity issues in the sector
have not been undertaken in Australia to date.

Interpreter education programs do not run in all states and territories; those that do conduct
courses invariably only run one program per year, typically at a metropolitan city TAFE
college. The colleges that do run programs do not always have students of sufficient quality at
the time of intake to justify course costs, and therefore courses do not run every year, or
programs are obliged to accept inadequately skilled students at the time of course entry in order
to meet minimum numbers stipulated by the colleges. Despite the existence of a national
curriculum both for Auslan courses and for interpreting, student skills and competence at the
time of course exit vary, and the readiness to work gap is reported to be an issue in Australia,
as it is elsewhere (Bontempo & Napier, 2009; Bontempo & Napier, 2007; Patrie, 1994).

A survey of interpreter educators by ASLIA in 2006 determined that a Diploma of Interpreting
(Auslan) course ran in only four out of eight capital cities in that year. Estimates regarding
graduation rates of students on interpreter education programs indicate approximately 70% of
students successfully complete Diploma of Interpreting competencies and requirements
(ASLIA, 2006). Anecdotal evidence suggests most obtain employment either before, or during,
their interpreting studies, meaning successful course completion does not result in increased
numbers of available interpreters at the end of the academic year. Unfortunately, due to the lack
of NAATI accredited Auslan interpreters available to work, a large number of unaccredited
signers performing interpreting duties gain employment in Australia, mostly in education
settings, and particularly on the east coast and in regional and remote areas.
28
A growing consideration for the field, bearing in mind advances in technology and the size of
Australia, is the effective use of distance learning technologies and materials to deliver entry-
level interpreter education programs. In 2003, for the first time, a TAFE Diploma of
Interpreting course was conducted in flexible delivery mode to students living in northern
Queensland, administered by the Brisbane-based Southbank Institute of TAFE. It was not until
2007, however, that a national interpreter education program by distance mode was offered to
potential Auslan interpreters living in all regional and remote areas in Australia. The National
Auslan Booking and Payment Service (NABS), a medical and allied health interpreting agency
funded by the federal government, entered into a partnership with Central TAFE in Perth,
Western Australia, to deliver the Diploma of Interpreting in flexible-delivery mode to eligible
students living outside metropolitan areas all around the nation. After entrance screening, 15
students from regional Victoria, Tasmania, and Western Australia began the course in July 2007
(M. Spring, personal communication, November 12, 2007). Four students successfully
completed the inaugural distance Diploma in 2008, resulting in four regional towns in Australia
gaining NAATI accredited paraprofessional interpreters. Another NABS distance program with
a new cohort of students commenced in 2009.

A key issue in relation to the progress made in Australia regarding interpreter education courses
and programs of Auslan study at TAFE colleges and at universities, including the more recent
flexible-delivery mode programs, is Cokelys (2005, p. 14) reference to the academic
institutionalization of sign language teaching and interpreter training. While there are many
favorable and positive aspects to formalized language acquisition and interpreter education
opportunities, such courses, the college personnel, and the students themselves should not lose
connectedness with local Deaf communities.

Anecdotally at least, the ties between courses and the community have diminished, with social
and political changes and the closure of the traditional Deaf clubs in many states of Australia.
Even if they are keen to connect with local deaf people, students do not have easy access to the
diversity of the Deaf community any more, which potentially affects their acquisition of
linguistic and cultural norms outside the artificial classroom environment. Yet the role of the
Deaf community in determining interpreting quality (Stone & Allsop, 2007) and interpreting
preferences (Napier, 2007) remains very powerful. Creating networks and rekindling, or
nourishing, existing ties between courses and the Deaf community is imperative for Auslan
students, interpreter course students, and practicing interpreters in Australia today.
29
2.5 Training Interpreter Educators
Despite the AQF uniformity of requirements and the national curriculum for teaching
interpreters, the reality is that TAFE colleges are devolved and independent entities. Interpreter
education programs at the TAFE colleges and equivalent institutions in each state operate
autonomously, and cross-institutional collaboration and discussion is not encouraged per se.
Exchange of information and knowledge by interpreter educators themselves appears to
function on an individual and impromptu basis rather than in any systemic manner.

One of the advantages of the relatively small population of Auslan interpreters and interpreter
educators in Australia is that informal networks in the field are quite strong. Interpreter
educators are all known to one another, and the possibility to communicate across the country
does exist, if people are so inclined. Such exchanges are not common, however, and instruments
for assessment and materials for students are typically designed by educators, often in isolation,
with little networking or peer review, which leads to considerable variability. There is no formal
interpreter educators association, however at the time of writing ASLIA had just confirmed
several members of a steering group established to define terms of reference for a new
association, the Interpreter Trainers Network, with the expectation the association will
become operational in 2009.

In recognition of the lack of formal training and networking opportunities for Auslan interpreter
educators, the first national Interpreter Trainers Workshop (ITW) was conceived in Sydney in
2003. The ITW is now a regular event, attached to the annual ASLIA National Interpreters
Conference. The event has grown in stature and significance, with a mix of international and
local presenters and delegates. However, the issue remains that any training undertaken by
educators is typically at the individuals whim and often at personal expense. The impact of this
is exacerbated by the size and location of Australia, as the costs associated with both domestic
and international travel can be prohibitive.

No other training forum specifically for Auslan interpreter educators existed prior to the
inception of the ITW in 2003. A predecessor of sorts, the Interpreter Translator Educators
Association of Australia (ITEAA), a now disbanded group, held annual conferences for both
signed and spoken language interpreter educators, with the 17
th
(and final) conference of
ITEAA held in Melbourne, Victoria, in October 1999. No spoken language interpreter educator
training forum has been re-established since.
30
An encouraging prospect for interpreter educators is that in 2010 Macquarie University will
introduce a Master of Translation and Interpreting Pedagogy for educators of translation and
interpreting students in all languages
18
. Currently there are no specific requirements of
interpreter educators and trainers, although if teaching a NAATI-approved course, educators
must provide NAATI with details of interpreting (or language) experience, qualifications,
academic background, and general employment history. If working for a TAFE college or a
university, typically some teaching or training qualifications are required, however this does
appear to vary.

The lack of input from Deaf people remains a key problem in interpreter education. There is
significant representation of deaf leadership and tutelage in Auslan courses throughout the
nation, but very few deaf teachers continue to be regularly involved or adopt a high profile in
interpreter education. This issue needs urgent attention in Australia.

2.6 Ongoing Interpreter Training and Revalidation of Accreditation
ASLIA provides professional development opportunities for Auslan interpreters in most states,
as well as on a national scale with an annual conference. Many employers of interpreters also
provide professional development, some of it compulsory. In addition, informal mentoring
arrangements advance the skills of many practitioners. Formal mentoring structures have
traditionally been challenging to establish in Australia (Napier, 2006a), however, ASLIA in
Victoria was conducting a formal mentoring project at the time of writing, which may serve as a
model for use in other parts of Australia once the project has been evaluated.

Prior to 2007, once an interpreter received NAATI accreditation, the interpreter could continue
to practice indefinitely. Accreditation was issued for a lifetime, with no requirement to partake
in any further skills development or mentoring, or to demonstrate minimum standards for
continued practice. An expectation to uphold professional standards and to maintain skills is
however reflected in prescribed Codes of Ethics which exist for practitioners in both signed and
spoken languages. However, NAATI, ASLIA, and AUSIT cannot currently enforce adherence
to the Codes and discipline interpreters, or strip practitioners of their accreditation (Leneham &
Napier, 2003). Plans to establish a Registration Board for interpreters through an Act of
Parliament are currently being discussed in the field, but in the meantime ASLIA and AUSIT
have little power other than barring people from membership of practitioner associations for any

18
For course information see http://www.ling.mq.edu.au/postgraduate/coursework/tip/mtip.htm
31
serious transgressions. However, professional association membership is not mandatory to
practice and does not dictate ability to work in Australia; so practitioners cannot be de-
registered from the profession as such at this point in time.

To this end, in 2007 NAATI introduced a compulsory revalidation of accreditation program that
requires all newly accredited practitioners, in all languages, from 2007 onward to present
evidence of continuing practice and professional development. It also stipulates that
paraprofessional (entry level) practitioners must upgrade their level of accreditation to the
professional interpreter level within a certain period in order to maintain their license to work
as a practitioner. Accreditation lapses if practitioners do not submit revalidation paperwork by
the due period.

NAATI was unable to insist on a retrospective requirement for all accredited interpreters to
revalidate, therefore practitioners accredited prior to 2007 have the choice of whether to opt in
to the revalidation program or not. In the SLI sector, some employers have strongly
recommended interpreter employees register for NAATI revalidation and ASLIA has taken a
strong stance on the issue, encouraging all members to opt into revalidation, even if it isnt
required of them.

2.7 Deaf Interpreters in Australia
Although the profession of Auslan interpreting and the field of SLI training in Australia faces
some ongoing challenges and constraints, on the whole the sector is relatively well organized,
with continued improvements forecast for the future and an increasing body of research to
scaffold the work of Auslan interpreters and interpreter educators. However, less salubrious
conditions exist for deaf interpreters in Australia.

The nomenclature for deaf interpreters is not agreed upon around the nation, with variants
including deaf relay interpreter (DRI), deaf interpreter, and relay interpreter, which are all used
in different states and territories. Similarly, the signed lexeme differs throughout the country
also. For the purpose of this chapter, the term deaf relay interpreter will be used, hereafter
known as DRI, as this appears to be the most widely used term across Australia at the time of
writing.

32
Regardless of title, the role of the DRI in Australia is that of a team interpreter, frequently
interpreting for:
a foreign sign language user
linguistically and/or socially isolated deaf people who have limited sign language
proficiency or idiosyncratic signing style (perhaps due to minimal exposure to the Deaf
community, mental health issues, a very poor education, or due to the presence of a
cognitive disability)
deaf-blind people
situations where trust, or issues of cultural sensitivity/comfort factor is paramount, e.g.,
trauma counseling
International Sign users at conferences/events

Thus far NAATI has declined to award interpreter accreditation to DRIs, stating that the nature
of their work is largely intralingual rather than interlingual. As DRIs do not often work between
language pairs per se, to date NAATI has not viewed their work as interpreting. For this
reason, accreditation standards and a national training program for DRIs have not been
developed or supported by key stakeholders involved in interpreter accreditation, education and
training.

Although clearly not considered DRI work in a modern context, the reality is that many deaf
people have performed a pseudo-interpreting role in various settings on an informal and
untrained basis over the years. Examples include a deaf child (typically, but not always, from a
Deaf family) relaying a teachers instructions and information in the classroom to their peers; a
deaf person informally conveying information from Auslan into another sign language for a
group of foreign visitors attending a presentation at the Deaf club; a deaf person with good oral
English skills as well as fluency in Auslan facilitating communication between their deaf friend
and a hearing professional at an appointment; and a bilingual deaf person translating a written
text, such as a letter, for a friend or family member.

This is not to suggest that all deaf people are suited to DRI work or have the raw talent and skill
to work in a professional capacity as an untrained interpreters by any means, and recognition of
this fact has led to the development of various training options for DRIs. Since the late 1990s,
courses for DRIs have been conducted in an ad hoc manner in several states, often by state Deaf
Society organisations or ASLIA branches. Training has ranged from a weekend workshop, to
33
courses of several weeks duration, to a one-year Diploma of Interpreting course at Central
TAFE in Perth, Western Australia, in 2001. The diploma was directly equivalent and
comparable to the Diploma of Interpreting (Paraprofessional) undertaken by Auslan interpreters
around the nation, although it was adapted to suit the work context of DRIs. The course
emphasised consecutive rather than simultaneous interpreting techniques and was delivered
directly in Auslan by hearing and deaf interpreter educators. The course was conducted with a
cohort of deaf students only.

The courses run in recent years in New South Wales and Victoria have typically followed an up
to a semester-long (18-week), part-time study pattern, but no recognized standard curriculum is
in use across the nation. No formal teaching resources, such as footage of DRIs working in real-
life settings, exist for use in DRI training programs in Australia. Interpreter educators on DRI
programs to date have depended on the inclusion of deaf guests who are foreign signers, or
deaf-blind, for example; visits by experienced DRIs who are able to demonstrate and model
effective interpreting practices and talk about their experiences; and creatively developing or
adapting existing Auslan interpreter training material for DRI classroom use and practice.

State branches of ASLIA afford DRIs full membership status and entitlements if they have
completed some form of training or hold certification as a DRI. DRIs often access professional
development activities conducted by ASLIA and others, including workshops run by AUSIT for
example. They participate alongside hearing interpreter peers, or on their own as participants in
events tailored specifically for DRIs, although these are far less common. Many of these
initiatives have occurred only in the last few years.

Examples of recent events catering to the specific training needs of DRIs include annual
weekend residential retreats conducted in Western Australia in 2007 and 2008 where groups of
DRIs received one-on-one diagnostic evaluation, skills analysis, and feedback on a filmed
interpreted performance, and participated in skills building professional development activities
relevant to DRIs. An interesting realization arising from these retreats was that DRIs rarely, if
ever, work in tandem, so to see each other interpret in front of one another, to have the
opportunity to give detailed analytical feedback, and to learn from one another in such a setting
was invaluable.

34
Other recent events include the ASLIA National Conferences in Darwin, Northern Territory, in
September 2008 and in Melbourne, Victoria in August 2009, where several training sessions
and presentations were geared specifically towards the needs and interests of DRIs. A network
of DRIs has been formed in Victoria under the auspices of ASLIA, for training and information
sharing purposes, and information brochures regarding the work of DRIs have been developed
and distributed as an initiative of this DRI network with ASLIA. The rapid growth of the DRI
sector in the past few years is very exciting.

The impetus for some of this development may well have been the significant DRI project
which began in 2006, when the National Auslan Interpreter Booking and Payment System
(NABS) medical interpreting service funded ASLIA to develop and administer a national
certification process for DRIs. This was in recognition of the variability of training, the lack of
standardized testing available to DRIs across the nation, and the requirement for NABS to
employ certified interpreters in medical settings under the conditions of their contract with the
federal government. Deaf people already holding an AQF qualification from TAFE were
exempt from testing, however, all other potential and practicing DRIs were strongly encouraged
to undertake the test if they intended to continue to work or to seek future work, with NABS
and/or other DRI employers.

A test was developed and rolled out in 2007, similar in structure, format, and content to the
Auslan paraprofessional level NAATI video test, with adaptations to suit the work context of
DRIs. The test included various cultural and ethical questions for the candidates and also
contained two dialogues for interpretation in the consecutive mode. The test dialogues focused
on assessing a candidates capacity to work with deaf people who were not fluent Auslan users.
There were some challenges raised by the testing process. The nature of video testing allowed
for standardisation of test content and presentation, but meant that the test was highly artificial.
DRIs usually work in an organic manner within an interpreting team, and the nature of testing
by prerecorded video may suppress some of the natural and logical strategies a DRI might use
in real life. However, the alternative of national live testing of candidates was not viable in a
country the size of Australia, and was carefully considered by ASLIA at the time of product
development.

A theme raised by some candidates participating in the ASLIA/NABS test, and also expressed
by the project personnel, was the need for quality training for DRIs rather than just the
35
introduction of a testing system. Test candidates also indicated the concomitant effect on status
and recognition of the DRI certification standard, given that it can be achieved without having
completed a course of study in interpreting. It is noted however, that direct NAATI testing
without access to a course of study remains an option for Auslan interpreters. The difference is
that Auslan interpreters have training and testing options, DRIs do not.

ASLIA recently concluded the DRI certification project and was preparing a final report and
recommendations for future action at the time of writing. Representations to NAATI are
expected in 2009 to demonstrate evidence of the DRI testing process and its close similarity to
the standard of performance expected by NAATI at the paraprofessional interpreter level, in the
hope that NAATI may accept future responsibility for the formal accreditation of DRIs.

In addressing training and certification issues for DRIs, it is important to refer to the potential
for employment as a DRI in Australia. Few conferences requiring the use of International Sign
are held in Australia, so the majority of the work of DRIs in Australia tends to be with deaf-
blind people, deaf people with disabilities, deaf people with special language needs for various
reasons, and with indigenous deaf people.

An issue regarding employment of DRIs is in regard to the reticence of the service user/s to
employ the interpreters and to pay for what is sometimes viewed as an unnecessary,
supernumerary interpreter. There does not appear to be a great demand for DRIs, but this cannot
be quantified as there is no research on DRI use or potential in Australia. To exacerbate the
problem, there is little research on deaf interpreting internationally from which to draw
(Forestal, 2005).

At present the only research undertaken in Australia has been a cursory collection of
information for the needs analysis conducted by the ASLIA DRI certification Project Officer in
preparation for defining DRI competencies and developing the DRI certification test. Without
more research on this emergent area of interpreting practice, the important work of DRIs is not
properly supportedultimately affecting the outcomes for deaf people most in need of the
service.

A cultural and ideological change might be required by service providers, and by Auslan
interpreters as well, to increase DRI use, if applicable. Education of service users may also be
36
required in order to increase the involvement of DRIs in interpreted settings. Anecdotal
evidence suggests that even the Deaf community itself widely misunderstands the use and
application of DRIs, and indeed some people working in the role of DRI without training or
certification may also lack an understanding of their role.

In growing the DRI profession it may be prudent to think laterally about the value and skills of a
competent DRI and how they could effectively work in team situations in some circumstances
where Auslan interpreters presently work alone. For example, working in inclusive education
settings with primary school aged children may be of enormous benefit to deaf children. In
addition, as the demand for written text to signed language translation increases (for example,
translations of legislation, or translations of open captions on DVD footage) this is another
possible area of work for DRIs (Boudreault, 2005).

DRIs have only recently started to attend, and have been made welcome at, interpreter
professional development events such as national interpreter conferences. At spoken language
interpreter professional development events and conferences this situation still causes ripples in
regard to the cost of access provisions, which do not seem to be readily understood by all
professional development providers. However, there is a growing need for those practicing as
DRIs to face the same professional development expectations and standards of practice that
many agencies place on Auslan interpreters. In some states, quality assurance mechanisms are
already in place for DRIs, and DRIs are treated in the same fashion as paraprofessional
interpreters in all aspects of their employment, but this is not commonplace.

In terms of interpreter education, the experience of the authors in training DRIs in Australia
suggests educators need to have a broad background in the interpreting field; be critical and
adept users of interpreters themselves and/or experienced interpreter practitioners (experienced
in working as, or alongside DRIs); fluent or knowledgeable in more than one sign language;
able to work in different language registers; be highly personable and flexible; value diversity;
understand disability issues; and be a competent and widely respected teacher or leader in the
Deaf and/or interpreting community. The authors experience also suggests that co-teaching in a
deaf/hearing team can be extremely valuable and can sometimes account for individual gaps in
knowledge or experience, as well as the different teaching and learning styles of educators and
students.

37
Not dissimilar to the composition of the Auslan interpreting profession, there is marked
variability of competence amongst DRIs, and the skill sets of some DRIs are more compatible
with certain work contexts and individuals. Trained DRIs are typically treated the same as a
NAATI paraprofessional Auslan interpreter, and there is no tiered payment system (unlike
Auslan interpreters) for DRIs performing at a higher skills standard than that expected at the
paraprofessional level. There is no higher test standard and no adjustment in remuneration to
accommodate for the additional skills and experience that the more competent DRIs in the
nation demonstrate. However, no yardstick exists for accurately measuring the diversity and
scope of the wide range of skills and experience in DRIs at present, in order to compensate
accordingly.

2.8 Conclusion
The contemporary Australian context for interpreter accreditation, education, ongoing training,
and DRIs has been described and discussed. While conditions overall are reasonably healthy,
some challenges remain, in particular for DRIs.

Undoubtedly the greatest challenge in regard to signed language interpreter education, and
training in general, concerns resourceshuman, financial, and physical. Australia has a very
small group of interpreter educators, few interpreter education programs, limited training
resources and materials, only one university-level interpreter education program, and
insufficient Auslan interpreters accredited at the professional interpreter level of accreditation.
The standard of training for DRIs varies across the nation and remains unfunded and
unrecognized: No resources exist for DRI training purposes, and the number of experienced
DRI practitioners appears relatively small, although in general little information is known due to
the dearth of research on DRIs in Australia.

Despite the challenges, the Australian reality is favorable by international standards, and the
future looks promising. An anticipated role for Australia may be in developing partnerships
with regard to education and training sign language interpreters from other countries in the
Australasia/Oceania region, in conjunction with the World Association of Sign Language
Interpreters for example. Australia is well placed to share an increasing pool of knowledge and
skills, mindful that collaborations are of value to all involved.

38
A burgeoning culture of research and higher education standards; DRI certification; revalidation
of accreditation; conference-level accreditation; the potential for an undergraduate degree and a
registration board; increased collaboration between deaf and hearing interpreters in Australia
and in the region; and the ever-changing and improving technologies for teaching and learning
all bode well for the future of the profession Down Under.

2.9 References

ASLIA. (2006). 2
nd
ASLIA National Interpreter Trainers Workshop, Perth, Western Australia
State reports on interpreter education and training: ASLIA National

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2007). Retrieved September 19, 2007, from
http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs%40.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/1647509ef7e
25faaca2568a900154b63?OpenDocument.

Australia Geography. Retrieved October 10, 2007, from http://www.about-
australia.com/facts/geography/.

Bontempo, Karen. (2005). A survey of Auslan interpreters perceptions of performance.
Unpublished research report, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia.

Bontempo, Karen and Napier, Jemina. (2007). Mind the gap! A skills analysis of sign language
interpreters. The Sign Language Translator and Interpreter. 1: 275-299.

Bontempo, Karen and Napier, Jemina. (2009). Getting it right from the start: Program
admission testing of signed language interpreters. In Angelelli, Claudia. & Jacobson, Holly.
E. (Eds.) Testing and Assessment in Translation and Interpreting. John Benjamins
Publishing Company. 247-295

Boudreault, Patrick. (2005) Deaf interpreters. In Janzen, Terry. (Ed) Topics in signed language
interpreting. John Benjamins Publishing Company. 323-356.

Cokely, Dennis. (2005). Shifting positionality: A critical examination of the turning point in the
relationship of interpreters and the Deaf community. In Mark Marschark, Elizabeth Winston, &
39
Rico Peterson (Eds.), Interpreting and interpreter education: From research to practice. New
York: Oxford University Press. 3-28.

Flynn, John. W. (1996). Reflections on sign language interpreting. In Proceedings of the
National Deafness Conference hosted by the Tasmanian Deaf Society, 22-26 May 1996. Hobart,
Australia: Australian Federation of Deaf Societies

Forestal, Eileen. (2005). The emerging professionals: Deaf interpreters and their views and
experiences on training. In Mark Marschark, Elizabeth Winston, & Rico Peterson (Eds.),
Interpreting and interpreter education: From research to practice. New York: Oxford
University Press. 235-258.

Johnston, Trevor. (1989). Auslan dictionary: A dictionary of the sign language of the Australian
Deaf community. Sydney: Deafness Resources Australia.

Johnston, Trevor. (2004). W(h)ither the Deaf community? Population, genetics and the future of
Auslan (Australian Sign Language). American Annals of the Deaf, 148, 358-375.

Johnston, Trevor and Schembri, Adam. (2007). Australian Sign Language (Auslan): An
introduction to sign linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Leneham, Marcel and Napier, Jemina. (2003). Sign language interpreters' codes of ethics:
Should we maintain the status quo? Deaf Worlds, 19, 78-98.

Madden, Maree. (1995). The prevalence of occupational overuse syndrome among Australian
sign language interpreters. Journal of Occupational Health and Safety, 11, 257-263.

Madden, Maree. (2005) The prevalence of occupational overuse syndrome in signed language
interpreters in AustraliaWhat a pain! In Metzger, Melanie and Fleetwood, Earl. (Eds.),
Attitudes, innuendo, and regulators: Challenges of interpretation: Vol. 2, Washington, DC:
Gallaudet University Press. 3-70.

NAATI. (2007). Accreditation levels. Retrieved October, 10, 2007, from
http://www.naati.com.au/at-accreditation-levels.html.
40

NAATI (2006). Annual report. Retrieved October 10, 2007, from
http://www.naati.com.au/pdf/annual-reports/2005-2006_27th_Annual_Report.pdf.

Napier, Jemina. (1998). Free your mindthe rest will follow. Deaf Worlds, 14, 15-22.

Napier, Jemina. (2000). Free interpretation: What is it and does it translate into training? In
Schembri, Adam., Napier, Jemina., Beattie Rod., & Leigh Greg. (Eds.), Deaf Studies, Sydney
1998: Selected papers from the Australasian Deaf Studies Research Symposium. Sydney,
Australia: North Rocks Press. 21-33.

Napier, Jemina. (2002a). Sign Language Interpreting: Linguistic coping strategies. Coleford,
England: Douglas Maclean.

Napier, Jemina. (2002b). University Interpreting: Linguistic issues for consideration. Journal of
Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 7, 281-301.

Napier, Jemina. (2004). Sign language interpreter training, testing & accreditation: An
international comparison. American Annals of the Deaf, 149, 350-359.

Napier, Jemina. (2006a). The new kid on the block: Mentoring sign language interpreters in
Australia. Journal of Interpretation, 25-46.

Napier, Jemina. (2006b). Educating signed language interpreters in Australia: A blended
approach. In Cynthia Roy (Ed.), New approaches to interpreter education. Washington, DC:
Gallaudet University Press. 67-103.

Napier, Jemina. (2007). What are our expectations? A discourse analysis of practitioner and
consumer attitudes towards signed language interpreting in the community. Unpublished paper
presented at Quality in Interpreting: Critical Link 5 Congress. Sydney, Australia. 11-15 April
2007.

Napier, Jemina., and Barker, Roz. (2003). A demographic survey of Australian sign language
interpreters. Australian Journal of Education of the Deaf, 9,19-32.
41

Napier, Jemina., McKee, Rachel., and Goswell, Della. (2006). Sign language interpreting:
Theory & practice in Australia and New Zealand. Sydney, Australia: Federation Press.

O'Reilly, Suzanne. (2005). Indigenous sign language and culture: The interpreting and access
needs of Deaf people who are Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander in Far North
Queensland [Booklet]. Cairns, Australia: ASLIA National.

Orima Research. (2004). A report on the supply and demand for Auslan interpreters across
Australia. Commonwealth of Australia. Available at:
http://www.facs.gov.au/disability/auslan_report/. Retrieved 6 June 2007.

Ozolins, Uldis and Bridge, Marianne. (1999). Sign language interpreting in Australia.
Melbourne, Australia: Language Australia.

Patrie, Carol. (1994). The readiness to work gap. In Winston, Elizabeth (Ed.), Mapping our
course: A collaborative venture: Proceedings of the 10
th
national convention of the Conference
of Interpreter Trainers, USA, CIT. 53-56.

Stone, Christopher and Allsop, Lorna. (2007). Collective notions of quality of interpreting:
Insights from the British Deaf community. Unpublished paper presented at Quality in
interpreting: Critical Link 5 Congress. Sydney, Australia. 11-15 April 2007.
42
CHAPTER 3

Mind the Gap!
A Skills Analysis of Sign Language Interpreters
19


Abstract. This article presents the findings of a survey of sign language interpreters
perceptions of the skills, knowledge and abilities required for effective practice. Specifically,
practitioners were asked to rate the degree of importance of some of the identified key skills,
knowledge and abilities for professional practice based on the literature, and then rate their
own degree of competence as a practitioner on the same parameters. Furthermore, interpreters
supplied an overall rating of competence, based on their perception of their own performance
as a practitioner. A skills gap analysis was conducted to determine the significant differences
between ratings of importance and ratings of competence on each of the skills, knowledge and
abilities documented. This yielded information with regard to the most critical skills, knowledge
and abilities perceived by sign language interpreters, and clearly identified gaps in competence
among practitioners. Interpreter accreditation level emerged as a significant dimension in the
context of self-reported level of competence and skill for sign language interpreters. Such
findings have important implications for the education and training of sign language
interpreters, and repercussions for ongoing professional development and self-monitoring by
practitioners.


3.1 Introduction
The field of sign language interpreting has been described as an emerging profession (Scott-
Gibson 1991), and this is certainly an apt description of the Australian context of sign language
interpreting (Napier 2002). Various research and publications have significantly strengthened
the knowledge and understanding of Australian Sign Language (Auslan) interpreting in recent
years (see, for example, Madden 1995, 2005, Ozolins and Bridge 1999, Potter and Leigh 2002,
Banna 2004, Leneham 2005, 2007, Leneham and Napier 2003, Napier, Bontempo and Leneham
2006, Napier, Goswell and McKee 2006).


19
The original version of this journal article was published as: Bontempo, Karen and Napier, Jemina. (2007) Mind the gap: A
skills analysis of sign language interpreters. The Sign Language Translator and Interpreter 1 (2): 275-299.

43
A growing body of Auslan/English interpreting research has shaped the recent development of
the field, both nationally and internationally. The academic endeavour of the sector has been
further influenced by the establishment of the first university level interpreter training
programme in Australia in recent years. Significant change is occurring in the interpreting field
in Australia as we move from primarily a community based interpreting industry with little
academic foundation, to one that is increasingly embracing higher standards in training, as well
as a search for knowledge, research and information to support interpreting practice. Despite
such enterprise, there still remains a paucity of research on Auslan/English interpreting, lending
further credibility to Scott-Gibsons (1991) notion of the profession as fledgling.

3.1.1 Sign language interpreters in Australia
In accordance with the standards set for spoken language translators and interpreters,
Auslan/English interpreters are accredited by the National Accreditation Authority for
Translators and Interpreters (NAATI), and testing has taken place since 1982 (Flynn 1996).
NAATI accreditation is the generally accepted qualification for interpreting recognized
throughout the nation. Accreditation is available at Paraprofessional or Professional Interpreter
level and can be attained by independently undertaking a practical interpreting examination, or
via completion of an interpreter training programme. In almost all cases, practitioners achieve
Paraprofessional level accreditation first. Accreditation suggests practitioners have met the
minimum standard required to competently perform interpreting related tasks associated with
this level of accreditation, at the time of being examined.

It is generally considered by NAATI, service providers and many practitioners that the
minimum standard for professional practice in Australia is NAATI accreditation at the
Professional Interpreter level (Ozolins and Bridge 1999, NAATI 2007). The Paraprofessional
level is intended to be limited to interpreters of new and emerging languages in Australia; is
suited to certain non-specialist work contexts only; and is considered a stepping stone towards
Professional Interpreter level (NAATI 2007).

However, the majority of Auslan/English interpreting practitioners are accredited as
Paraprofessionals, as described in Chapter 2. Australia, like many other countries, faces a
challenge whereby demand for interpreters currently outstrips supply. Thus Paraprofessionals
typically have little difficulty obtaining employment in the current market and have little
incentive to upgrade to the higher level of accreditation.
44
Due to the limited supply of Professional Interpreters (hereafter referred to as Professionals),
many Paraprofessionals are assigned work that is not at general conversational level as
recommended by NAATI, but instead occurs within a range of more complex settings
(including medical and legal contexts). This raises questions about Paraprofessionals genuine
capacity to perform the work expected of them, given the different degrees of competence
according to the defined levels of accreditation and the likelihood of potential skills gaps.

3.1.2 Statement of the problem
There is no doubt that interpreting is a performance-based profession (Gish 1992). Interpreters
transfer information from a source text to a target text for a specific audience, and the outcome
of the communicative interaction is highly dependent on the performance, and competence, of
the interpreter. Given the problem of the increasing disparity between the demand for
interpreters and the available supply of competent practitioners in Australia (Orima 2004), it is
helpful to develop a clear profile of the profession in Australia and to define the competencies
required for successful performance as an interpreter. In addition, offering clear direction on
any skills gaps apparent between the levels of practitioner accreditation will prove invaluable to
interpreter educators and practitioners, in improving performance and enhancing the profession,
as well as prompting service providers and service users to mind the gap when managing or
utilising interpreting services. The skills gap referred to herein is the requisite skills,
knowledge and abilities an individual needs in order to perform their job, compared to the
individuals rating of their own level of competence in performing that particular skill,
knowledge or ability. Any difference between the required level of skill and the personal rating
of skill level, is described as a skills gap. An extensive review of the limited empirical studies
available in the sign language interpreting field indicates skills gap analysis research has never
been undertaken in this population of practitioners in Australia, nor internationally.

3.2 Literature review
Although language proficiency is a prerequisite for interpreting, it is no guarantee of
interpreting skill (Frishberg 1986, Finton 1998, Dean and Pollard 2001, Napier 2002), and in
fact interpretation, like translation, involves a multi-dimensional competency that is hard to
define and to teach, and even harder to evaluate (Roberts 1992:16). It is apparent from the
literature that many and varied skills, a broad knowledge base, general cognitive ability,
vocational aptitude and attitude all contribute to interpreter competence, and therefore,
interpreter performance.
45
The key skills, knowledge and abilities which can be drawn from the literature and applied to
sign language interpreters result in an extremely long list. Sign language interpreters are
expected to have: sign language skills; spoken language skills; interpreting/translating skills; a
sense of ethical responsibility and integrity; cultural sensitivity; interpersonal skills, willingness
to learn; self-discipline; trustworthiness; professionalism; flexibility; and a sense of humour,
among many more specific components for competent practice (Frishberg 1986, Solow 1981,
Napier 2002). Notions of competent practice and of competence can be ambiguous and applied
in various ways:
the competence of professionals derives from their possessing a set of relevant attributes
such as knowledge, abilities, skills and attitudes. These attributes which jointly underlie
competence are often referred to as competencies. So, a competency is a combination of
attributes underlying some aspect of a professional performance. (Hager et al. 1990:1)

Hager et al. stress that since the performance of a task can be judged as competent or
incompetent, the performance must be of a certain standard. Hence, we need standards against
which competence can be assessed and validated. In establishing competencies and
performance standards for sign language interpreting, we do not have the same nature and
orientation of many other vocations that can be measured by mastery of specific criterion
referenced tests. In many such occupations where competency based training initially gained
purchase, such as the trades, there are tangible key performance indicators so that precise
standards are set and assessed. In this way, competence is a stepped and purposefully graded
progression to skill development.

However, acquiring and developing the art and skill of interpretation does not work in quite the
same manner. Ultimately a multitude of contextual, linguistic, social, educational and other
specific factors and experiences will influence interpreter development. Witter-Merithew et al.
(2004) and Dean and Pollard (2001) noted gaps between expected and actual performance
among newer practitioners, reinforcing Patries (1994) position that graduates of interpreter
training programmes have significant gaps in their knowledge and skills and are not sufficiently
prepared for the world of work upon completion of training. This affirms Anderson and
Stauffers (1990) earlier observation of the readiness to work gap concluded via a national
survey of sign language interpreters in the USA. In Australia, the graduates of most training
courses, or the new practitioners, are typically accredited at Paraprofessional level, and
anecdotal reports suggest the same concerns about readiness to work also exist in Australia.
46
3.2.1 Perceptions of performance
A narrow view of competent performance suggests that there is only one correct way to
undertake a task; however there are degrees of competence in performance, from less than
adequate to highly competent. According to Kruger and Dunning (1999), increasing knowledge,
or decreasing skill gaps, can increase performance. Across four studies of humour, grammar
and logic, Kruger and Dunning found that participants initially significantly overestimated their
performance. After training in the test domains, however, participants test performance
improved and their ability to know how well (or not) they were performing also improved.

Thus the general position presented is that people tend to have an inflated view of their actual
ability (Kruger and Dunning 1999). An extension of this is the possibility that some interpreting
practitioners may not have an adequate level of meta-cognitive skill that will genuinely allow
them to accurately perceive their level of performance.

This in turn impacts on their ability to successfully identify skill gaps; accept the need for
improvement or change; and to then acquire, increase or integrate the necessary skills to
improve competency. A study on anxiety and outcome predictions by psychology students in
relation to test results affirms this view. Shepperd et al. (2005:267) note that normal social
perception systems have a variety of social and cognitive filters in place that serve to screen and
distort information in self serving ways. However, this view is rejected by Ackerman et al.
(2002), who surveyed 228 adult subjects and then compared their self-report assessments of
intellectual abilities and knowledge with objective measures. They found the individuals
sampled were generally accurate in their perceptions of performance in regard to intellectual
abilities and knowledge.

It would appear that the more skilled and informed an interpreter is, the more likely they are to
have a greater level of meta-linguistic awareness and meta-cognitive competence (Peterson
2000, Smith 2000). This leads to better ability to self-regulate; greater awareness of any
deficiencies in skills; knowledge of miscues in interpretations (Cokely 1992); and increased
capacity to incorporate linguistic coping strategies to deal with challenging situations (Napier
2002).

It does seem logical that less skilled practitioners are likely to be less aware of how well they
are performing and to be able to make suitable adjustments to improve performance and to
47
mitigate for any skills gaps. For example, Bowen (1989; cited in Shaw et al. 2004) noted that
students in interpreter training courses in many cases could not recognize their linguistic
inadequacies and often produced self-appraisals that differed from those of their instructor.
Kruger and Dunning (1999) reinforce this view and argue that the skills that produce
competence in a particular domain are often the very same skills necessary to accurately
appraise ones own level of competence, and the competence of others, in that domain.

3.2.2 Improving competence
The potential for improved quality in the interpreting sector in Australia would appear to be
related to implementing strategies to predict interpreter success during recruitment and selection
stages of interpreter training courses; and in more effectively enhancing and building on the
skills base of the current pool of interpreting practitioners to increase competence, and
correspondingly performance.

The assumption in the past has been that interpreter competence will improve, almost by
osmosis, by providing opportunities for practitioners to observe successful and competent
interpreters at work, and via multisource feedback. In reality, however, an interpreters ability to
learn from others can be limited primarily because they do not know what to look for, or how to
incorporate observed good practice into their own interpretations. Furthermore, some
individuals are more likely to receive feedback more effectively than others (Smither et al.
2005). So, the adequacy of these commonplace strategies for improving interpreter performance
is questionable, and it is timely to identify better strategies for increasing competence,
predicting success and enhancing performance among interpreting practitioners.

A survey by Napier and Barker (data collected in 1999, published in 2003) established a profile
of the profession in Australia; however the scene has changed significantly since that time. In
recent years there has been a burgeoning demand for interpreters; a significant change in
interpreter education opportunities; and an increase in the number and type of interpreter
booking agencies providing sign language interpreting services in Australia. Given the current
incapacity to meet the demand for competent practitioners, revisiting Napier and Barkers
profile of the profession may offer insight into the present landscape.

One potential solution to the pressing concern of demand and supply is to increase the skill level
and capacity of more Paraprofessionals to the standard of practice expected at the Professional
48
level; and to appropriately target professional development for Professional level practitioners
to minimize the risk of their advanced skills becoming fossilized. In order to address this critical
training and development need, it is necessary to develop a current profile of the Australian
industry. Identification of features and characteristics of the skills, knowledge and abilities
required to perform the task of interpreting are also required. Of particular interest in this
process is any differing perception of competence amongst Paraprofessionals and Professionals,
and clear identification of skills gaps that may exist between the levels of accreditation.

3.3 Method
This study provides a current profile of the profession in Australia; documenting the skills,
knowledge and abilities considered important for competent practice in the profession according
to the literature; and identifying the skills gaps that may exist between practitioners of varying
accreditation levels. The purpose of collecting this data is to implement more effective training
and support strategies to minimize the impact of any reported skills gaps and it is anticipated
such data will be able to be applied in Australia and internationally.

It was hypothesized that Paraprofessionals and Professionals would rate themselves differently
in regard to overall competence as a practitioner. It was also considered that Professionals may
well possess skill sets that differ from those of Paraprofessionals, or that their skills are at a
higher standard than those of Paraprofessionals. This suggests that practitioners at each level of
accreditation are likely to identify different key skills gaps.

3.3.1 Design
The present study was designed as a single group design study to estimate characteristics and
parameters of both the sign language interpreter population and the individual interpreter. A
questionnaire instrument was designed drawing on literature from organizational psychology,
interpreting and translation, and applied linguistics.

The survey was structured to obtain both quantitative and qualitative data to determine the
incidence, distribution and interrelations among sociological and psychological variables by
examining personal facts with opinions and attitudes about linguistic skill, other knowledge and
abilities, overall competence and interpreter performance. To this end, demographic information
was obtained from participants in order to develop a profile of the profession (replicating some
of the demographic questions found in the Napier and Barker (2003) study), and also to allow
49
for examination of the relations among these variables as well as the overall interpreting
competence rating reported by respondents.

3.3.2 Participants
A total of 110 NAATI accredited sign language interpreters throughout Australia volunteered to
participate in the study. Whilst over 700 interpreters have been accredited by NAATI since
1982, a report commissioned by the Australian Government noted that only 257 accredited
interpreters were currently working in the field (Orima 2004). Thus the response rate of
approximately 42% of working accredited interpreters was considered to be very good.

NAATI accreditation was an essential criterion for participation in the study, therefore it was
possible to identify potential participants via a number of sources, including NAATI, sign
language interpreter employers, and the Australian Sign Language Interpreters Association
(ASLIA). The sample therefore was a highly selected population. The questionnaire was sent
out to the participant sample via email or by post, along with introductory information and a
stamped addressed envelope if requested. Return of the anonymously completed questionnaire
was considered consent to use the data collected for the purposes of this study.

3.3.3 Materials
The survey instrument was a ten page questionnaire, including a carefully planned construction
of questions based on the literature. A total of 22 questions were presented, with questions
arranged in related subsets of four main sections demographic information; skills gap
information; perceptions of performance; and rating scales. Participants completed a
combination of open and closed questions and various Likert-type rating scales with five
alternatives. The rating scales pertained to overall competency as an interpreter, a detailed skills
gap analysis, and various self-reporting measures of self-efficacy, positive and negative
affectivity and goal orientation. The latter scales regarding self-efficacy, affectivity, and goal
orientation are existing valid and reliable psychological instruments. As the data from these
specific disposition measures are not reported in this paper, further details regarding the
particular tools utilized are not provided at this time.

3.3.4 Procedure
Respondents completed the questionnaire independently by writing directly on the form in
English (handwritten or typed responses were possible), at their leisure and in their own chosen
50
environment. Participants had access to information about the study and possession of the
questionnaire for potentially eight weeks and posted their questionnaires back upon completion.
On receipt of the completed questionnaires, the figures were analyzed to note any areas of
significance, using descriptive, parametric and non-parametric inferential statistical analysis.

3.4 Results
The results described in this paper focus on a demographic profile of interpreters, overall
competency ratings by practitioners, and a skills gap analysis of the profession in Australia at
the present time. Information regarding the skills gaps reported by participants was analyzed
using a paired sample (two tailed) t-test. This statistical procedure was selected as the data was
structured in such a way that there were two observations by the same individual on the same
variable a rating of importance and a rating of competence. In this way, the samples are
paired. Of interest was the gap, if any, between individual ratings of importance and personal
competence on each variable. The skills gap data is reported overall, but is also cross referenced
according to level of accreditation, to allow identification of any gaps between Professionals
and Paraprofessionals.

3.4.1 A profile of respondents
A total of 110 NAATI accredited signed language interpreters returned completed
questionnaires. 67.3% of these were accredited at Paraprofessional level and 32.7% at
Professional Interpreter level.

In total, 77.3% of respondents declared they worked as interpreters, with the remainder working
in some other capacity, typically in a field related to the deafness sector, involving only
sporadic interpreting work. Of the practising interpreters, 36% were interpreting full time and
64% part time. Of those working full time, 58.1% were Paraprofessionals and 41.9% were
Professionals. Of those working part time, 68.5% were Paraprofessionals and 31.5% were
Professionals. The majority of respondents worked in community settings and had received
accreditation since 2000; this group comprised 49.1% of respondents. The age range of
participating interpreters varied from 20 years to over 60 years, but the largest group was aged
between 30-49 years (74.5%). The gender profile of respondents was 83.5% female and 16.5%
male.

51
Post secondary qualifications were held by 86.4% of respondents. Qualifications held by
participants ranged from Certificate/Diploma and Advanced Diploma level awards (mostly
relating to interpreter education programmes) to Bachelor, Postgraduate, Masters and PhD
degrees (mostly generic courses of study education, linguistics, psychology etc).

3.4.2 Ratings of competence and level of accreditation
A Chi-Square test for relatedness or independence was undertaken to assess the relationship
between the ratings of competence and NAATI accreditation. The Pearson Chi-Square value
was X2 = 23.92 with a significance level of PC.001. An examination of the observed cell
frequencies revealed that those accredited at Professional level are more likely on average to
rate themselves as more than competent or extremely competent (M = 4.03), whereas those
accredited at a Paraprofessional level are more likely to rate themselves as competent (M =
3.35). Overall for both groups M = 3.56.

The percentage of Professionals who reported a competency rating of more than competent or
extremely competent was 81.3%. In contrast, 36.6% Paraprofessionals reported a competency
rating of more than competent or extremely competent. Perceptions of interpreter
competence differed significantly on the basis of accreditation level.

3.4.3 Skill gap analysis
The skills gap analysis of the 50 variables presented in the questionnaire (regarding the skills,
knowledge and abilities needed by an interpreter; their importance, and the respondents
competence on the same variable) was conducted via a paired sample t-test. The purpose of
such a test was to determine whether there was a gap between the subjects ratings of certain
variables as extremely important, and their ratings of their own competence in that variable.

Applying a .05 level of significance to all the paired samples using a two-tailed t-test, 16 of the
50 variables were found to not be significantly different. Effectively, the participants rated
equally, or almost equally, the importance of the skill, knowledge or ability, and their own
competence in that domain. The skills, knowledge and abilities that did not deliver significant
gaps between importance and competence were: teamwork skills; problem solving skills;
acting/performing skills; interview management skills; flexibility; sense of humour; motivation;
open-mindedness; empathy; support for peers; humility; ability to assume a low profile;
remaining human; intuition; and networking skills. This does not mean these are not important
52
traits, nor that competence was necessarily an issue in these domains, rather that the means for
importance and competence were very similar in terms of respondent ratings. So no, or little,
gap exists of interest to the researchers.

The remaining 34 items that did deliver a statistically significant different mean between level
of importance and reported level of personal competence are noted in Table 1, with the gaps
reported in descending order.

Table 3.1: Overall Gap Analysis of Importance vs. Competence Questions

Importance Competence Gap
Sign language 4.91 3.51 1.40
Interpreting/translating skills 4.88 3.58 1.30
Memory skills 4.33 3.47 0.86
Concentration skills 4.63 3.81 0.82
Contextual knowledge 4.47 3.69 0.78
English 4.91 4.16 0.75
Listening skills 4.72 3.97 0.75
Self-confidence 4.3 3.57 0.73
Self-monitoring skills 4.43 3.72 0.71
World knowledge 4.15 3.54 0.61
Reputation 4.49 3.90 0.59
Objectivity 4.46 3.88 0.58
Cultural sensitivity 4.74 4.17 0.57
Specialist knowledge 3.89 3.37 0.52
Spelling skills 4.40 3.92 0.48
Ability to use tact and judgement 4.55 4.10 0.45
Situational management skills 4.24 3.81 0.43
Professionalism 4.85 4.43 0.42
Ethical responsibility 4.87 4.46 0.41
Self discipline 4.33 3.93 0.40
53
General intelligence 4.4 4.02 0.38
Punctuality 4.75 4.39 0.36
Accountability 4.47 4.12 0.35
Common sense 4.55 4.21 0.34
Analytical skills 4.08 3.76 0.32
Assertiveness 4.03 3.72 0.31
Public speaking skills 3.98 3.68 0.30
Interpersonal skills 4.41 4.13 0.28
Self-advocacy skills 3.88 3.61 0.27
Respect for others 4.72 4.47 0.25
Trustworthiness 4.84 4.64 0.20
Willingness to learn 4.68 4.48 0.20
Reciprocity 3.80 3.63 0.17
Understanding gender difference 3.71 3.90 (0.19)
Independence 3.95 4.15 (0.20)


When comparing these statistically different skills, knowledge and abilities, those with the most
significant gaps included: sign language; interpreting and translating skills; memory skills;
concentration skills; contextual knowledge; listening skills; self-confidence; self-monitoring
skills; world knowledge; reputation; and objectivity. While English appears sixth on the list
reported in the table above, it has not been noted here as participants tended to rate over 4 (i.e.
very important/more than competent) on both importance and competence, meaning that whilst
the gap was significant, both ratings were still over 4, so the data has less relevance.

The data analysis revealed the ten most highly rated skills, knowledge and abilities in terms of
importance. These included: sign language; English; interpreting and translating skills; ethical
responsibility; professionalism; trustworthiness; punctuality; cultural sensitivity; respect for
others; and listening skills.

The ten most highly rated skills, knowledge and abilities in terms of personal competence
included: trustworthiness; willingness to learn; respect for others; ethical responsibility;
54
professionalism; punctuality; open-mindedness; common sense; support for peers; and
flexibility.

3.4.4 Skills gap and level of accreditation
A skills gap analysis was then conducted on the basis of level of accreditation. The data for
Professionals is reported in Table 2, with the most striking skills gaps and differing ratings
highlighted. Sign language and interpreting/ translating skills, whilst demonstrating a significant
gap for Professionals, are not highlighted, as both importance and competence ratings are over
4 again making this result less relevant.

Table 3.2: Professional interpreter ratings of importance and competence

INTERPRETER LEVEL Importance Competence Gap
Sign language 4.94 4.03 0.91
Interpreting/translating skills 4.89 4.06 0.83
- Self-confidence 4.36 3.63 0.73
- Memory skills 4.33 3.67 0.67
- Concentration skills 4.64 3.97 0.67
English 4.94 4.29 0.66
- Self-monitoring skills 4.53 3.89 0.64
Cultural sensitivity 4.75 4.11 0.64
Listening skills 4.75 4.14 0.61
- Specialist knowledge 4.03 3.45 0.57
- Objectivity 4.42 3.86 0.56
Ethical responsibility 4.97 4.47 0.50
Common sense 4.69 4.20 0.49
Interpersonal skills 4.50 4.03 0.47
Reputation 4.53 4.06 0.47
- Public speaking skills 4.14 3.69 0.46
- Self discipline 4.36 3.91 0.45
- World knowledge 4.22 3.78 0.44
- Contextual knowledge 4.39 3.97 0.42
Professionalism 4.86 4.44 0.42
Respect for others 4.78 4.36 0.42
55
Willingness to learn 4.75 4.36 0.39
- Assertiveness 4.00 3.61 0.39
General intelligence 4.47 4.11 0.36
Ability to use tact and judgment 4.53 4.19 0.33
Punctuality 4.72 4.42 0.31
Accountability 4.53 4.25 0.28
- Intuition 4.00 3.77 0.23
Independence 3.97 4.19 (0.22)
Acting/performing skills 3.17 3.49 (0.32)


A skills gap analysis on the data provided by Paraprofessionals can be seen in Table 3.
Table 3.3: Paraprofessional ratings of importance and competence

PARAPROFESSIONAL LEVEL Importance Competence Gap
- Sign language 4.90 3.26 1.64
- Interpreting/translating
skills
4.87 3.32
1.55
- Contextual knowledge 4.51 3.55 0.97
- Memory skills 4.32 3.38 0.95
- Concentration skills 4.62 3.72 0.90
- Listening skills 4.71 3.89 0.82
English 4.90 4.10 0.80
- Self-monitoring skills 4.38 3.63 0.74
- Self-confidence 4.27 3.55 0.73
- World knowledge 4.11 3.42 0.70
- Reputation 4.47 3.82 0.64
- Objectivity 4.48 3.89 0.59
- Spelling skills 4.34 3.78 0.56
Cultural sensitivity 4.74 4.19 0.54
- Situational management
skills
4.23 3.71
0.52
Ability to use tact and judgment 4.56 4.05 0.50
- Specialist knowledge 3.82 3.32 0.49
56
Professionalism 4.85 4.42 0.42
Punctuality 4.77 4.37 0.40
- General intelligence 4.37 3.97 0.40
Accountability 4.44 4.05 0.39
- Self discipline 4.32 3.93 0.39
Ethical responsibility 4.82 4.46 0.36
- Analytical skills 4.00 3.64 0.36
- Assertiveness 4.04 3.77 0.27
Common sense 4.48 4.22 0.26
Reciprocity 3.79 3.55 0.24
Trustworthiness 4.83 4.60 0.23
Interpersonal skills 4.36 4.18 0.17
Respect for others 4.69 4.52 0.17
Sense of humour 3.76 4.04 (0.28)


The skills gaps identified by practitioners differed between those accredited at Paraprofessional
level and those accredited at Interpreter level.

3.5 Discussion
An analysis of the gap between the skills, knowledge and abilities considered important by
practitioners and corresponding ratings of personal competence in these domains were obtained
in this study. Professionals and Paraprofessionals agreed on nine out of ten of the most
important skills, knowledge and abilities required. The agreed upon items were: sign language
skills; interpreting and translating skills; ethical responsibility; trustworthiness; professionalism;
respect for others; cultural sensitivity; and listening skills.

The groups differed only slightly in terms of the order of these variables. In these top ten most
important variables, the only different item to appear was willingness to learn noted by the
Professionals, and punctuality noted by the Paraprofessionals.

Of particular interest were the variables of sign language skills and interpreting and
translating skills. These were consistently rated as the most important variables by
respondents, but ratings of personal competence on these variables were incongruent by
comparison. This indicates that whilst they were considered as highly important skills for
57
interpreters, the perceived degree of competence in these skills varied considerably amongst
respondents.

Interactions of respondent characteristics, specifically accreditation level, were measured in
regard to ratings of overall competence. The significant difference in skill gaps was amplified
when examining the Paraprofessional group of practitioners and comparing them to the
Professional sample.

3.5.1 Demographics
A cross tabulation of age and level of accreditation revealed that 75% of all Professional
respondents fell into the age bracket of 30-49 years of age. This finding was expected given that
the Professional level of accreditation is not an entry level of practice and requires a period of
time working at Paraprofessional level to attain the necessary experience and skill development.
As one respondent noted: I believe interpreters are the best they are going to be 10 years after
completion of courses.

This finding is reinforced by Ericsson (2000), who states that experts in careers in the art and
science fields peak in terms of their performance in their 30s and 40s, and that even the most
innately talented individuals require approximately ten years of intense association with a
profession before reaching an elite performance level. Further evidence of this position is that
no respondents under 24 years of age, and only two respondents aged 25-29, held the
Professional level of accreditation.

The majority (64.7%) of Professional respondents aged between 30-39 years had received
Professional accreditation since 2000. In contrast, 85.7% of respondents over 50 years of age
had received their Professional accreditation prior to 1990. This finding is suggestive of the fact
that these interpreters may have been involved in originally setting NAATI standards for
assessment at this level and were accredited at the time benchmarks were being created for the
assessment of standards in the profession.

The age group with the highest number of accredited Professionals was the 40-49 age group. A
cross tabulation of age, accreditation level and year of accreditation indicates that 88.2% of
respondents aged 40 years of age and over received their Professional qualification prior to
1995, and have therefore been in practice for many years, as they likely would have been
58
accredited and worked for a time at Paraprofessional level prior to being accredited at
Professional level.

This study reaffirms the low incidence of male sign language interpreters reported consistently
throughout the world. It revealed a gender profile of 83.5% female and 16.5% male interpreters;
figures identical to those reported by Napier and Barker (2003). Reasons suggested for the
imbalance such as interpreting being a helping profession; languages being a domain better
managed by women; the part time and inconsistent nature of practice in the field; and so on
are well documented (Frishberg 1986). However, conclusive evidence for this imbalance and
strategies to address the low numbers of male interpreters in the profession have not been
addressed to date in the literature, and the issue requires further research.

Of interest was the reported increase in post-secondary qualifications held and formal
interpreter training undertaken by respondents. Increases on figures previously reported by
Napier and Barker (2003) are noteworthy, and are likely due to the fact that there has been some
change in the availability and nature of advanced interpreter training programmes in Australia
since the Napier and Barker study.

In summary, the sociological and demographic data collected from participants offers a profile
of the typical Auslan/English interpreter respondent. She is female; aged between 30-49 years
of age; works part time as an interpreter in community interpreting assignments; is accredited at
Paraprofessional level; has English as her first language; has undertaken formal interpreter
training; and has a post-secondary qualification of some type (interpreting related and/or a
generic qualification). This is a profile that appears to be consistent with previously gathered
Australian data (Napier and Barker 2003), as well as being comparable to an extent with
international findings (Frishberg 1986, Stewart et al. 1998).

3.5.2 Competence
The results of this study demonstrate support for the hypothesis that those practitioners
accredited at Professional level have a greater perception of competence than those accredited at
a Paraprofessional level. There is a significant difference between the two groups.

Research by Kruger and Dunning (1999) indicated that those who are less competent are less
likely to be aware of their lack of competence; and are also less likely to be aware of how to
59
appropriately evaluate the gaps in their competence and to develop and implement strategies to
improve competence. In this study, Paraprofessionals rated themselves significantly lower on
the competency rating scale than Professionals. Presumably this demonstrates a greater level of
insight into overall competence than that assumed by Kruger and Dunning (1999). However,
Kruger and Dunnings position with regard to less competent persons being less able to evaluate
specific gaps in skill and to develop strategies to compensate may still have valid application.

Perhaps Paraprofessionals need clearly articulated pathways of training and development to
reach Professional level of accreditation, rather than allowing them to proceed on a relatively
unfocused journey of working in the field for a few years, then sitting an independent NAATI
Professional level examination and hoping to pass.

The even less palatable alternative is to never apply for the Professional level exam, regardless
of how many years the Paraprofessional has worked and continues to work. This may be
because Paraprofessional practitioners are (a) currently getting all the work they need and see
no requirement to upgrade; (b) are unsure if their skills are at the standard required; (c) are not
able to perform to the standard required; (d) are unable to access appropriately targeted skill
development and training opportunities to bridge the gap; (e) are currently performing at a high
level of competence and see no need for a piece of paper or assessment process to demonstrate
capacity to work at higher standard; or (f) any combination of the above.

In order to address the overall competence issue for Paraprofessionals in particular, there is a
need to develop better training to suit their specific needs and requirements. Firstly, attention to
improving and maintaining standards on entry level interpreter training courses is vital, so
graduates coming out with Paraprofessional accreditation are in the strongest possible position.
Then, Paraprofessionals need opportunities to access appropriately targeted professional
development and training on an ongoing basis. As noted previously, Paraprofessionals are
grossly over-represented in the sign language interpreting sector and due to supply and demand
issues, as well as other occupational factors, they currently undertake work that is outside the
realm of the descriptor provided by NAATI for this level of accreditation.

Many may be managing to deliver very competent performance within a range of work
contexts, as many are skilled practitioners; however this is not the case across the board. At
times, Paraprofessionals may be undertaking work well beyond their capacity without being
60
aware of their own competence levels or how to improve them. At other times, they may be
aware of the incompatibility of their skills set with the assignment, but accept the work
nevertheless, for a wide range of reasons.

This skills gap analysis provides a profile of the competence ratings and the gaps between the
two accreditation levels. The differences between the groups provide information on the skills,
knowledge and abilities needed for inclusion in professional development programmes or
formal training courses to improve interpreter competence.

3.5.3 Skill gap findings
Significant gaps in skill were found when Professionals rated degree of importance of certain
skills and attributes, and then their own competence on the same. The variables where gaps
were identified after analysis included the following: self-confidence; memory skills;
concentration skills; self-monitoring skills; specialist knowledge; objectivity; public speaking
skills; self-discipline; world knowledge; contextual knowledge; assertiveness and intuition.

On the other hand, significant gaps for Paraprofessionals were found in the following areas:
sign language; interpreting/translating skills; contextual knowledge; memory skills;
concentration skills; listening skills; self-monitoring skills; self-confidence; world knowledge;
reputation; objectivity; spelling skills; situational management skills; specialist knowledge;
general intelligence; self-discipline; analytical skills; and assertiveness.

The different ratings ascribed by practitioners depending on their level of accreditation, and the
resulting data as noted above, show some interesting patterns. Firstly, as one might expect,
Paraprofessionals seem to demonstrate a greater number of gaps in their skills base across a
wider range of skill domains. What is more interesting however, is the type of skills, knowledge
and abilities identified as the most variable in terms of importance, and the interpreters
measurement of their competence.

Maurer et al. (2003) propose that some characteristics of people are fixed and other attributes
may be more malleable. They consider that characteristics that may fall into the category of
dispositional qualities should be the most difficult to develop or change, whilst characteristics
that more evidently belong in the category of technical knowledge and skills should be easier to
improve or change (Spencer and Spencer 1993, cited in Maurer et al. 2003).
61
Regarding the skills gaps of Professionals and Paraprofessionals, it could be suggested that
more of the gaps identified by Professional level interpreters are disposition based. On the other
hand, the most significant gaps existing at Paraprofessional level are technical skill and
knowledge domains, although a number of gaps in disposition-based characteristics are evident
in the Paraprofessional group too.

Some of the skills or attributes noted are similar in both groups, with in fact only public
speaking skills and intuition being rated differently by Professionals. Professionals typically
rated these as very important but rated themselves as competent rather than very
competent on these variables.

Data collected from the Paraprofessionals on the other hand identified highly significant gaps in
sign language skills and interpreting and translating skills. These were rated as extremely
important but Paraprofessional respondents typically considered themselves only competent
in these domains. On a fundamental level, Paraprofessionals have a clear skills gap in both these
areas when compared to Professionals.

This concern was also identified in the qualitative data reported by some respondents, who
noted skill variation amongst practitioners, and the need for ongoing compulsory professional
development and training, regardless of accreditation level. One respondent notes:
there needs to be improved focus on continued learning post-accreditation. Achieving
accreditation should not be seen as an end to training requirements. Without continuing
training interpreters may not have any feedback on their skills, which may deteriorate or
plateau. The current training programs could instill a false sense of ability, which only has
a short life span before effectiveness turns to unconscious incompetence.

In relation to the variable of interpreting and translating skills, Ericsson noted that research
suggests expert interpreters are better able to attend and focus on only those aspects of the
presented message that are relevant and critical to an accurate translation (2000:203).
Effectively, Professionals should be better able to unpack a message to get to its essential
meaning than Paraprofessionals. The findings of this study certainly indicate that
Paraprofessionals view themselves as less competent than Professionals at this skill, yet the
ability to understand the core meaning and intent of a message and to strategically manage
message transfer are vital aspects of simultaneous interpretation (Gerver et al. 1984, Napier
62
2002). This indicates far more intensive training and deliberate practice of these skills is needed
by less proficient interpreters.

The challenge for practitioners is identifying areas that need work and then committing to
address those skills gaps. Survey responses suggest that many Professionals accepted personal
responsibility for improving their skills to reach the higher level of accreditation, or for
maintaining their advanced skills and avoiding arrested development. One respondent notes if
you needed extra practice in an area you would seek that out yourself.

Paraprofessionals noted gaps between importance of skill and their competence in the skills or
attributes in additional areas as follows: listening skills, spelling skills, reputation, situation
management, general intelligence and analytical skills. These differ from some of the gaps
identified by Professionals. It could be considered that Professionals, as more experienced
practitioners, are more aware of how a skill such as public speaking ability, and a dispositional
trait such as intuition, affects their work. These were not variables that provided information of
interest amongst Paraprofessionals surveyed, yet featured in the Professional data. A
Professional interpreter also specifically identified disposition characteristics as necessary for
effective performance in the profession, noting that personal attributes need to be examined
and worked upon to enhance the skills interpreters require.

Alternatively, Paraprofessionals largely focused on technical skills often recognized as areas of
concern for practitioners gaining experience in the field. A key example would be productive
and receptive fingerspelling skills, which is thought to be one of the markers of difference
between Paraprofessionals and Professionals, but has not been the subject of formal
investigation in Australia.

This offers evidence of training requirements for Paraprofessionals, in order to develop their
skills to the standard required at Professional level. Specifically, the significantly different gaps
in technical skills as identified by Paraprofessionals in two key performance dimensions for the
profession, namely sign language skills and interpreting/translating skills, are clearly critical.
Bridging the gap between Professionals and Paraprofessionals requires intensive training on
these fundamental skills.

63
According to the organizational psychology literature, the degree of importance of a skill in the
job, and the individuals belief in the possible improvability of the skill, knowledge or ability,
is strongly linked to corresponding improvement of critical skills (Maurer et al. 2003). Much
seems to come down to the individual and their confidence in their ability to draw what they
need from training opportunities and other contexts for development. According to one
respondent in the study, my experience has been that those who are confident, assertive people
who are able to self-monitor and are willing to learn, will be good interpreters anyway. This
view was endorsed by other interpreter respondents who noted, one of the major barriers to
programmes developing competent interpreters is the issue of self-confidence, and success
still depends on the individual.

It is possible, and certainly highly desirable, to deliver appropriate training to interpreters to
improve their skills, and therefore their overall level of competence and performance. This view
is reinforced by Ericsson, who notes that, when highly experienced individuals are
appropriately motivated, they are able to improve their objective performance, sometimes
dramatically (2000:189). Further to this research, the key is to ensure that training
opportunities do not only focus on the relevant technical skill areas needing attention as
reported by practitioners, but also that an awareness of dispositional traits and individual
characteristics form part of interpreter education programmes and professional development
sessions. The findings of this study therefore have considerable implications for training and
future research in Australia and internationally.

3.5.4 Study limitations
It should be acknowledged that sampling error may be possible, in that certain sub-groups
within the interpreting sector would be more likely to respond to a call for participants in survey
research. Furthermore, the small size of the sign language interpreting community in Australia
meant that although questionnaires were returned anonymously, the demographic data provided
may have meant that some participants were identifiable, perhaps affecting responses.

Another potential weakness of the study is the opportunity for respondents to answer the
questions posed based on an image of how they would like to see themselves represented versus
how they actually are (i.e. a social-desirability bias, or the Hawthorne effect). For example,
respondents may not wish to admit to being less than competent as a practitioner and could
64
intentionally misrepresent this information to the researchers. However, the findings in this
study did not present unexpected outcomes, so this is an unlikely limitation in this case.

The length and detail of the questionnaire may have presented barriers to participation for some.
In terms of using a self-report measure administered as a questionnaire, the veracity of reports
from participants can sometimes be of concern. This is a flaw of all social research survey
design, and is not unique to this study.

3.6. Implications and conclusion
Accreditation level has emerged as a significant dimension in the context of self-reported level
of competence and skill for Auslan/English interpreters. The results of this study have
implications for:
(i) the content and improvement of training courses for entry level practitioners;
(ii) professional development targeting the training needs of all practitioners already in
the field;
(iii) addressing the skills gaps, and therefore the training needs, specifically of
Paraprofessionals seeking to advance their skills and gain Professional level
accreditation.

This study is the first of its kind to apply a survey measure to sign language interpreter
practitioners requesting them to assess the importance of various knowledge, skills and abilities
required by practitioners, and to rate their competence on those domains, thus obtaining skills
gap data. The data generated by the questionnaire is considerable and this paper only reports on
one aspect of the data, and there is opportunity for further research on other aspects of
interpreter competence and performance, and further analysis of the data.

It is noted that targeted research with trainee interpreters would assist in more accurately
pinpointing the gaps in skills as defined by trainees. Such information could then be compared
to the data reported in this study by Paraprofessionals and Professionals. Collecting information
on the interpreter education courses available in Australia, student pass rates and a profile of
successful graduates would be of value, as well as obtaining trainee interpreter input on the
perceived efficacy of interpreter education programmes in Australia.

65
In addition, when developing and delivering professional development programmes for
accredited interpreters, applying the information gained from the skills gap analysis would be of
use. This would provide tailored, needs-based training to Paraprofessionals, but could also mean
that Professionals with advanced training needs are able to have their needs met.

Currently, interpreters functioning at the higher end of the profession are less likely to have
their training needs met by skill development opportunities on offer (Elliott 2002). Such
professional development activities should not be exclusively centred on technical skill
development, but should incorporate dispositional traits awareness, resilience and capacity
building features suited to the development of all practitioners. Ericsson (2000) supports this
view, noting that people wanting to achieve, or maintain, expert levels of performance need to
avoid fossilization by continuing to acquire and develop their skills across a range of domains.

Mentoring for all interpreters and periods of internship for newly accredited trainees is highly
recommended (Frishberg 1994). This is increasingly being identified as a real need by
Australian practitioners (Napier 2006), as supported by some unprompted comments from
respondents, including the following - a minimum number of mentored jobs undertaken by
new interpreters in their first year might enable a more effective and efficient transition into the
profession; and training programs are only the beginning for interpreters. Practice in the field
with appropriate mentors will ensure appropriate standards.

As is evidenced herein, the most competent practitioners are accredited at Professional level, yet
they are a significant minority in the profession in Australia. Proceeding to Professional level
does not happen automatically, and skill development does not occur without some effort.
Allowing opportunity for more formalized nurturing of skill and exchange of reflective
information and knowledge through appropriately designed training opportunities or courses,
via mentoring relationships, or other strategies such as observation and diagnostic skills analysis
of performance in the workplace, will be critical in allowing practitioners to reach higher levels
of performance.

Something that has not been addressed by the sector in Australia, and only in a rudimentary
fashion overseas, is research on the significant role of the interpreter educator in the adoption of
a lifelong learning philosophy, and the teaching/learning experience of practitioners. A master
teacher is potentially very effective in interpreter training (Ericsson 2000) and comments from
66
respondents in this research study regarding the skill level, attributes and qualifications of
trainers on interpreting courses were consistently firm in this regard. Accomplished and
respected practitioners who are teachers or trainers have an important role in supporting lesser
skilled practitioners and trainees in acquiring the necessary skills for successful performance in
the field. However, being a master practitioner of interpreting does not equate to being a
master teacher of interpreting. Developing a profile of the current picture of interpreter
educators and trainers in Australia and establishing a list of desirable traits and skills required
and recommended for performance as a competent and effective interpreter educator, trainer or
mentor would appear to be a natural progression after identifying the competencies and skills
gaps for interpreters, and may also benefit sign language interpreter educators worldwide.
Developing standards or guidelines in this regard may lead to less variation in quality across
interpreter education programmes, training courses and professional development activities.

In addition, further research regarding the specific disposition-based characteristics that may be
predictive of effective performance as an interpreter would be welcome, and could contribute to
the growing body of information regarding the skills, knowledge and abilities required for
competent interpreting practice, and indeed, aptitude for interpreting.

In the meantime, practitioners, interpreter educators, service providers and service users are
cautioned to mind the gap with regard to expectations of interpreter competence and
performance, and to actively take steps to mitigate the disparity in skill that currently exists in
the field.

3.7 References

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about Our Abilities and Our Knowledge, Personality and Individual Differences, 33(4): 587
606.

Anderson, Glenn. and Linda. Stauffer. (1990). Identifying Standards for the Training of
Interpreters for Deaf People, University of Arkansas, Rehabilitation Research and Training
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Banna, Karin. (2004). Auslan Interpreting: What Can We Learn from Translation Theory? Deaf
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Cokely, Dennis. (1992). Interpretation: A Sociolinguistic Model, Burtonsville: Linstok Press.

Dean, Robyn. K. and Robert. Q. Pollard. (2001). Application of Demand-control Theory to Sign
Language Interpreting: Implications for Stress and Interpreter Training, Journal of Deaf Studies
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Elliott, Marlene. (2002). Skill Development for Advanced Interpreters: An Attempt to Unlock
the Puzzle, in Laurie Swabey (Ed.) New Designs in Interpreter Education: Proceedings of the
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Ericsson, K. Anders. (2000). Expertise in Interpreting: An Expert-performance Perspective,
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Flynn, John. W. (1996). Reflections on Sign Language Interpreting, in Proceedings of the
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Frishberg, Nancy. (1986). Interpreting: An Introduction, Silver Spring, MD: RID Publications.

Frishberg, Nancy. (1994). Internship, Practicum, Fieldwork, Mentoring. In Elizabeth Winston
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Gish, Sandra. (1992). A Vygotskian Perspective on Interpreter Assessment. In Elizabeth
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Leneham, Marcel and Jemina Napier (2003) Sign Language Interpreters Codes of Ethics:
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Madden, Maree. (2005). The Prevalence of Occupational Overuse Syndrome in Signed
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Maurer, Todd. J., Kimberly. A. Wrenn, Heather. R. Pierce, Stuart. A. Tross and William. C.
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Napier, Jemina. (2002). Sign Language Interpreting: Linguistic Coping Strategies, Coleford,
England: Douglas Maclean.

Napier, Jemina. (2006). The New Kid on the Block: Mentoring Sign Language Interpreters in
Australia, Journal of Interpretation, 25-46.

Napier, Jemina and Roz Barker (2003) A Demographic Survey of Australian Sign Language
Interpreters, Australian Journal of Education of the Deaf, 9: 19-32.

Napier, Jemina., Karen Bontempo and Marcel Leneham. (2006). Sign Language Interpreting in
Australia: An Overview, VIEWS: Magazine of the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf (April
edition): 1, 7, 8, 45 (cover story).

Napier, Jemina., Della. Goswell and Rachel. McKee (2006) Sign Language Interpreting:
Theory & Practice in Australia and New Zealand, Sydney: Federation Press.

Orima Research (2004) A Report on the Supply and Demand for Auslan Interpreters across
Australia. Report commissioned by Commonwealth Department of Family and Community
Services, Australia. Available at: http://www.facs.gov.au/disability/auslan_report/contents.htm

Ozolins, Uldis and Marianne Bridge. (1999). Sign Language Interpreting in Australia,
Melbourne, Language Australia.

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Course: A Collaborative Venture: Proceedings of the 10th National Convention of the
Conference of Interpreter Trainers, USA: CIT. 53-56.

Peterson, Rico. (2000). Metacognition and Recall Protocols in the Interpreting Classroom. In
Cynthia B. Roy (Ed.) Innovative Practices for Teaching Sign Language Interpreters,
Washington DC: Gallaudet University Press, 132-152.
70

Potter, Leanne and Kate Leigh (2002). An Investigation into Issues Surrounding the Efficacy
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CHAPTER 4

Emotional stability as a predictor for interpreter competence
and aptitude for interpreting
20


Abstract. This paper proposes that variance in interpreter performance is dependent on factors
of both general cognitive ability and personality. Whilst there is no doubt of the interplay
between individual personality traits and job performance across many occupations, the
greatest interest lies in determining which traits play the most important role; and to what
extent these variables impact on learning and achievement. The paper reports on a study of 110
accredited signed language interpreters in Australia. Psychological constructs of self-efficacy,
goal orientation and negative affectivity were measured, as were interpreter ratings of self-
perceived competence as practitioners. The most significant finding revealed the dimension of
emotional stability (represented on the negative end of the continuum by traits of anxiety and
neuroticism, and measured in this study by the negative affectivity scale) as a predictor of
interpreters self-perceived competence. Based on these findings, recommendations for
admission testing and interpreter education curricula are discussed.

4.1 Introduction
Despite a recent mini-explosion of research on signed language interpreting, which crosses a
range of disciplines (Napier, in press), very little work since earlier psycholinguistic studies of
the simultaneous sign language interpreting process (e.g. Isham & Lane 1993) has drawn on
psychological constructs to evaluate aspects of the interpreting process, or of signed language
interpreters themselves. By drawing on an established body of psychological research that
informs our understanding of occupations and the relationship between personality and work,
and on established testing protocols, we hope to enhance our understanding of personality and
the work of signed language interpreters.

This paper reports on a study conducted on 110 accredited signed language interpreters in
Australia. Psychological constructs of self-efficacy, goal orientation and negative affectivity
were measured, as were interpreter ratings of self-perceived competence as a practitioner.

20
The original version of this journal article was published as: Bontempo, Karen and Napier, Jemina (2011) Evaluating
emotional stability as a predictor of interpreter competence and aptitude for interpreting. Interpreting. 13: 1. 85-105.

73
Before presenting an overview of the methodology and results of the study, we review the
relevant literature on psychological and signed language interpreting research.

4.2 Literature review
In recent years it has been more widely accepted that both personality factors and general
cognitive ability influence performance in the classroom and in the workplace. Such
individual differences are further influenced by environmental and social factors, such as
learning conditions. It needs to be stated that the primacy of general cognitive ability as a
predictor of occupational performance remains largely undisputed, despite gains in the field of
personality studies (Ree & Earles 1992; Ree et al. 1994; Schmidt & Hunter 1998). Essentially
this means there is typically a complementary fit between a persons intellectual resources and
the cognitive demands of their chosen occupation.

However, accounting for at least some of the variance in occupational performance amongst
individuals, the research published in recent years demonstrates a convincing relationship
between personality and performance as well (Barrick & Mount 2005; Barrick et al. 2001).
Although personality may be only a small part of the bigger picture, Ones et al. (2007) suggest
that personality constructs may account for specific attitudes, behaviors and performance in an
occupational context. Notably, the role of personality in successful completion of courses of
study (Phillips et al. 2003); skill acquisition (Oakes et al. 2001); job performance (Judge et al.
1999); and career success (Bozionelos 2004) should not be underestimated. An individuals
preferences and desires evidently influence his/her person-vocation fit (Reeve & Heggestad
2004), and adaptability, positive relationships, openness to experiences, and social and
psychological capital (Fouad 2007: 556) impact on career exploration. Ultimately, individual
personality differences do relate to outcomes at work.

Furthermore, it is now understood that the actual relationship between general cognitive ability
and personality is negligible. There may be a very bright individual who is lazy, anxious,
insecure and unmotivated, which potentially impacts on job performance and productivity.
Similarly, there may be a very responsible, goal oriented, secure and careful individual who
may lack the general cognitive ability required for a particular job, even if apparently suited in
temperament. It appears personality is a poor predictor of general cognitive ability, and that
tests of cognitive ability should be interpreted separately from personality tests administered to
individuals, with limited inferences made between the constructs. This reinforces the view that
74
attention needs to be paid to both general cognitive ability and personality factors in
any recruitment and selection process in an occupational context (Judge et al. 1999).

Barrick and Mount (2005) describe the cognitive factors affecting job performance as the can
do factors an individual needs a requisite level of general cognitive ability, to perform the
tasks inherent in the job. Personality however may be described as the will do factor will
the person be dependable, motivated, confident and goal-oriented enough to apply their
individual capabilities towards effectively performing the tasks of the job? In essence, and quite
logically, performance is predicated on both ability/capacity and motivation/willingness factors.

To concentrate research efforts on the cognitive factors that may predict performance in a
profession is neglectful of the range of affective factors that have implications for the
psychology of work. Without belittling the obvious importance of general cognitive ability in
interpreters (including linguistic proficiency, intelligence, working memory, processing speed
and so on), the present study examines more specifically those personality factors that may be
predictive of performance and central to understanding individual differences in this field of
work.

4.2.1 Personality and job performance
Empirical evidence indicates the most significant broad personality construct that consistently
predicts occupational performance is conscientiousness (Mount & Barrick 1998; Salgado 1997;
Bozionelos 2004). This appears logical, with conscientiousness as a construct that includes traits
where a person strives for achievement; is self-disciplined, dutiful, dependable, persistent, goal-
oriented, organized, responsible, efficient, thorough, deliberate, hard-working, and a
perfectionist (Judge et al. 1999). It may be surmised that these are characteristics that employers
and educators would probably like to see in their employees and students.

The other construct that has revealed the most interesting findings is that of emotional stability,
which is positively related to on-the-job success and work performance (Salgado 1997; Mount
& Barrick 1998; Judge et al. 1999; Barrick et al. 2001; OBrien et al. 2008). Emotional stability
can be seen as a continuum, with one end of the scale being emotional stability and the other
being emotional instability, often also described as neuroticism, which is closely linked to trait
anxiety. Sub-traits of neuroticism include insecurity, fearfulness, worry, tendency towards
depression/negative moods, feelings of guilt, high emotional reactivity and irritability.
75
Bozionelos (2004) adds that individuals who score high on this dimension often have low self-
confidence and are more vulnerable to stress. At the other end of the continuum, individuals
who score low in neuroticism tend to be more emotionally stable and calmer, experience fewer
persistent negative emotions, and react less severely to stress. Trait anxiety and neuroticism has
been collectively described and measured on some personality tests as negative affectivity
an enduring tendency to experience negative mood and emotion.

Given the confirmed significance of emotional stability in predicting work performance in the
wider literature, it is a construct of interest in researching aptitude for interpreting. The research
on foreign language learning achievement points to anxiety having a negative impact on
language learning and success in second language acquisition (Gregersen & Horwitz 2002;
Drnyei 2005). Theories suggest second language learning poses a significant personal threat to
self-concept and self-confidence in students (Onwuegbuzie et al. 2000), and traits of
perfectionism and self-consciousness can be highly detrimental to language learners (Gregersen
& Horwitz 2002). Additionally, a students self-efficacy (a belief in ones capacity to undertake
a task) and self-confidence may be diminished in a second language learning classroom due to
the nature of the tasks undertaken and the extent of teacher correction that is often required
(Drnyei 2005). Such findings could easily be applied to interpreting students, and indeed to the
practice of interpreting.

4.2.2 Research on personality and interpreters
To date however, there appears to be little empirical research on the emotional stability of
interpreters. A handful of pioneering studies with very low numbers of signed language
interpreter participants were conducted to investigate interpreter personality (Schein 1974 and
Frishberg & Enders 1974, both cited in Frishberg 1990; Rudser & Strong 1986; Doerfert &
Wilcox 1986), but these studies had few points of agreement.

More recent international studies, at times including larger samples of participants and
occasionally including both spoken and signed language interpreters, have been somewhat more
successful in trying to pin-point factors predictive of interpreter performance. In defining a
wider range of cognitive and personality measurements, the following researchers have started
to identify some common themes of interest with regard to predicting proficiency and outlining
characteristics that may contribute to success in interpreting courses and in the profession of
signed language interpreting.
76
Lpez Gmez et al. (2007) administered a battery of tests to 28 signed language interpreting
students in Spain, examining perceptual-motor coordination, cognitive skills, personality factors
and academic background. Perceptual-motor coordination was found to be the most significant
predictor of proficiency in learning a signed language. Cognitive and personality factors were
also found to be influential, although personality factors to a lesser degree than cognitive skills.
The personality factor of dominance was found to be of particular interest high scores on this
factor indicated a person was assertive, resourceful, confident, task-oriented, responsible, and
stress-resistant. Low scores point to low self-confidence, rigidity in problem solving and
unreliability. Lpez Gmez et al. found this trait of dominance to be relevant as a predictor of
signed language interpreting abilities, which supports Rudser and Strongs (1986) earlier work.
In addition, cognitive abilities such as abstract reasoning and memory skills were identified as
important, supporting the findings of Seal (2004). Academic background was not found to have
a significant bearing on results.

After surveying 1357 signed language interpreter education program participants and faculty in
North America and Europe, Shaw and Hughes (2006) identified characteristics thought to be
most important for the successful completion of interpreting coursework and those
characteristics perceived as most in need of development in students. Their research highlighted
three areas of interest academic habits and skills, information processing skills and personality
characteristics. In many cases, students and faculty held different opinions. On the personality
characteristics scale, however, both groups firmly agreed that self-confidence was vitally
important but also in great need of further development in students.

Shaw and Hughes (2006) note that academic habits and personal qualities and traits may seem
to influence success in courses and in the profession, but until causal factors for student
success are established, caution should be used in developing admission screening devices that
do not account for the students ability to learn, develop and enhance critical personal and
cognitive characteristics (p. 218).

Shaw, Grbic and Franklin (2004) held focus groups with spoken and signed language
interpreting students to compare their perceptions of factors that contribute to, or inhibit,
readiness to apply language skills to interpretation studies. Essentially they found that students
experience a period of transition and quickly realize that the task of interpreting is more
complex than being bilingual. Participants specifically identified confidence and risk-taking as
77
primary personality assets that contributed to successful adaptation and performance while
studying interpreting, in line with the earlier work of Rudser and Strong (1986).

In analysing 1379 signed and spoken language interpreting students responses to a personality
questionnaire, Stauffer and Shaw (2006) did not identify any significant predictive
characteristics. Stauffer and Shaw did not administer a recognised psychometric instrument to
study participants; instead they analysed responses regarding 17 personality characteristics
considered relevant for interpreters. The characteristics were derived from the focus group
discussions with practitioners in the earlier study by Shaw et al. (2004) mentioned above.
Although their scale did not produce significant findings regarding predictive dispositional
traits, Stauffer and Shaw recommended that researchers undertake further work to clearly
identify the specific personality elements that may predict success in interpreter education
programs and later in the field, and that such elements then be introduced into student selection
processes for entry into interpreter education programs.

Findings regarding the psychological make up of the signed language interpreter point to the
potential role of personality in successful occupational performance. However the research
conducted to date has delivered inconsistent results, and in the vast majority of cases, has been
conducted on interpreting students rather than practitioners. The studies that have been
conducted with interpreting practitioners have often included very small samples of
practitioners, resulting in sampling errors and an inability to generalize findings.

No study to date has obtained a psychological profile from a viable number of qualified
interpreters with a measurement of emotional stability, to determine whether emotional stability
is a salient predictor of performance in the study of interpreting, and/or for the occupation of
interpreting. This is despite evidence that suggests the capacity to control stress should be a
prerequisite for interpreting (Moser-Mercer 1985; Brisau et al. 1994; Kurz 2003); and the
intuitive understanding that higher levels of neuroticism, anxiety and reactivity to stress in an
individual are likely to impede the acquisition and performance of interpreting skills.

4.2.3 Self-efficacy, goal orientation and negative affectivity
A number of factors that could be considered promising non-cognitive predictors of
occupational performance have never been measured in signed language interpreters. These
aspects of personality include factors of self-efficacy, goal orientation and negative affectivity,
78
all constructs that can be measured with existing valid and reliable psychometric tools, and
considered predictive of performance in a variety of contexts.

Self-efficacy is essentially a level of expectancy of succeeding at a task, resulting from belief in
ones overall performance competence (Chen et al. 2001). It is widely considered a powerful
predictor of effective learning, work attitudes and job performance. Furthermore, self-efficacy is
considered to be associated with the psychological constructs of self-concept, self-esteem and
assertiveness (Choi et al. 2001). Self-efficacy is also positively related to conscientiousness
(Chen et al. 2001), perseverance, feedback seeking, learning and achievement in training and
employment contexts (Bell & Kozlowski 2002).

Achievement goal theory is related to motivation (Dweck & Leggett 1988). Specifically, goal
orientation is a dispositional trait that leads some individuals to seek challenging tasks and to
thrive under difficult conditions. When faced with failure, such individuals consider the
experience grounds for useful feedback, and take action towards sustaining or improving future
performance (Button et al. 1996).

Like self-efficacy, goal orientation is considered a relatively stable personality trait. In this
paper we are specifically concerned with learning goal orientation (rather than performance
goal orientation, a related but different construct), given its potential link to aptitude for
interpreting. Learning goal orientation is sometimes described in the literature as mastery
orientation or action orientation, and is a desire to develop oneself, to acquire new skills, to
improve ones competence or to master a new situation or context (Bell & Kozlowski 2002).

It is suggested by Dweck and Leggett (1988) that the disposition trait of goal orientation at least
partially determines locus of control. Locus of control is an important concept in personality
psychology and refers to the extent to which an individual believes they have personal control
over outcomes or events that occur in their lives. In essence, the difference between believing
fate or chance has dealt them their lot in life, that is, having a high external locus of control,
versus believing one is responsible for ones own actions and behaviours, that is, having a high
internal locus of control. People with a high internal locus of control tend to assume they will
be successful (within reason) at whatever they try, and that they can problem-solve to influence
events and situations in their own lives. People with a high external locus of control exhibit a
type of learned helplessness, tend to be less resilient, and more prone to stress, anxiety and
79
depression due to their low level of perceived personal control (Skinner & Greene 2008). Goal
orientation is also positively linked to self-esteem (Button et al. 1996) and to self-efficacy
people with high levels of learning orientation seem to be buffered by the negative effects of
failure (Bell & Kozlowski 2002). Indeed, people who are learning-goal oriented are not
threatened by failure; to them, failure represents an opportunity to extend ones competence
through enhanced effort (Button et al. 1996: 31).

A final dimension of interest is negative affectivity (Watson et al. 1988). As noted earlier,
negative affectivity (NA) is a specific dispositional construct closely linked to neuroticism and
trait anxiety. It can be considered either a trait (enduring temperament) or a state (temporary
mood), but for the purposes of this study we are measuring it as a trait. The literature suggests
people with high levels of negative affectivity respond poorly in stressful situations, have less
resourceful coping strategies, are more emotionally reactive, become anxious more rapidly,
have a negative perception of themselves, and tend to always see the negative side of a situation
or a problem. People with low levels of negative affectivity on the other hand display a more
positive outlook on life, have better coping strategies for dealing with stress, are more
emotionally stable, and so on. Essentially, high NA individuals respond differently to stressors
compared to low NA individuals (Watson & Clark 1984).

A study by OBrien et al. (2008) found that when presented with high demand tasks with low
behavioral controls, people with high NA were more likely to use negative, and often emotion-
based, coping strategies such as self-blame, and later reported lower levels of task
satisfaction/job satisfaction. OBrien et al. also found people high in NA to be particularly
responsive to the amount of personal control they have in their work environment and very
reactive to negative features of the environment. Furthermore, high NA individuals may not
respond to, or make use of, positive resources within the environment (OBrien et al. 2008:
76).

The constructs of self-efficacy, goal orientation and negative affectivity appear well-suited for
further investigation in signed language interpreters, given that interest in some of these
constructs, or related dimensions, have been touched on in the literature previously regarding
the psychology of interpreters (Rudser & Strong 1986; Shaw et al. 2004). Furthermore, the
findings drawn from studies on second language acquisition (Onwuegbuzie et al. 2000;
Gregersen & Horwitz 2002) indicate that some of these factors may be worth exploring in
80
interpreters. In addition, these constructs are acknowledged to have predictive value in the
wider psychology literature on evaluating occupational performance and personality links (Bell
& Kozlowski 2002).

Researchers like Skinner and Greene (2008) note that individual differences and perceived
control are significant predictors of motivation, coping and success or failure in a wide variety
of lifespan activities. Given the clear overlap between efficacy, perception of
control/orientation, emotionality and the interplay of these constructs with personal competence,
we should expect to see interesting patterns on these dimensions when measured in accredited
signed language interpreters. The results of the investigation might then lead to the collection of
these measures into a simple personality test battery to test interpreter aptitude (to be used in
conjunction with other measures of cognitive ability, see for example Macnamara 2009). As
predictive validity for these scales has already been established, the goal would be to use a
simple test battery for screening purposes, with a view to determining aptitude for the
interpreting skill, based on disposition factors.

4.3 Research hypotheses
To examine the unexplored psychological constructs in signed language interpreters, the
following hypotheses were formulated:

1. Goal orientation will be positively related to perceived interpreter competence;
2. Self-efficacy will be positively related to perceived interpreter competence;
3. Negative affectivity will be inversely related to perceived interpreter competence;
4. Goal orientation, self-efficacy and negative affectivity will be salient predictors of
interpreter competence.

These hypotheses were formulated on the basis of the literature and of the researchers
extensive expertise as working practitioners and educators of interpreters.

4.4 Methodology
To test the above hypotheses, a mail questionnaire was designed for distribution in Australia,
drawing on literature from organizational psychology and personality psychology, interpreting
and translation studies, and applied linguistics. The survey was designed to determine the
incidence and distribution of, and interrelations among, sociological and psychological
81
variables. We compared respondents personal parameters (such as their route to qualification,
level of qualification, years of interpreting experience, etc.) with their opinions and attitudes
about general linguistic skill, other knowledge and abilities, overall competence and some
personality measures. Demographic information was obtained in order to develop a profile of
the participants and the profession, and to allow for examination of the relations among these
variables as well as the overall interpreting competence rating reported by respondents
21
. In
addition, participants were asked about their perception of the effectiveness of interpreter
education programs for Auslan (Australian Sign Language)/English interpreters
22
.

4.4.1 Participants
Accreditation by the National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters (NAATI)
as an Auslan/English interpreter (described hereafter as Auslan interpreter) was an essential
criterion for participation in the study to ensure that only practitioners who met minimum
benchmarks for work in the field could respond to the study. Survey respondents had passed an
interpreting examination at a prior point in time (either via a NAATI approved course of study
or by direct NAATI testing) either at Paraprofessional or Professional Interpreter level
23
.
NAATI accreditation is the only recognized licence to practice as an interpreter in Australia (in
both spoken and signed languages), and federal legislation such as the Disability Discrimination
Act, and state government language policies protect the rights of deaf people to demand a
NAATI-accredited Auslan interpreter when accessing services in the wider community.

As only NAATI-accredited Auslan interpreters could participate, potential subjects were
identified and sourced via a number of avenues. Information regarding the study was distributed
nationally using direct mailing lists and through snowball sampling. A flyer regarding the study
was posted or e-mailed to 500 accredited Auslan interpreters on the NAATI mailing list at that
time. All accredited Auslan interpreters were eligible and could self-select to participate in the
study. Information was also distributed by the large employers of signed language interpreters
in Australia at the time, and by the Australian Sign Language Interpreters Association
(ASLIA). Employers and ASLIA would have had access to most of the same population

21
Findings with regard to interpreter perceptions of competence and reported skills gaps are discussed in detail in Bontempo &
Napier (2007) Chapter 3 of this thesis.
22
A discussion of the perceived efficacy of interpreter education programs and program admission testing for Auslan interpreters
can be found in Bontempo & Napier (2009) Chapter 5 of this thesis.
23
Refer to NAATI website http://www.naati.com.au/at-accreditation.html for more details. Only Paraprofessional Interpreter and
Professional Interpreter levels are available to Auslan interpreters.

82
contacted directly by NAATI, with information estimated to have reached approximately 200
working interpreters via employers and approximately 300 members of ASLIA at that time,
with some overlap
24
. It is estimated that approximately 500 accredited Auslan interpreters
received information about the study via one or more sources.

Interested parties contacted the researchers and were then sent the questionnaire by e-mail or
regular mail, along with introductory information, and a stamped addressed envelope if
requested. A total of 82 Auslan interpreters requested a copy of the questionnaire. Surveys were
not coded in any way, so it is not possible to determine if all of the requesting parties returned a
completed questionnaire.

A total of 110 completed questionnaires were received from interpreter respondents, which is
more than the number of requests received for the survey. It is assumed that some respondents
may have passed a copy of the questionnaire on to colleagues, or that some employers
forwarded copies of the survey directly to interpreter employees.

Whilst 722 interpreters had been accredited by NAATI between 1982 and the release of the
survey in early 2005, a report commissioned by the Federal Government Department of Family
and Community Services noted that only 257 accredited interpreters were working in the field
at that time (Orima 2004). This was a little more than the figure reported by employers
(approximately 200 active interpreters were sent the flyer by employers) and a little less than
the national ASLIA membership at the time (approximately 300 members) and therefore
appears to be an accurate reflection of the number of working practitioners in early 2005.

Thus an estimated response rate of 42% (110 respondents / an assumed pool of 257 working
practitioners) was considered more than adequate. This is considered a higher than average
return rate in survey methodology, whereby a return rate of 20-30% is deemed to be acceptable
(Jackson 2003).




24
ASLIA allows student membership, and inactive interpreters can also retain membership. Membership of ASLIA is not
compulsory for practice in Australia, so ASLIA membership numbers are not directly reflective of the number of accredited
and active Auslan interpreters in Australia.

83
4.4.2 The instrument
The survey instrument was a 10-page questionnaire, including a carefully planned set of
questions based on the literature. A total of 22 questions were presented, arranged in related
subsets of five main sections demographic information; skills gap information; perceptions of
performance; interpreter education programs/training options; and personality rating scales,
which were drawn from existing psychometric measures and are well documented in the
literature.

In summary, a combination of open-ended, close-ended, partially open ended, and various
Likert rating scales (with five options, to obtain interval data) were to be completed by
participants. The rating scales pertained to overall competency as an interpreter, a detailed skills
gap analysis, and various self-reporting personality measures of self-efficacy, negative
affectivity, and goal orientation.

The first ten questions collected sociological data, to develop a profile of the profession in
Australia. These included closed questions and partially open-ended questions regarding work
status, accreditation level, year of accreditation, work setting, age group, gender, state or
territory of residence, first language, secondary schooling, post-secondary schooling and extent
of formal interpreter education completed.

Question 11 listed fifty defined skills and areas of knowledge that may be relevant to signed
language interpreters, as drawn from the literature. Participants were asked to rate the
importance of each skill, knowledge or ability, and correspondingly, offer their assessment of
their own competence in that particular skill or knowledge domain. This information provided
the researchers with quantifiable skills gap data.

Questions 12 to 17 were open-ended, asking participants to express their thoughts on additional
skills, knowledge or abilities of an Auslan interpreter not listed in question 11: the effectiveness
of interpreter training; reasoning for decisions in regard to work selection; and perceptions of
performance. These questions were designed to provide qualitative data, which could then be
cross-referenced with the quantitative data collected.

84
Respondents were then asked to rate themselves on a scale, assessing their overall competence
as an interpreter on question 18. This information would provide a key variable in relation to
interpreters responses on other sociological and psychological variables.

Questions 19, 20 and 21 were scales with an established history of use in the fields of
organizational and personality psychology, assessing the constructs of goal orientation, negative
affectivity and self-efficacy respectively.

The goal orientation scale developed by Button et al. (1996) formed question 19. This scale is
used to measure achievement motivation in individuals, by tapping into learning goal
orientation. Of the range of popular goal orientation scales available, it is considered the most
reliable and valid, and Button et al. (1996) provide evidence of its construct validity. Other
researchers have also found it to be particularly reliable (Bell & Kozlowski 2002). An 8-item set
of questions for this dispositional variable was also included. Respondents answers ranged
from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5).

Question 20 was the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) developed by Watson,
Clark and Tellegen (1988), a tool that demonstrates high levels of internal consistency and
stability, and is widely considered a reliable, valid and efficient means of measuring dimensions
of positive and negative affectivity. It correlates highly with other tools measuring similar
constructs (for example, the NA items on the PANAS correlates well with the Beck Depression
Inventory). The 10-item version (for each PA and NA) of the PANAS was administered in the
survey, and respondents scored their answers on a Likert scale of from very slightly/not at all
(1) to extremely (5).

The last scale at question 21 was a self-efficacy measurement tool, using the New General Self-
Efficacy scale (NGSE) developed by Chen et al. (2001). This scale is internally consistent and
stable, has high content and predictive validity, and consists of only 8 items, making it more
attractive than previous iterations of general self-efficacy scales. Respondents answered
questions on a response scale of strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5).

Finally, at the open-ended question 22, participants were encouraged to add comments and
anything further if they so wished.

85
The first draft of the questionnaire was piloted with two Paraprofessional Interpreters and one
Professional Interpreter to obtain feedback regarding the comprehensibility of the material, and
suitability of the line of questioning. Following the review and feedback by colleagues, some
minor amendments were made to the preliminary version before it was released to participants
in the study.

4.4.3 Procedure
Participants in the study completed the survey instrument after receiving it in the mail, or via e-
mail. Questionnaires were estimated to take up to 40 minutes to complete, and respondents
completed the survey in English (handwritten or typed responses were possible) at their leisure
and in their own preferred environment. Participants had access to information about the study
and potential possession of the questionnaire for up to 8 weeks, and returned their
questionnaires by post or e-mail upon completion. Analysis of the completed questionnaires
centered on any areas of significance, using descriptive as well as parametric and non-
parametric inferential statistical analysis.

4.5 Results
A total of 110 NAATI-accredited signed language interpreters returned completed
questionnaires. 67.3% of these were accredited at Paraprofessional level and 32.7% at
Professional Interpreter level. The age range of participating interpreters varied from 20 years to
over 60 years, but the largest group was aged between 30 and 49 years (74.5%). The gender
profile of respondents was 83.5% female and 16.5% male. Tertiary education qualifications
issued by either a Technical and Further Education (TAFE) college, or a university, were held
by 86.4% of respondents.

Details regarding demographic findings and skills gaps for interpreters are reported in
Bontempo & Napier (2007), but in summary, the sociological data collected from participants
offered a profile of the typical Auslan interpreter respondent. She is female, between 30 and
49 years of age, works part-time as an interpreter in community interpreting assignments, is
accredited at NAATI Paraprofessional level, has English as her first language, has undertaken
formal interpreter training and has a post-secondary qualification of some type (interpreting-
related and/or a generic qualification).

86
The key concern of this paper is the findings in regard to questions 19 to 21 of the survey, and
their relationship with perceived interpreter competence (addressed in question 18). The
psychometric tools used elicited data on self-ratings of goal orientation, self-efficacy and
negative affectivity.

Hypotheses 1 3 predicted that goal orientation (Hypothesis 1) and self-efficacy (Hypothesis 2)
would be positively related to self-perceived interpreter competence, whereas negative
affectivity (Hypothesis 3) would be negatively related.

As shown in Table 4.1, self-perceived interpreter competence is positively related to self
efficacy (r = .21, p < .05) and negatively related to negative affectivity (r = -.26, p < .01).
Perceived interpreter competence was not, however, significantly related to goal orientation. In
summary, hypotheses 2 and 3 were supported whilst hypothesis 1 was not.

Table 4.1: Means (M), standard deviations (SD) and intercorrelations
* = p < .05; ** = p < .01

Measures M SD 1 2 3 4
1. Goal orientation 4.22 .43 -
2. Negative affectivity 1.83 .62 .02 -
3. Self-efficacy 4.16 .42 .44** -.25* -
4. Interpreter competence 3.53 .65 .09 -.26** .21* -


Hypothesis 4 predicted that goal orientation, self-efficacy and negative affectivity would be
salient predictors of perceived interpreter competence. A multiple regression analysis was
conducted in which interpreter competence was regressed on all of the personality constructs.

As shown in Table 4.2, the overall model comprising the three personality factors was
significant, explaining 9% of the variance in ratings of interpreter competence, F = 3.14, p <
87
.05. However, only negative affectivity ( = -.23, p < .05.) was a significant predictor of
interpreter competence.

Table 4.2: Multiple regression analysis for interpreter competence (* = p < .05)











The findings indicate that goal orientation was not a personality factor of major interest and was
not a predictor of interpreter performance in this study. Self-efficacy was only of minor interest.
Negative affectivity on the other hand was a significant predictor of perceived competence,
although the results were not as compelling as anticipated. Effectively however, people who had
high levels of negative affectivity reported lower levels of competence as interpreters.

4.6 Discussion and conclusions
Factors of goal orientation, self-efficacy and negative affectivity were found to account for 9%
of overall variance in ratings of interpreter competence in the study. Although by no means an
overwhelming figure, the result is statistically significant, and does demonstrate personality
impacts on interpreters self-perceptions of competence. This finding is supported by the reports
of other researchers (e.g. Drnyei 2005), who found that personality variables may account for
up to 15% of the variance in individual difference in second-language learning achievement.

Emotional stability, as measured by the negative affectivity scale in this study, demonstrated the
strongest impact in regard to perceived competence. It is known that people with a high level of
negative affectivity may not make use of positive coping resources and may be more reactive to
job-related stressors. Moreover, such individuals are likelier to create stressful work situations
because of their behavioral tendencies (OBrien et al. 2008). It follows that the findings in this
Variables Overall R
2

Goal orientation .04
Negative
affectivity
-.23*
Self-efficacy .13
.09*
88
study may have some practical applications when it comes to occupational stress management
in interpreters. The emotional stability factor may add to our understanding of practitioner
responses to situations of high demand and their use of coping strategies and resources to
mitigate work pressures, expectations and challenges.

The findings herein complement and expand on the work of Rudser and Strong (1986), Seal
(2004), Shaw and Hughes (2006), Stauffer and Shaw (2006) and Lpez Gmez et al. (2007).
They are noteworthy in that they provide further support for the emerging picture of a
relationship between personality and work performance of signed language interpreters.

Further investigation of the predictive power of personality factors in relation to interpreter
performance may be valuable, and may contribute to our unraveling of the predictors of
interpreting skill as well as more effective assessment of aptitude for interpreting.

It appears that we may eventually benefit from considering the notion of personality traits upon
admission into training programs. At this stage, however, since the predictive potential of the
range of factors that may impact on interpreter aptitude and performance is not fully
understood, it may be unwise to implement formal personality testing in program admission
screening. However, the fact remains that a clear relationship between occupational
performance and general cognitive ability, conscientiousness and emotional stability does figure
in the scholarly literature (Schmidt & Hunter 1998; Judge et al. 1999). This body of research,
combined with recent findings of interpreter studies such as this one, suggest that attention to
interpreter disposition should be considered for screening purposes at some point in the future.
The data available to us firmly indicates that in selecting for success, organizations will be
better off selecting individuals who are conscientious and emotionally adjusted (Judge et al.
1999: 647) though we have yet to determine the manner in which this can best be achieved.

Even if they cannot screen for specific personality traits and general cognitive ability at this
stage, interpreter education program coordinators and lecturers may take comfort in the fact that
simply being aware of the impact of trait tendencies (such as negative affectivity) allows for the
opportunity to mitigate effects in the classroom or in workplaces. Incorporating trait awareness
into interpreter training, and developing aspects such as self-confidence, positive coping skills,
assertiveness and resilience would most certainly be useful, given the broader evidence pointing
to these aspects of personality as relevant for effective occupational performance.
89
Teaching interpreting students and accredited practitioners to better manage anxiety and
occupational stress may be conducive to improving their interpreting performance. In addition,
providing practitioners with appropriate formal support structures within the workplace (e.g.
debriefing, supervision, mentoring etc.) may promote emotional well-being and lead to
improved competence and performance.

Although it is understood that aptitude alone cannot predict how an interpreter trainee will
progress through a program of study and into the profession which is clearly dependent on a
range of learner-based characteristics as well as the interaction between learner and teacher, the
instructional conditions and the learning context testing for aptitude can nevertheless provide
us with important information. With significant sums of money and time expended annually in
interpreter education programs world-wide on students who fail to make the grade (Timarova &
Ungoed-Thomas 2008; Bontempo & Napier 2009), it is certainly worth the effort to try and
better define aptitude for learning interpreting.

Whether this leads to more stringent screening of candidates or impacts the curricula of
interpreter education programs remains to be seen. What we do know is that, in the signed
language interpreting field in some countries, such as Australia, the current supply of qualified
interpreters does not meet the demand in the marketplace (Orima 2004). The danger lies in a
situation where programs of study, and employers, may be disinclined to implement
discretionary screening procedures, even if based on valid psychometric tools, simply because
the industry demand for interpreters is too great to be turning people away.

The thorny notion of testing for personality at program admission is further exacerbated by
the possibility that such testing could potentially be perceived as discriminatory according to the
legislation in some countries. However, considering that clear relationships exist between
individual difference variables such as general cognitive ability and personality traits and
resulting job performance in a wide range of occupations (Judge et al. 1999), there is no reason
why interpreting should be any different. In the knowledge that interpreting is a job with high
stakes, where public trust is paramount, and the task itself is extremely complex as well as
intrinsically stressful, the screening and selecting of interpreters could be organized far more
effectively. It is argued that taking such rigorous steps to screen at program admission stage
would ultimately lead to more competent and resilient interpreters completing courses with
fewer skills gaps than is presently the case (Bontempo & Napier 2007, 2009).
90
In addition to the potential future application of the findings from this study in interpreter
education and program admission, we also see the potential for findings regarding interpreter
personality as being useful for the development of mentoring programs for working
interpreters. Such information may provide legitimate data to support focusing on the strengths
and weaknesses of individuals when matching mentors and mentees in the workplace. A further
possible occupational application of findings related to the link between disposition and
interpreter performance is in regard to team interpreting, where personality is intuitively
understood to impact on team dynamics. It is likely that the personality construct of
agreeableness comes into play in synergistic teamwork, and it would be interesting to
investigate this further.

Mount and Barrick (1998: 856) put it most succinctly: No matter what job you are selecting
for, if you want employees who will turn out to be good performers, you should hire those who
work smarter and work harder. Appreciating and incorporating the disposition predictors as
well as the cognitive predictors of the interpreting skill in any aptitude screening process will
help us move closer to this ideal. There is an indication that emotional stability is a predictor of
work performance for interpreters. This provides grounds for optimism in working towards
defining the traits that may influence interpreter performance, and should provide the impetus
for a research agenda
25
, to further investigate personalityperformance links in interpreters.

4.7 References

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more important matters. Human Performance 18, 359-372.

Barrick, Murray R., Mount, Michael K. and Judge, Timothy A. (2001). Personality and
performance at the beginning of the new millennium: What do we know and where do we go
next? Personality and Performance 9, 9-30.


25
An international collaborative study to further investigate personality variables as predictors of interpreter competence by
Macquarie University, Australia (K. Bontempo and J. Napier) and Eastern Kentucky University, USA (L. Hayes and
associates) has concluded and publishing efforts are currently underway.

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Bell, Bradford S. and Kozlowski, Steve W. J. (2002). Goal orientation and ability: Interactive
effects on self-efficacy, performance and knowledge. Journal of Applied Psychology 87, 497-
505.

Bontempo, Karen and Levitzke-Gray, Patricia (2009). Interpreting Down Under: Signed
language interpreter education and training in Australia. In J. Napier (Ed.), International
perspectives on sign language interpreter education. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University
Press, 149-170.

Bontempo, Karen and Napier, Jemina (2007). Mind the gap: A skills analysis of sign language
interpreters. The Sign Language Translator and Interpreter 1 (2), 275-299.

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testing of signed language interpreters. In Claudia V. Angelelli & Holly E. Jacobson (Eds.),
Testing and assessment in translation and interpreting studies. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John
Benjamins, 247-295.

Bozionelos, Nikos (2004). The relationship between disposition and career success: A British
study. Journal of Occupational and Organisational Psychology 77, 403-420.

Brisau, Andre, Godijns, Rita and Meuleman, Chris (1994). Towards a psycholinguistic profile
of the interpreter. Meta 39 (1), 87-94.

Button, Scott. B., Mathieu, John E. and Zajac, Dennis M. (1996). Goal orientation in
organisational research: A conceptual and empirical foundation. Organisational Behaviour and
Human Decision Processes 67 (1), 26-48.

Chen, Gilad, Gully, Stanley M. and Eden, Dov (2001). Validation of a new general self-efficacy
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Choi, Namok, Fuqua, Dale R. and Griffin, Bryan W. (2001). Exploratory analysis of the
structure of scores from the multidimensional scales of perceived efficacy. Educational and
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Doerfert, Karen and Wilcox, Sherman (1986). Meeting students affective needs: Personality
types and learning preferences. Journal of Interpretation 3, 35-43.

Drnyei, Zoltan (2005) The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in
second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Dweck, Carol S. and Leggett, Ellen L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and
personality. Psychological Review 95, 256-273.

Fouad, Nadya A. (2007). Work and vocational psychology: Theory, research and applications.
Annual Review of Psychology 58: 543-564

Frishberg, Nancy (1990). Interpreting: An introduction. 2nd edn. Silver Spring, MD: RID
Publications.

Gregersen, Tammy and Horwitz, Elaine K. (2002). Language learning and perfectionism:
Anxious and non-anxious language learners reactions to their own oral performance. The
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Isham, William. and Lane, H. (1993). Simultaneous interpretation and the recall of source
language sentences. Language and Cognitive Processes 8 (3), 241-264.

Jackson, Stephen. L. (2003). Research methods and statistics: A critical thinking approach.
Belmont: Wadsworth Thomson.

Judge, Timothy A., Higgins, Chad A., Thoreson, Carl J. and Barrick, Murray R. (1999). The
Big Five personality traits, general mental ability, and career success across the life span.
Personnel Psychology 52, 621-652.

Kurz, Ingrid (2003). Physiological stress during simultaneous interpreting: A comparison of
experts and novices. The Interpreters Newsletter 12, 51-67.

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Lpez Gmez, Maria J., Bajo Molina, Teresa, Padilla Benitez, Presentacin and Santiago de
Torres, Julio (2007). Predicting proficiency in signed language interpreting. Interpreting 9 (1),
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Macnamara, Brooke (2009). Interpreter cognitive aptitudes. Journal of Interpretation 2008-
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Moser-Mercer, Barbara (1985). Screening potential interpreters. Meta 30 (1), 97-100.

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Napier, Jemina (in press). Signed language interpreting. In K. Windle & K. Malmkjr (Eds.),
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Napier, Jemina, McKee, Rachel and Goswell, Della (2010). Sign language interpreting: Theory
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OBrien, Anne, Terry, Deborah J. and Jimmieson, Nerrina L. (2008). Negative affectivity and
responses to work stressors: An experimental study. Anxiety, Stress and Coping 21 (1), 55-83.

Oakes, David W., Ferris, Gerald R., Martocchio, Joseph J., Buckley, M. Ronald and Broach,
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Orima (2004). Supply and demand for Auslan interpreters across Australia. Australian
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Shaw, Sherry and Hughes, Gail (2006). Essential characteristics of sign language interpreting
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CHAPTER 5

Getting it right from the start:
Program admission testing of signed language interpreters
26


Abstract. This chapter presents data from two related studies concerning signed language
interpreter education in Australia. In the first study, 110 signed language interpreters were
surveyed on their perceptions of the efficacy of interpreter education programs in Australia in
preparing graduates for work as an interpreter. The second study was designed by drawing on
the qualitative survey findings of the first study, coupled with previously published results from
the survey (Bontempo & Napier 2007), which identified the skills gaps of interpreters that need
to be addressed in interpreter education programs. To this end, a program admission test was
designed to include six elements considered potentially predictive of performance, and was
piloted with a cohort of applicants to a signed language interpreter education program in
Australia. Eleven out of 18 screened students were accepted into the program. The exit
outcomes showed however that only 55% of the students successfully completed the program;
thus the screening test results were not predictive of student performance. We present
discussion of the relationship between admission testing and achievement in signed language
interpreter education, and make recommendations for researchers and interpreter educators.

5.1 Introduction
Two research areas of applied linguistics that heavily overlap in terms of common issues,
approaches and research questions are language testing and second language acquisition
(Bachman & Cohen, 1998). Both of these research areas are also relevant to translators and
interpreters, as bilingual professionals are required to undertake various language tests to
provide evidence of proficiency in their working languages. Many translators and interpreters
are also tested on their practical translation or interpreting skills, but there is a dearth of
research in this area. That which exists focuses on testing spoken language translators and
interpreters, although this is still an under-researched topic (see Angelelli, 2007; Clifford,
2005; Colina, 2008; Hale & Campbell, 2002; Kozaki, 2004; Lauscher, 2000; Mortensen,

26
The original version of this chapter was published as: Bontempo, Karen & Napier, Jemina (2009). Getting it right from the
start: Program admission testing of signed language interpreters. In Claudia V. Angelelli & Holly E. Jacobson (Eds.), Testing
and assessment in translation and interpreting studies. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 247-295.

97
2001; Niska, 2005; Slatyer & Carmichael, 2005; Slatyer, Elder, Hargreaves, & Luo, 2006;
Stansfield & Hewitt, 2005; Stansfield, Scott, & Kenyon, 1992).

The concept of testing can also be applied to screening applicants for admission into
interpreter education programs. Such admission tests may be based on an individuals
aptitude; that is, assessing a persons capacity for interpreting, or learning the art of
interpreting, with a view to predicting their general suitability for the occupation. More
commonly, however, program admission tests evaluate what candidates can currently
demonstrate, by testing existing sub-sets of skills, knowledge and abilities required for the
task of interpreting. Testing for aptitude is different from testing for existing ability, and some
program admission procedures may incorporate a mix of both aptitude and ability tests.

5.1.1 Program admission testing
The practice of program admission testing is pervasive; with the selection of suitable
candidates for interpreter education courses naturally a major concern of interpreter educators.
The literature available on this type of testing mostly relates to spoken language interpreter
education programs, and in particular, conference interpreting program admission testing
(Bernstein & Barbier, 2000; Gerver, Longley, Long, & Lambert, 1984, 1989; Goff-Kfouri,
2004; Lambert, 1991; Moser-Mercer, 1985; Sawyer, 2004).

Defining the knowledge, skills and abilities relevant to the complex task of interpreting and
distilling some of these down into discrete measurable components that can be reliably assessed
at program entry appears to have been a nebulous process to date. Campbell and Hale (2003)
note that in spite of considerable developments in language testing in general (with regard to
spoken languages) and increased understanding of second language acquisition, little of this
knowledge appears to have been utilised by interpreter educators for the purposes of test design
for interpreter program entry. Additionally, many interpreter educators do not have a
background in educational measurement.

As a result, it seems that the process of admission testing has been very hit and miss thus far.
Indeed, questions have been raised about the effectiveness of admission testing for interpreter
education programs due to the subjective nature of many admission tests, and the lack of
predictive power of such tests, despite their common use in the field (Gerver et al., 1989;
Dodds, 1990). For example, Timarov and Ungoed-Thomas (2008), surveyed the admission
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tests of 18 different spoken language interpreter education programs, mostly based in Europe,
and found that admission testing was a poor predictor of performance, with 44% of admitted
students across the 18 institutions failing to successfully complete their program.

Sawyer (2004) also expresses concern about the weak predictive validity of program admission
testing and the lack of scientific evidence supporting their use. He argues that educators should
not be describing entry level tests as aptitude tests when predictive validity has not been
demonstrated, and that most program admission tests are in fact of a diagnostic nature, testing
existing abilities rather than assessments of aptitude as such. This diagnostic testing can
determine readiness for interpreter training by diagnosing current skill level, and in particular
any skills deficits (for example, identifying whether greater proficiency in working languages is
needed before course commencement) but cannot determine probability of success in an
interpreter education program. Sawyer also makes a cautionary comment about the impact of
program duration on admission standards the shorter the program, the higher the entry level
standard required, therefore the more rigorous the diagnostic testing admission process needed.
In addition, Sawyer notes that, by necessity, program admission testing will vary from
institution to institution depending on what entrance level skills are needed by that program, in
light of duration, content, emphasis, resources etc.

There is acknowledgement that there is no absolute guarantee or accurate predictor of
interpreting performance (Lambert, 1991), however, in spoken language interpreter studies the
links between cognitive/affective factors and interpreting skills are considered to be extremely
strong (Brisau et al., 1994), and cognitive and affective factors are known to impact on second
language learning achievement (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2000). Some studies suggest program
admission selection instruments appear to be effective in discouraging or rejecting candidates
with little or no chance of succeeding as practitioners (Lambert, 1991), and student results on
selection tests correlated significantly with performance on final interpreting examinations in
the spoken language interpreting field (Moser-Mercer, 1985; Gerver et al., 1989).

In regard to selection instruments, there does appear to be commonalities across programs in
regard to admission test content (Campbell & Hale, 2003). Most institutions seem to agree that
an interview is a vital component (conducted in the B language, addressing language
proficiency, general knowledge etc.). The admission test also often consists of a selection of the
following exercises: shadowing, paraphrasing/summarizing, memory/recall, a translation
99
exercise of some kind (written or sight translation), cloze tests, an essay and a dual processing
task of some type (Moser-Mercer, 1985; Gerver et al., 1989; Lambert, 1991; Russo & Pippa,
2004; Pippa & Russo, 2002; Sawyer, 2004). In addition, many programs include a consecutive
interpreting task in their admission testing procedure (Timarov & Ungoed-Thomas, 2008).

It seems most admission tests for spoken language interpreters are not developed based on
evidence-based research, are not standardized, are subjectively graded, and are typically
designed based on the intuition and experience of interpreter educators in individual programs
(Campbell & Hale, 2003). The reliability and validity of such tests are questionable, and nearly
20 years ago Gerver et al (1989) and Dodds (1990) strongly called for further research on the
issues of interpreter aptitude and objective interpreter testing.

There has never been any empirical research conducted on the efficacy of tests for signed
language interpreters in Australia: this is true both for tests for certification/qualification and
tests for admission into signed language interpreter education programs. Without reliable data
available, an understanding of what factors might be predictive of performance remains
unknown at present. Therefore the results of current measures used in program admission tests
should perhaps be interpreted with caution, despite the strong inclination of the field to apply
entrance testing to program applicants and to accept or reject students exclusively on the basis
of these results.

Despite a lack of empirical evidence demonstrating correlation between program admission
testing and performance during training and in the profession, the interpreting education field
remains convinced of the merits of screening. Admittedly, it is a logical position to take, and
occupational screening for suitability occurs in other professions, particularly those where the
psychological demands of the position are quite high. This is true of interpreting, where the
management of stressful conditions and cognitive load are paramount to effective interpreter
performance (Kurz, 2001).

Borum, Super, and Rund (2003) note pre-employment screening and fitness for duty
evaluations are commonplace for workers dealing in high risk jobs, and report that
psychological profiling of applicants for courses of study or jobs in stressful occupations (such
as law enforcement, airline pilot, air traffic controller) is widespread. Of particular interest is the
specific reference by Borum et al. to occupations such as a pilot or air traffic controller a study
100
by Moser (1985, as cited in Kurz, 2003) found 18% of interpreter respondents likened their job
to a pilot or air traffic controller due to the constant stress and level of concentration required in
performing their duties.

In line with this thinking, Humphrey (1994) asserts effective screening strategies at program
entry can assist in predicting the successful performance of signed language interpreting
students. She provides significant detail regarding the nature and format of screening tools used
and the duration of the testing period for entry to one signed language interpreter program in
Canada. Unfortunately however, no data at all is provided regarding number of participants,
over how many years entrance screening had been conducted by the institution, program
duration, content, qualifications and experience of educators in the program, etc. and just a brief
reference is made to an overall 98.5% graduation rate at the end of the program.

Roberts (1994) and Monikowski (1994) also support more appropriate admission testing and
selection of signed language interpreting students. They suggest that by establishing and
implementing a standard of skills, knowledge and abilities required at program entry and testing
for these at the time of intake, that these standards can be correlated with end-of-program
competencies. They further argue such an approach may result in better outcomes, both during
the program of study and in future practice, and may reduce attrition rates in programs, and later
in the profession.

In signed language interpreter education programs in several countries there are pre-requisites
for entry, suggestions for program screening, and program content sequencing initiatives, albeit
not based on empirical evidence (For example in Canada Humphrey, 1994; USA
Monikowski, 1994; Finton, 1998; Solow, 1998; Patrie, 2000; Shaw, Collins & Metzger, 2006;
and Finland - Nisula & Manunen, 2009). Much of this literature claims more stringent
admission criteria, screening processes and appropriate program sequencing will result in better
student outcomes.

5.1.2 Screening for aptitude or ability?
Key issues remain, however, particularly in regard to screening for the seemingly obscure
concept of interpreter aptitude at program entry. While there appears to be general agreement
about some of the skills needed in a candidate that may be assessable by an ability test at
program admission (such as knowledge of working languages), less agreement and substantially
101
less research supports factors of aptitude that may be predictive of interpreter performance.
Which personality/affective factors (such as anxiety, motivation, stress-resistance, emotional
sensitivity, and confidence, among others) and cognitive abilities (for example, intelligence,
memory capacity, processing speed, attention span etc.) are predictive of individual
performance on an interpreters course? Of these, which are inherent and cannot be taught, and
which can be acquired (or learned to be controlled/enhanced) during a program of study and on
the job? How exactly can aptitude for learning the complex skills required in interpreting be
assessed in an efficient and effective manner at the time of program entry screening for signed
language interpreters? What screening tools can be developed to measure the personal traits,
social capital, and cognitive abilities that may suggest candidates possess aptitude for successful
completion of an interpreter education program? Is testing for aptitude relevant, or is the more
prevalent current approach using ability tests meeting our needs sufficiently well?

With available data and research mostly concentrating on tests of ability, and demonstrating less
than convincing links between program admission test outcomes and end of program
examinations, it would appear the current ability tests are not meeting our needs sufficiently
well. An increasing body of research points to the importance of aptitude, in addition to ability,
for potential interpreters.

Organizational psychology literature confirms that occupational performance can not only be
improved through the development of competencies via training, practice and experience, but it
is also significantly influenced by talent, temperament, person-vocation fit and motivation
(Maurer, Wrenn, Pierce, Tross & Collins, 2003; Losier & Vallerand, 1994). Personal interests,
as well as cognitive ability, have considerable influence on career choice and successful
performance in ones chosen career (Ree, Earles & Teachout, 1994; Reeve & Heggestad, 2004).
Some personality factors are predictive of job performance (Bozionelos, 2004; Button, Mathieu
& Zajac, 1996; Choi, Fuqua & Griffin, 2001; Oakes, Ferris, Martocchio, Buckley & Broach,
2001), but overall, general mental ability is the single best predictor of occupational
performance (Schmidt & Hunter, 1998). For these reasons, suitable tests of aptitude, and not
just ability, have a place in screening interpreters for program admission.

Given the apparent relationship between cognitive and affective factors and their impact on
occupational performance, developing a profile of the skills, knowledge, and abilities needed by
a competent interpreter; as well as the personal characteristics and traits needed by a prospective
102
signed language interpreting student would prove very useful (Bontempo, 2008; Lopez Gomez
et al., 2007; Shaw & Hughes, 2006; Stauffer & Shaw, 2006). An increased understanding of
what kind of foundation is needed in an interpreting student right from the start in terms of both
aptitude and ability (and what can be built into training courses to account for any gaps in skills,
knowledge, abilities and traits within a student cohort) may help increase the depth and speed of
skill acquisition and improvement in performance required of students in interpreter education
programs. It may also assist in mitigating the readiness to work gap identified in American
signed language interpreting graduates by Anderson and Stauffer (1990) and Patrie (1994), and
similarly found in Australia (Bontempo & Napier, 2007).

Some pioneering studies which attempted to profile the psychological make up of the signed
language interpreter point to the potential role of personality in successful occupational
performance as an interpreter, however the breadth of the research conducted was limited, and
based on small samples of interpreting practitioners (see Rudser & Strong, 1986; Doerfert &
Wilcox, 1986; Schein, 1974: cited in Frishberg, 1986; and Frishberg & Enders, 1974, as cited in
Frishberg, 1986).

However, more recent studies including slightly larger samples of participants and a wider
range of cognitive and personality measurements have begun to identify some common themes
of interest. Bontempo (2008), Lopez Gomez et al. (2007), Seal (2004), and Shaw and Hughes
(2006) found that having certain cognitive abilities, aptitudes and personality traits are
significant predictors of performance in the signed language interpreting profession. It is
recognised temperament and other psychological characteristics influence performance across a
range of occupations, however these considerations are often not properly considered when
screening and selecting trainee interpreters. Understanding the role that disposition and traits
may have in influencing competence, and therefore performance, as an interpreter may be
relevant, in addition to the capacity of an individual to handle the inherent technical skills
required, i.e. the linguistic and cognitive processing aspects of the job.

Using existing psychometric tests to measure the dispositional traits of 110 signed language
interpreters in Australia, Bontempo (2008) found a strong correlation between high levels of
negative affect (neurotic, anxious, emotionally reactive / easily distressed) and lower reported
levels of competence in interpreters. In addition, a positive correlation between self-efficacy
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(belief in personal ability to succeed and accomplish tasks / self-confidence) and higher levels
of interpreter competence was reported.

Lopez Gomez et al. (2007) administered a battery of tests to 28 signed language interpreting
students in Spain, examining perceptual-motor coordination; cognitive skills; personality
factors; and academic background, and comparing results with an expert trainers evaluation of
the students proficiency in sign language and interpreting. Perceptual-motor coordination was
found to be the most significant predictor of proficiency in a signed language, however
cognitive and personality factors were considered influential in developing signed language
interpreting abilities. In particular, the personality factor of dominance was found to be of
interest high scores on this factor indicated a person was assertive, resourceful, confident,
task-oriented, responsible, stress-resistant etc. Low scores on this factor point to low self-
confidence, rigidity in problem solving, unreliability and so on. Lopez Gomez et al found this
trait of dominance of relevance to success in the achievement of signed language interpreting
abilities. This latter finding is supportive of Rudser and Strongs (1986) earlier work. In
addition, cognitive abilities such as abstract reasoning and memory skills were found to be
significant, supporting the findings of Seal (2004).

Shaw and Hughes (2006) identified characteristics such as self-motivation and confidence as
defining features, as well as the ability to multi-task and to process information rapidly, in their
study of over 1000 signed language interpreter education program participants in North
America and Europe. They note that personal qualities and traits may seem to influence success
in the profession, however given that the predictive abilities of these characteristics are as yet
not fully defined or validated that it might be premature to apply them in a testing process as
admission screening tools. Shaw and Hughes argue it would be more effective to incorporate
trait awareness and skill building on elements such as assertiveness and so on into interpreter
education course curricula, given students ability to learn, develop and enhance critical
personal and cognitive characteristics. (2006: 218).

Shaw, Grbic and Franklin (2004) explored and compared the perceptions of spoken and signed
language interpreting students about factors that contribute to, or inhibit, readiness to apply
language skills to interpreting performance. They found that students experience a period of
transition after entering an interpreter education program as they realize the task of interpreting
is more complex than simply being able to use two languages fluently. They specifically
104
identify confidence and risk-taking as primary personality assets that contribute to successful
adaptation through this period of transition, and resulting performance by students on interpreter
training courses. Similar findings regarding the personality of learners were found by
Onwuegbuzie, Bailey and Daley (2000) in their study of foreign language learning students.
Additionally, Riccardi, Marinuzzi and Zecchin (1998: 98) note that accomplished performance
as an interpreter may not be possible unless skill sets are matched by specific personality
elements.

Brisau, Godijns and Meuleman (1994) attempted to develop a psycholinguistic profile of the
interpreter by forcing a distinction between the linguistic and non-linguistic parameters that
determine interpreting performance. The linguistic parameters included vocabulary, syntax,
listening comprehension and delivery. The non-linguistic parameters were psycho-affective
factors including self-concept, cognitive style, real-world knowledge, anxiety, attitude, stress
resistance and meta-cognition. Additionally, neurolinguistic factors rate a mention, with
attention and memory stressed as indispensable factors for interpreters.

Schweda Nicholson (2005: 28) in her application of the Myer-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI) to
68 spoken language interpreter students ultimately found the profession may offer
opportunities for all personality types to exercise their preferred ways of interacting, deciding
and being. Although participants were represented across all personality types in the MBTI,
the largest group represented was the Introverted, Sensing, Thinking, Judging Type (or ISTJ),
accounting for 18% of her interpreting sample (which was 75% female), but is a type normally
represented by only 7% of the wider population (and further, only one third of this 7% are
women). In particular, the thinking/feeling dimension of the MBTI results showed an extremely
significant number of thinking types a dimension associated with impersonal and logical
analysis of ideas and information, being thorough, attending to detail, organizing and
synthesizing information, setting high standards of achievement, and coping with stress.

5.1.3 Other factors influencing student achievement
Drawing together the above mentioned research, it would appear that the successful interpreting
student (and practitioner) is a package of skills, knowledge, abilities, experiences (academic
and vocational experience, as well as life experience), personal characteristics, traits and
attributes. However, the outcome for students in an education program is not just dependent on
individual difference, but is also heavily influenced by the interaction between an individual
105
students aptitude, learning style, motivation, willingness and opportunity to practice and
perform, and the pedagogical approach and competence of their teacher/s (Robinson, 2002;
Moser-Mercer, 2008a).

In a very large scale meta-analysis of research studies across all age ranges and education
settings to determine what most influences student achievement in an academic setting, Hattie
(2003) found 50% of the variance in academic achievement was accounted for by the student,
and notes, it is what students bring to the table that predicts achievement more than any other
variable. The correlation between ability and achievement is high, so it is no surprise that bright
students have steeper trajectories of learning than less bright students (Hattie 2003: 1).
Teachers accounted for the next greatest single amount of variance in achievement, directly
responsible for approximately 30% of the individual variance that takes place, with Hattie
noting what teachers know, do, and care about has a powerful impact on students. The
combined effects of resources and facilities, family, influence of peers, institutional culture etc,
altogether accounted for the remaining 20% of variance in achievement.

Thus, dynamics such as the interaction between peers in the classroom, access to resources and
necessary materials, family support, the institution, and so on, will likely all also have an impact
on student outcomes. The impact will be to a significantly lesser extent than the previously
mentioned critical student aptitude/teacher effectiveness factors, however.

5.1.4 Program admission testing in Australia
In terms of getting it right from the start, formal admission testing of signed language
interpreters accessing entry-level courses in Australia should logically form an integral part of
the process of attempting to effectively select students who are program-ready. However, there
is currently no uniform approach to the screening of potential Auslan (Australian Sign
Language) / English interpreters in Australia
27
. Individual programs and educators implement
such measures on an ad hoc and informal basis.

With little other than subjective opinion and years of experience shaping decisions, interpreter
educators in Australia are presently conducting screening interviews and accepting or rejecting
students for interpreter education program entry on the basis of variable admission testing
procedures that lack clarity about testing both language proficiency in Auslan, and interpreter

27
Hereafter referred to as Auslan interpreters
106
course readiness. This is not to suggest that the capacity of a grader to make an intuitive
assessment based on years of experience is no longer of any merit whatsoever, more so that the
introduction of systematic formal screening procedures would enhance processes by adding
standardization to current intuitive approaches. Presently different colleges throughout the
nation use varying admission procedures, improvised on the experience of the incumbent
coordinator, and based on the sketchy requirements outlined in the national interpreter
education curriculum (personal communications, D. Goswell, P. Bonser and M. Bartlett 2006;
2008).

The existing admission procedures in the four colleges that regularly conduct annual interpreter
education programs for Auslan interpreters in Australia (based in Melbourne, Victoria; Sydney,
New South Wales; Brisbane, Queensland; and Perth, Western Australia) included a mix of the
following: an informal interview, an English essay, written responses to English questions, sight
translation of an English text into Auslan, consecutive interpreting task, English grammar test,
English terms/concepts definitions, comprehension tasks in Auslan, questions regarding
motivation for applying for the course, and questions about Deaf culture, the Deaf community
and/or signed language interpreting. Screening is often conducted by only one or two people
(sometimes separately, to screen applicants more quickly) but always includes a native signer
(although not always a deaf person the native signer may be a hearing person with Auslan as
their first language due to having deaf parents), and time constraints and funding limitations
prevent an in-depth admission procedure. The challenge of the process is exacerbated by the
absence of a reliable and valid language assessment tool that can effectively measure
proficiency in Auslan. This lack of standardized entry testing and informal approach to
admitting students into signed language interpreter education programs has been acknowledged
in other countries (Lopez Gomez et al., 2007).

Admission testing remains a necessary component of interpreter education to maximize the
recruitment and retention of suitable applicants, however. Program coordinators and educators
need to be able to distinguish the qualities and skills of prospective students, and to predict
interpreter-training-potential, in order to select a suitable cohort of students for program
commencement. Without some form of screening or assessment pre-entry, class sizes may
become unwieldy for interpreter education purposes.

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Given that interpreter education programs are practice-oriented, students with less than adequate
existing skills (for example, in language proficiency) will impact on class dynamics and group
progress. As a result, interpreter educators may not be able to focus their energies appropriately
to maximize student outcomes and quality standards in an interpreter education program. At
present, time and money is expended in training many people in interpreter education programs
who do not pass the final examination, or never work in the field, or only practice for a short
time. Poor performance on a program or in the profession is disheartening to the individual, and
is difficult for educators and employers to manage, not to mention the potentially grievous
impact on service users. Admission testing is therefore expected, if not demanded, by many
stakeholders, such as teachers, employers, and the Deaf community, as well as students
themselves.

Anecdotal evidence from interpreter educators, employers, and the Deaf community in
Australia suggests that some candidates currently enter interpreter education programs without
the aptitude or the pre-requisite skills, knowledge, and abilities for effective program
participation, and correspondingly exit without the level of competence required to function
adequately in the profession. At present the system does not seem to be meeting the
performance expectations or the needs of the Deaf community (Orima, 2004; Napier & Rohan,
2007), with only a relatively small number of practitioners nation-wide meeting the growing
demand for competent practice in Australia (Bontempo & Napier, 2007).

5.2 The context for interpreting and interpreter education in Australia
In Australia, signed language interpreter education programs have existed in educational
institutions for more than 20 years (Bontempo & Levitzke-Gray, 2009). Interpreters can become
certified by either undertaking an approved education program, or sitting for an interpreting
examination without attending any course of study. Signed and spoken language interpreters are
both accredited according to the same standards as determined by NAATI (the National
Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters).

NAATI accreditation is the only officially recognized certification for interpreting throughout
the nation. Accreditation for signed language interpreters is currently available at
Paraprofessional or Professional Interpreter level.
28
Accreditation suggests practitioners

28
NAATI defines Paraprofessional Interpreter level as a level of competence in interpreting for the purpose of general conversations.
Paraprofessional Interpreters generally undertake the interpretation of non-specialist dialogues. Practitioners at this level are encouraged to
proceed to the professional levels of accreditation. NAATI Professional Interpreter level is defined as the first professional level and represents
108
have met the minimum standards required to competently perform interpreting related tasks
associated with the level of accreditation at the time of being examined.

The minimum standard for professional practice in Australia is NAATI accreditation at the
Professional level. The Paraprofessional level of accreditation is supposed to be limited to
practice by interpreters of new and emerging languages in Australia; is for conversational
interpreting purposes only; and is considered a stepping stone towards Professional Interpreter
level of practice (NAATI, 2007).

Regardless of this stepping stone structure, the vast majority of the Auslan interpreter
population are accredited as Paraprofessionals, partly because of the lack of interpreter
education programs which lead to Professional Interpreter level accreditation in Australia.
Although NAATI provides descriptors of the nature of work expected at each level of
accreditation, many Paraprofessionals are known to practice in settings that would normally be
considered the domain of (Auslan) Professional Interpreter level practitioners, such as higher
education, court, and conferences (Ozolins and Bridge, 1999; Bontempo and Napier, 2007).

As of September 30, 2008, NAATI had accredited a total of 888 Auslan interpreters since
testing commenced in November 1982. These include 768 interpreters accredited at the
Paraprofessional level; and only 120 practitioners accredited at the Professional Interpreter
level.
29
Australia, not unlike many other countries, faces a challenge whereby the demand for
competent interpreters greatly outstrips available supply (Orima, 2004). Paraprofessionals
therefore have little difficulty obtaining employment in the current tight labour market, meaning
there is little incentive to upgrade to the higher level of accreditation.

This raises questions about Paraprofessional interpreters capacity to perform the work often
allocated to them due to market demand. The disparity between the level of accreditation and
skill of Paraprofessionals and Professional Interpreters was examined in a research study by
Bontempo and Napier (2007). Survey respondents were asked to rank the level of importance of

the minimum level of competence for professional interpreting. Interpreters convey the full meaning of the information from the source language
into the target language in the appropriate style and register. Interpreters at this level are capable of interpreting across a wide range of subjects
involving dialogues at specialist consultations. They are also capable of interpreting presentations by the consecutive mode. Their specializations
may include banking, law, health, and social and community services (NAATI 2007). Work is currently underway to develop another level of
accreditation for signed language interpreters Conference Interpreter. This level presently exists for spoken language interpreters but has not
been available to Auslan interpreters to date.

29
G. Lees, personal communication, September 30, 2008
109
a range of skills, knowledge, and abilities for signed language interpreters; then to rate their
own level of competence for each of these skills, knowledge and abilities. The results provided
evidence of a clear skills gap where an interpreter rated a particular skill as being very important
for an interpreter, but rated their own level of competence lower on the same skill set. Given the
expectation that Professional level interpreters should have more sophisticated linguistic and
interpreting skills, it is not surprising that these respondents demonstrated fewer skills gaps, and
higher levels of competence overall, in comparison to Paraprofessionals. Paraprofessionals, in
contrast, self-identified that they lacked a number of skills that they had ranked as vitally
important for interpreting. This finding is of concern.

Technical and Further Education (TAFE) colleges conduct language acquisition programs for
Auslan students and Paraprofessional level interpreter education programs on an annual basis in
the larger capital cities in Australia. TAFE community colleges are vocational education and
training institutions, delivering courses with a trade and skills based focus, typically with an
emphasis on practical skill development suited to the relevant industry. This includes courses
that are apprenticeship or traineeship based (hairdressing, plumbing and carpentry for example),
as well as Certificate and Diploma qualifications in a diverse range of careers, stretching across
fashion, photography, child care, music, real estate, languages and tourism to name just a few
fields of study. Academic qualifications issued by TAFE are pre-degree level qualifications,
although some TAFE awards can result in exemption of selected first year university units via
recognition of prior learning. TAFE courses are shorter than university degrees, tend to blend
theory and practice in a vocational context, and are a fraction of the cost of university studies.

The Paraprofessional interpreter programs are provided as a vocational education program at
TAFE and successful completion results in a Diploma of Interpreting (which leads to NAATI
Paraprofessional level accreditation). The interpreter education programs are conducted over
one year part-time (approx. 8 hours per week), after completing the requisite language
acquisition programs at a training institution like TAFE,
30
or by obtaining linguistic fluency via
another avenue. This entry pathway is available to spoken language interpreters also, and the
same Diploma of Interpreting curriculum applies to both spoken and signed language
interpreting students at TAFE. Spoken language interpreters in Australia however are able to

30
Completion of the Diploma of Auslan (language acquisition studies) does not guarantee entrance to the Diploma of
Interpreting. Language proficiency may not be at the standard required for interpreter education program entry.
110
access interpreter education programs at either TAFE or at university in most states, where
undergraduate and postgraduate interpreting degrees are available in several spoken languages.

Macquarie University in Sydney is currently the only university in Australia offering a degree
in Auslan interpreting; however the program is at postgraduate level for experienced NAATI
accredited Paraprofessional interpreters to advance their skills and to gain Professional
Interpreter accreditation upon successful course completion. At the time of writing there is no
university program at undergraduate level in Australia geared towards entry level Auslan
interpreters. The current postgraduate program in Auslan/English interpreting at Macquarie
University is unique; therefore reference in this chapter to interpreter education programs in
Australia will for the most part be in regard to TAFE colleges nationwide, with a specific
emphasis on vocational Diploma level training for Paraprofessional level interpreters.

Programs of study at TAFE colleges in Australia are based on a national competency based
curriculum, and therefore contain a degree of consistency in regard to learning outcomes on
paper. Nonetheless, there is variation on the ground in terms of operational factors and
logistics, such as admission testing; course delivery; sequencing of skills development stages;
qualifications and quality of teaching personnel; availability of suitable resources and
equipment, etc.

The time limitations of current TAFE interpreter education programs prevent educators from
being able to allocate time and resources to those students who do not meet a certain level of
competence in various domains at the time of program entry. Those ill-equipped to meet
program demands are less likely to reach exit level competence; and if they do scrape through
an end of year examination, they may struggle to perform adequately in the profession. The
relatively high attrition rates observed in programs and in the field may be partly a result of
poor admission screening to begin with. People who lack the confidence and skills to remain in
the profession appear to either withdraw from the profession, or are actively excluded from
practice by either the Deaf community or by service providers, based on feedback on
performance.

These issues have a bearing on the ability to provide quality interpreting services to the
Australian Deaf community and other service users. Potential solutions to this pressing concern
in Australia are threefold to examine admission testing and the outcomes of entry level
111
interpreter education programs; to identify performance gaps via diagnostic skills analysis and
to increase the skills of qualified Paraprofessionals to the level of skill expected at the
Professional Interpreter level of accreditation; and to appropriately target ongoing training
opportunities for Professional Interpreter level practitioners to minimize the risk of their
advanced skills becoming fossilized. The focus of this chapter is the first concern - admission
testing and the outcomes of entry level interpreter education programs.

As already mentioned, there are no research studies available that describe the methods by
which signed language interpreters are currently screened, and selected into interpreter
education programs in Australia. There are no clearly articulated national protocols regarding
program entry, no coordinated databanks providing clear directions and information on
assessment during interpreter education programs or on the final test outcomes of such
programs. In addition, there is no transparent and easily accessible information on the full range
of accreditation outcomes of direct NAATI testing on Auslan interpreters, either by testing
alone, or accreditation via approved programs of study. Given the importance of effective
pedagogical assessment for evaluating student progress, and accreditation assessment for
determining standards of performance upon completion of an education program, the paucity of
research and scholarly contributions on interpreting assessment, particularly in Australia, is
surprising. Nothing at all appears to exist regarding measuring interpreting aptitude in Australia,
and very little exists on this subject in the signed language interpreting field internationally.
This exploratory study surveying practicing interpreters regarding their perceptions of
interpreter education; the development and administration of an assessment tool in the form of
an admissions test; and comparison with final examination results, is therefore timely and much
needed in Australia.

5.3 Study procedure
In order to investigate factors that may be predictive of Auslan interpreter competence, as well
as perceptions of the efficacy of interpreter education programs, a detailed survey was
administered to accredited Auslan interpreters throughout Australia. The lengthy survey was
designed to determine the incidence, distribution, and interrelations among sociological and
psychological variables: that is, to examine demographic details and personality test results in
conjunction with individual ratings of perceived linguistic skill; other interpreting-related
knowledge, skills and abilities; self-ratings of overall competence and perceptions of the
efficacy of interpreter education programs (Bontempo, 2005). Feedback from the survey
112
provided the impetus to more closely examine interpreter education programs, and in particular
the process of screening applicants to interpreter education programs in Australia, with a view
to improving standards in programs, and upon exit from programs and entry into the profession.

5.3.1 Research questions
The research questions for this study were as follows:
1. Are signed language interpreter education programs in Australia perceived by
practitioners to be preparing interpreters for effective performance in the profession?
2. Can the interpreter education program admission tests commonly referenced in the
literature for spoken language interpreters be adapted and applied to signed language
interpreters for entry level screening purposes?
3. Are the results of program admission tests developed and administered in this study
predictive of final examination performance?

Further to Bontempo and Napiers (2007) finding regarding significant skills gaps in accredited
Auslan interpreters, previously unpublished data from the original survey will be explored in
this chapter concerning practitioners perceptions of interpreter education programs in
Australia. This chapter will provide an overview of the relevant survey results; and will discuss
the subsequent interpreter education program admission test developed. In order to determine
whether we are getting it right from the start, we will provide quantitative and qualitative
analyses of the effectiveness of the test by contrasting the program admission scores with exit
outcomes, and comments gathered from program participants regarding their perceptions of the
admission test.

We acknowledge that there are several variables that may have an impact on the correlation
between admission scores and exit outcomes, such as student motivation, learning style,
program content and delivery, and the pedagogical approach and competence of the interpreter
educators involved in the course. For the purpose of this paper however, we are exploring only
the explicit relationship between entrance and exit scores rather than hypothesizing in any detail
on other confounding variables that may have impacted on exit scores, and we have not
controlled for these variables. We also acknowledge that this discussion can only be considered
as a small pilot study, as the admission test was administered with one cohort of signed
language interpreting students at one college. Nonetheless the results generate interesting food
113
for thought in relation to interpreter education, testing and accreditation, and lead us to make
recommendations regarding further research.

This research has two components: Firstly, a study was undertaken to explore characteristics
and parameters of the signed language interpreter population through a survey instrument. The
purpose of this initial study was to identify factors that may be potential predictors of successful
performance in Auslan interpreters, and to obtain participant views of interpreter education
programs in Australia. These results then fed directly into the second part of the study the
development of a screening test to be piloted with applicants to an Auslan interpreter education
program. Here we discuss first the methodology and results for study 1, the survey; and then
give an overview of the methodology and results for study 2, the development and
administration of the program admission test.

5.4 Methodology for Study 1: The Survey Instrument
A mail questionnaire instrument was designed drawing on literature from organizational
psychology, interpreting and translation, and applied linguistics. The survey was designed to
obtain data to determine the incidence and distribution of, and interrelations among,
sociological and psychological variables. We compared respondents personal facts (such as
route to qualification, level of qualification, years of interpreting experience, etc.) with their
opinions and attitudes about general linguistic skill, other knowledge and abilities, overall
competence and some personality measures. More details regarding the instrument are provided
in the materials section. Demographic information was obtained from participants in order to
develop a profile of the participants and the profession, and also to allow for examination of the
relations among these variables as well as the overall interpreting competence rating reported by
respondents.
31
In addition, participants were asked their perception of the effectiveness of
interpreter education programs for Auslan interpreters.

5.4.1 Participants
NAATI accreditation as an Auslan/English interpreter was an essential criterion for
participation in the study to ensure only practitioners who had met benchmarks for work in the
field could respond to the study.
32
Survey respondents had passed an interpreting examination

31
Findings with regard to interpreter perceptions of competence and reported skills gaps are discussed in detail in Bontempo &
Napier (2007).
32
Unaccredited Auslan interpreters are used infrequently in Australia in community based interpreting settings such as medical,
legal or government appointments; however it is not uncommon for unaccredited practitioners in some Australian states to
114
in Auslan/English at a prior point in time (either via a NAATI approved course of study or
direct NAATI testing) that had deemed them competent to practice at either Paraprofessional or
Professional Interpreter level. NAATI accreditation is the only recognized licence to practice as
an interpreter in Australia (in both spoken and signed languages), and federal legislation such as
the Disability Discrimination Act, and state government language policies protect the rights of
deaf people in requesting a NAATI accredited Auslan interpreter when accessing services in the
wider community.

As only NAATI accredited Auslan interpreters could participate, potential subjects were able to
be identified and sourced via a number of avenues which would potentially allow for multiple
hits on individuals. Information regarding the study was distributed nationally using direct
mailing lists and through snowball sampling. Practitioners were asked to pass on the
information about the research study to other practitioners they knew of who may not have
received the information via a direct mailing list.

A flyer regarding the study was posted or emailed out to 500 accredited Auslan interpreters on
the NAATI mailing list at that time. All accredited Auslan interpreters were eligible and could
self-select to participate in the study no sampling was conducted. Information was also
distributed by the main employers of signed language interpreters in Australia at the time, and
by the Australian Sign Language Interpreters Association (ASLIA). Employers and ASLIA
would have had access to most of the same population contacted directly by NAATI, with
information estimated to have reached approximately 200 working interpreters via employers
and approximately 300 members of ASLIA at that time.
33
It is estimated that approximately 500
accredited Auslan interpreters received information about the study via one or more sources.

Interested parties contacted the researchers and were then sent the questionnaire
34
either via
email or regular mail according to their preference, along with introductory information, and a
stamped addressed envelope if requested. A total of 82 Auslan interpreters requested a copy of

gain employment in education settings, working with deaf students accessing a mainstream education at school, TAFE or
university. Unaccredited practitioners were not able to participate in the study, so data collected by the survey would therefore
be from participants who had met a certain tested standard of practice in interpreting already.
33
ASLIA allows student membership, and inactive interpreters can also retain membership. Membership of ASLIA is not
compulsory for practice in Australia, so ASLIA membership numbers are not directly reflective of the number of accredited
and active Auslan interpreters in Australia
34
Approved by the ethics committee of Macquarie University and subject to standard requirements for data collection
115
the questionnaire. Surveys were not coded in any way, so it is not possible to determine if all of
the requesting parties returned a completed questionnaire.

A total of 110 completed questionnaires were received from interpreter respondents via email or
mail, which is more than the number of requests received for the survey. It is assumed that some
respondents may have passed a copy of the questionnaire onto colleagues, or that some
employers forwarded copies of the survey directly to interpreter employees, circumventing the
need for potential respondents to contact the researchers directly to obtain a copy of the survey.
Whilst 722 interpreters had been accredited by NAATI between 1982 and the release of the
survey in early 2005, a report commissioned by the Federal Government Department of Family
and Community Services noted that only 257 accredited interpreters were working in the field
at that time (Orima, 2004). This was a little more than the figure reported by employers
(approximately 200 active interpreters were sent the flyer by employers) and a little less than
the national ASLIA membership at the time (approximately 300 members) and therefore
appears to be an accurate reflection of the number of working practitioners in early 2005.

Thus an estimated response rate of 42% (110 respondents / 257 estimated working practitioners)
was considered more than adequate. This is considered a higher than average return rate in a
survey methodology, whereby an average and acceptable return rate is deemed 20-30%
(Jackson, 2003)


5.4.2 Materials
The survey instrument was a 10-page questionnaire, including a carefully planned construction
of questions based on the literature. A total of 22 questions were presented, with questions
arranged in related subsets of four main sections demographic information; skills gap
information; perceptions of performance; interpreter education programs/training options; and
rating scales, which were drawn from existing psychometric measures used in the field of
organisational psychology.

In summary, a combination of open ended, close ended, partially open ended, and various
Likert rating scales (with 5 alternatives to obtain interval data) were to be completed by
participants. The rating scales pertained to overall competency as an interpreter, a detailed skills
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gap analysis, and various self-reporting personality measures of self-efficacy, positive and
negative affectivity, and goal orientation.
35


The first 10 questions were for the purposes of collecting sociological data on practitioners in
order to develop a profile of the profession in Australia. These included closed questions and
partially open ended questions regarding work status, accreditation level, year of accreditation,
work setting, age group, gender, state or territory of residence, first language, secondary
schooling, post-secondary schooling and extent of formal interpreter education completed.

Question 11 listed fifty defined skills and areas of knowledge that may be relevant to signed
language interpreters, as drawn from the literature. Participants had to rate the importance of
each skill, knowledge or ability, and correspondingly, offer their assessment of their own
competence in that particular skill or knowledge domain. This information provided the
researchers with a quantifiable skills gap.

Questions 12 17 were open ended questions asking participants to express their thoughts on
additional skills, knowledge or abilities of an Auslan interpreter not listed in question 11; the
effectiveness of interpreter training; reasoning for decisions in regard to work selection; and
perceptions of performance. These questions were designed to provide qualitative data, which
could then be cross-referenced with the quantitative data collected.

Respondents were then asked to rate themselves on a scale assessing their overall competence
as an interpreter on question 18. This information would provide a key variable to examine in
relation to interpreting responses on other sociological and psychological variables.

Questions 19, 20 and 21 were scales with an established history of use in the field of
organizational psychology, as established psychometric tools assessing social-cognitive
personality constructs such as self-efficacy, positive and negative affectivity, and goal
orientation respectively. Finally, at question 22 participants could make some open ended
comments and add anything further if they so wished.


35
The results of the latter three psychological self-report measures are described in Bontempo (2008).

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The first draft of the questionnaire was piloted with two Paraprofessional interpreters and one
Professional Interpreter to obtain feedback regarding the comprehensibility of the material, and
suitability of the line of questioning. Following the review and feedback by colleagues, some
minor amendments were made to the preliminary version before it was released to participants
in the study.

5.4.3 Procedure
Participants in the research study completed the survey instrument after receiving it in the mail,
or via email. Questionnaires were estimated to take up to 40 minutes to complete, and
respondents completed the survey in English (handwritten or typed responses were possible) at
their leisure and in their own chosen environment. Participants had access to information about
the study and potential possession of the questionnaire for up to 8 weeks, and posted or emailed
their questionnaires back upon completion. On receipt of the completed questionnaires, the
figures were analyzed to note any areas of significance, using descriptive, parametric and non-
parametric inferential statistical analysis.

5.5 Results and Discussion
A total of 110 signed language interpreters returned completed questionnaires. No unusable
surveys were returned. A total of 67.3% of respondents were accredited at Paraprofessional
level and 32.7% at Professional Interpreter level.
36


Table 5.1: Level of NAATI accreditation held by respondents

Accreditation level
Respondents
(n) Percent

Paraprofessional
74 67.3

Interpreter
36 32.7
Total 110 100.0

5.5.1 Skills gaps reported by practitioners
Reported in detail in Bontempo and Napier (2007), and only summarized here, are the skills
gaps identified by Paraprofessional and Professional Interpreter respondents. Significant gaps in
skill were found when Professional Interpreters rated degree of importance of certain skills

36
See Bontempo and Napier (2007) for detailed demographic information regarding respondents
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and attributes; and then their own competence on the same. The variables where gaps for
Professional Interpreters were identified after analysis included the following: self-confidence;
memory skills; concentration skills; self-monitoring skills; specialist knowledge; objectivity;
public speaking skills; self-discipline; world knowledge; contextual knowledge; assertiveness
and intuition.

On the other hand, significant gaps for Paraprofessionals were found in the following areas:
Auslan skills; interpreting/translating skills; contextual knowledge; memory skills;
concentration skills; listening skills; self-monitoring skills; self-confidence; world knowledge;
reputation; objectivity; spelling skills; situational management skills; specialist knowledge;
general intelligence; self-discipline; analytical skills; and assertiveness.

The different ratings ascribed by practitioners depending on their level of accreditation, and the
resulting data demonstrate Paraprofessionals identified a greater number of gaps in their skills
base across a wider range of skill domains, including fundamental skills for Auslan interpreters,
such as language proficiency in Auslan.

5.5.2 Perception of interpreter education programs in Australia
Of primary interest in this paper is the qualitative data obtained from the survey on a question
pertaining to interpreter education programs. This question was placed immediately after the
section regarding the skills, knowledge and abilities that might be important for interpreters and
a rating scale where respondents scored their own competence on each of the 50 variables after
indicating the degree of importance of each variable. This position of the open ended questions
served to draw the participants attention to areas where they might feel they need additional
training, and to reflect on their own level of competence as a practitioner.

The specific question of interest was: How well do you think interpreter education programs in
Australia prepare interpreters for effective performance in the profession? Despite this being
presented as an open-ended question allowing for a free form response, and placed after an
intensive Likert scale regarding skills gaps, a total of 106 out of 110 survey participants elected
to provide a written response to this particular question. This is a profound response rate to an
optional open-ended question.

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A total of 67% of respondents to this question (25 Professional Interpreters and 46
Paraprofessionals) noted deficits in interpreter education programs, resulting in feeling poorly
equipped to function as an interpreter upon course exit, and entry into the profession. Common
themes amongst these respondents were:
1. course duration (not long enough);
2. course content and complexity (not reflective of the real world of work);
3. insufficient resources and materials for use on course;
4. the varied qualifications and competence of the interpreter educators on courses;
5. the lack of mentoring, internships and buddy systems available to students and new
graduates;
6. the inaccessible location of courses (in certain city centres only);
7. the infrequency of programs in some states;
8. and the apparent lack of a national standard in programs.

The last point is particularly interesting given interpreter educators in all programs throughout
Australia are operating from the same national competency based curriculum.
Selected comments representative of the negative perceptions of the interpreter education
programs are noted below:
Currently many paraprofessionals are sent out to work in the real world severely
under-equipped. I believe this contributes to the very high attrition rate in newly
qualified interpreters (Participant #36, Professional Interpreter)

Considering the type of work that paraprofessional Auslan interpreters need to do,
the Diploma courses do not really equip them. (Participant #103, Professional
Interpreter)

From what I have seen, they are not adequately prepared. Fluency in both languages
is essential and personal attributes need to be examined and worked upon to enhance
the skills interpreters require (Participant #38, Professional Interpreter)

They dont seem to prepare interpreters to be able to work with language variation;
nor do they seem to prepare interpreters in the use of a high standard of English
(Participant #83, Professional Interpreter)

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Poor in technical interpreting techniques (Participant #82, Paraprofessional)

After exiting interpreter training programs you feel thrown in the deep end
(Participant #51, Paraprofessional)

Poor communication between lecturers, does not focus on the more important
aspects of interpreting (Participant #109, Paraprofessional)

TAFE courses train people how to sign and how to prepare for their NAATI exam
but they dont teach students how to actually be an interpreter (Participant #88,
Paraprofessional)

I feel here in (State omitted) it is ineffective. I feel the standard has dropped
interpreters are not flexible, too rigid and have difficulty bridging between the two
cultures. Generally I find some are over-confident and it shows in their attitude and
work (Participant #25, Professional Interpreter)

Entry level programs (eg. TAFE) currently do not run for long enough to adequately
cover even the essentials (Participant #70, Professional Interpreter)

The course all depends on the teachers own knowledge, and importantly, their
ability to impart it to students (Participant #26, Professional Interpreter)

Courses across Australia are widely varied and inconsistent (Participant #35,
Paraprofessional)

A minority of survey participants, at 22%, were more positive about the grounding they had
received in various interpreter education programs. This group of respondents consisted of 4
Professional Interpreters and 19 Paraprofessionals. Some representative comments from this
group of participants are below:
I believe it did prepare me for effective interpreting and professionalism in the field
(Participant #74, Professional Interpreter)

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The courses I completed at TAFE and at Macquarie were both excellent. The
problem is not all people have access to (or choose to access) these courses
(Participant #57, Professional Interpreter)

Interpreter training is thorough a good foundation of skills (Participant #15,
Paraprofessional)

The training program in (State omitted) is excellent. It has an excellent teacher who
is an Auslan interpreter with a vast amount of knowledge. It contains role plays for
specific subject areas which is highly valuable almost real! Also includes various
forms of interpreting, e.g. platform, consecutive, simultaneous (Participant #42,
Paraprofessional)

I found the training program excellent in preparing interpreters for the profession
(Participant #89, Paraprofessional)

I found the course to be varied, interesting and challenging. Interpreting skills were
addressed systematically, practically and very professionally, with many
opportunities given for interactive learning (Participant #95, Paraprofessional)

The final group of 11% (6 Professional Interpreters and 6 Paraprofessionals) were non-
committal in their response indicating they didnt feel they had any insights to offer, or they
provided a mixed response that could not be considered a wholly negative or a positive
comment on the state of interpreter training in Australia. For example, participant #1 (a
Professional Interpreter) noted:
I think theyre great the problem is (a) theyre are not compulsory and (b)
paraprofessionals should NOT be doing most of the work theyre doing!

Of interest with this latter group, is that with further analysis it was found that 8 out of 12 of
these respondents had never participated in an interpreter education program themselves. This
may have accounted for their unwillingness to provide a firmer opinion on the efficacy of
interpreter education programs. Despite the lack of formal interpreter education amongst this
group, 11 out of 12 of this group rated themselves as more than competent or extremely
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competent as an interpreter. Notably, all except one respondent had more than 10 years of
practical experience in the field, however.

Returning to the first group of participants those expressing concern about the deficits of
interpreter education programs in Australia some respondents took the opportunity to offer
suggestions for improvements when responding to the question about interpreter education,
including some specific, unprompted, references to program admission standards on TAFE
programs, and the need for a entry level degree course at university, rather than entry level
programs only being available at TAFE:
We need either higher standards at entry or more units so students can achieve
higher competency in many areas (Participant #105, Paraprofessional)

Pre-requisites for entry need to be improved (Participant #9, Paraprofessional)

Entry level requirements need to be strictly maintained (Participant #60.
Professional Interpreter)

Effective preparation is impossible without a full degree program and higher
standards (Participant #36, Professional Interpreter)

I dont think a 1 year part time TAFE course is appropriate for this high demand
profession. I dont think we can call it a profession in that instance either.
(Participant #23, Paraprofessional)

I feel the most pressing issue is lack of baseline university training.
(Participant #44, Professional Interpreter)

Ideally, degree courses should be the basic training, but I dont see degree
courses able to become essential because of a) lack of numbers in Australia, and
b) lack of appropriate remuneration for practicing in the sign language field.
(Participant #55, Paraprofessional)

A total of 13% of the overall respondents to the question (n=106) on interpreter education made
reference to raising entry level education standards to university level, believing this would
123
better equip interpreters upon entry to the world of work. It is certainly logical to expect
education at a higher level and over a longer duration would reduce the readiness to work gap,
as observed in graduates by practitioners responding to the survey.

Given the trend in the data, of criticism leveled at interpreter education programs by 67% of
survey respondents, and the calls for increased quality and higher standards coming not only
from participants in the study, but also from the Australian Deaf community (Napier and
Rohan, 2007), the researchers turned their attention to interpreter education programs. If
interpreter education programs in Australia are not perceived to be preparing students for
effective performance in the field and so many skills gaps exist in graduates and practitioners,
how can we do better?

5.5.3 Developing a Program Admission Test
A thread generated by survey respondents regarding standards at entry level on interpreter
education courses, prompted the researchers to consider the development and introduction of a
screening tool that could be used at program admission. The importance of being able to
measure the tool and compare against course outcomes was paramount.

In developing such a tool, the survey data provided some key skills, knowledge and abilities for
consideration and inclusion. As already noted, the quantitative data confirmed significant skills
gaps in Paraprofessionals. The major skills gaps for Paraprofessionals revealed by statistical
analysis as reported by Bontempo and Napier (2007) were:
! Auslan skills;
! interpreting/translating skills;
! memory skills;
! concentration skills;
! listening skills.

Understanding that the above-mentioned areas were significant weaknesses as identified by
practitioners in their survey responses, we sought to develop a formal program admission test
for interpreter education programs that would specifically tap into these areas of concern. The
premise in doing so was that if we could select quality students who demonstrated greater
existing skills, knowledge and abilities in these domains at the time of course commencement,
we would be setting students up for success in the course and presumably in the profession of
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interpreting. Indeed, Patrie (1994: 56) recommends formal entrance screening specifically as a
method of dealing with the readiness to work gap, noting that as the demands of the job are
continuing to increase, these demands call for a reasoned response, the crux of which may
rest in developing parameters for interpreter preparation programs that are in line with well-
developed and articulated standards for entry and exit criteria which interface appropriately
with job requirements.

A standardized testing tool for program entry does not exist in Australia, so a pilot admission
test was developed to address that gap, and in response to the findings of the survey, with the
intention of recommending national application of the measure pending evaluation of its
reliability and validity.

5.6 Methodology for Study 2: Program Admission Test
The pilot screening measure was developed based on comments by respondents in the research
study questionnaire, and informed by the literature regarding admission testing, screening and
selection of interpreters for interpreter education programs.

Paraprofessional respondents to the questionnaire specifically identified significant gaps
between the importance of certain skills applicable to the task of interpreting, and their degree
of competence in a particular skill domain. To that end, measuring some of these skills formed
the basis of the admission test. Admission test content was further influenced by
recommendations arising from spoken language screening research, particularly the findings of
Moser-Mercer (1985); Gerver et al. (1984, 1989); Lambert (1991) and Sawyer (2004), given the
lack of conclusive research on admission testing on signed language interpreter education
programs available at the time of test development.

On the basis of data provided by Gerver et al. (1989), tests of text memory, logical memory,
cloze exercises, and error detection appear to be quite predictive of future success in trainee
interpreters. In addition, recommended exercises such as shadowing, paraphrasing, sight
translation/interpreting, processing of numbers, and candidate interview (Moser-Mercer, 1985;
Lambert, 1991; Pippa & Russo, 2002), were considered for inclusion in the pilot test with
signed language interpreters in Australia.


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5.6.1. Participants
The pilot of the admission test was administered to 18 applicants to a Diploma of Interpreting
program in Australia. Due to the nature and scale of signed language interpreter education in
Australia, with typically only four programs running annually at TAFE colleges around the
nation, the location and name of the TAFE college and the year of intake will not be revealed to
protect the identities of participants. Furthermore, as numbers of students and practitioners
around the nation are small, only general information will be given regarding the participants
who did successfully gain entry to the program, with participant numbers allocated to exam
results and qualitative data only and not matched with personal information about the
participant.

Of the 18 applicants, a total of 11 students gained entry to the interpreting program. All were
female, aged between 18 51 years of age. The mean age was 29 years of age. All students had
English as their native language, with one exception. All had studied Auslan formally at TAFE,
with 8 of the 11 completing the Diploma of Auslan at TAFE. Three of the 11 students held an
undergraduate level university degree.

5.6.2 Materials
After careful consideration of the adaptability of some of the spoken language interpreter
screening items, the resulting pilot screening tool consisted of: an essay in written English
(choice of 2 topics); a candidate interview conducted in Auslan; and four practical activities
relating to language skills, pre-interpreting skills, and cognitive processing skills. It was
considered the range of items selected would allow examiners insight into the candidates
command of English and Auslan, listening skills, memory skills, concentration, and basic
ability to transfer meaning from one form into another either intralingually or interlingually.
These were all key skills gaps identified in Paraprofessionals by the survey data, and covered
the range of comments from survey respondents about what should be tested for entry into an
interpreter education program. Table 5.2 outlines the skills, knowledge and abilities we
expected would be evidenced by the particular test items selected. The tests were to be
administered in one sitting, and would take approximately one hour and fifteen minutes to
complete.
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Table 5.2: Program admission test items

Admission test item
(presented/assessed in
this order)
Skills, knowledge and abilities expected to be evidenced by
this test item
Essay Fluency in written English; motivation; goal orientation;
attitude; evidence of ability to manage time; interests; ability to
express thoughts
Interview Fluency in receptive and productive Auslan; presentation skills;
discourse cohesion and general communication ability; general
knowledge; personality; motivation
Shadowing Selective attention; ability to listen and speak simultaneously
(in Auslan); processing speed relating to language
manipulation; intralingual skills; contextual knowledge
Paraphrasing /
identification of main ideas
Comprehension of Auslan; listening skills in Auslan (notes
permitted); text processing; recall of main points; summarizing;
discourse cohesion; language skills (in English and Auslan);
spoken English skills (oral production and fluency, vocal
quality etc); interlingual skills; knowledge of Deaf
culture/education
Dual task Comprehension of spoken English source material; speech
discrimination; memory skills; stress management; parallel
processing skills; processing digits; speed; listening skills;
intralingual English skills; spoken English skills (oral
production and fluency, vocal quality etc); discourse cohesion
Consecutive interpreting Comprehension of spoken English source material; speech
discrimination; Auslan skills (specifically, use of constructed
action due to text chosen); basic message analysis and transfer
skills (at meaning unit level as text is chunked in short idea
units); semantic processing and reconstruction; discourse
cohesion; interlingual skills
***Individual traits Not a test item per se. A subjective assessment of non-language
based factors (confidence, resilience in testing process,
personality etc.)
127

Some tests found useful by Gerver et al. (1989) were not used for our pilot as they were peculiar
to spoken language and, although it may be possible, probably would not easily convert into
meaningful measures in a signed language (such as cloze sentences, synonyms etc). Also of
relevance was the fact that 83% of Auslan interpreter survey respondents had English as their
first language (Bontempo, 2005). It is anticipated therefore that the vast majority of applicants
to a Paraprofessional interpreter education program in Auslan/English interpreting in Australia
have English as their first language, and a program requirement to even be considered for
interview was to have successfully completed at least Year 12 English (final year of secondary
school English skills are graded according to state-wide tests at this level). The emphasis
therefore in screening needs to be on Auslan skills, and this was the language highlighted by
survey participants as a concern for Paraprofessionals. The NAATI description of a
Paraprofessional as able to work within a range of conversational level discourse was also a
consideration in selecting tasks.

A written essay in English about the candidates interests and goals (i.e. non-academic in
nature) and an interview conducted in conversational Auslan were designed to elicit information
from the candidate. More detail appears below. Shadowing was strongly recommended by
Lambert (1991), while dual tasking and paraphrasing are cited as Moser-Mercer (2008b) as
first level cognitive skills needed by prospective interpreters in the stages of skill acquisition.
Another important pre-requisite for interpreting is comprehension, so this was assessed in
multiple ways across the various test items. A simple consecutive interpreting task was selected
primarily on the grounds that they are commonly included as part of a screening process in
spoken language interpreter programs (Timarov & Ungoed-Thomas, 2008); Humphrey (1994)
also included a basic interpreting task in her comprehensive screening tool; and we were also
influenced by the fact that all interpreter programs in Australia were already using a basic
interpreting task in their admission testing. It was considered that these various admission test
elements would offer a glimpse into the applicants readiness for the interpreter education
program. On face value at least, the admission test elements appeared to reflect the complex
sub-tasks and components required in the act of interpreting, as well as revealing some aspects
of aptitude for interpreting.

Applicants to the Diploma of Interpreting program were interviewed and graded by a panel of
examiners, who would also form the teaching team on the course the following year. The panel
128
consisted of one native signer (deaf) and two native English speakers (both accredited and
experienced Auslan interpreters). All of the panelists had completed the minimum qualification
for teaching at TAFE (Certificate IV in Assessment and Workplace Training), as well as at the
time holding between them 21 years of experience in teaching signed language interpreters.
Two of the three panelists held formal qualifications at postgraduate / higher degree level in
either linguistics or interpreting, and one held a postgraduate degree in adult education. The
panel had worked together in previous years, determining admission based on more informal
and intuitive measures. The panel had opportunity to have input into the admission test
developed by the researchers, and were sent a copy of the proposed tool for discussion in
advance of the testing date. No changes were made, and a one-hour meeting took place prior to
the admission testing to discuss the tool and grading in more detail. A fourth person from
college administrative staff remained outside the interview room to coordinate the arrival of
candidates, set them to task with the essay, answer any questions the candidate might have had,
and escort candidates into the interview room at the appropriate time. The specific test items are
elaborated on below:

5.6.2.1 Essay English. The English essay was designed to elicit attitudes, values and
motivation/commitment indicators from the candidate. It was an opportunity to assess the
written English skills of applicants, but also to gain insight into who they are, and their
reasons for undertaking interpreting studies, as well as their commitment to the program and the
Deaf community. This provided some soft skills evaluative information about candidates such
as goal orientations, attitude, and views of the Deaf community. Two essay options were
presented to candidates and they could select one. The essay questions were adapted from those
used by Gallaudet University in their Department of Interpretation. Gallaudet University is the
only liberal arts university in the world for deaf people (hearing students who meet admissions
criteria can gain entry also), and it is the only university in the world that conducts both an
undergraduate degree program and a graduate degree program in signed language interpreting.
On this basis it was considered a good model from which to draw the foundation of some
admission testing material. Essay options after adaptation were:
Short Essay One. Explain how you may have juggled the competing demands of studies, paid
employment, family/personal commitments and/or voluntary activities in the past. Articulate
how this demonstrates your capacity to commit to the Diploma of Interpreting and its
extracurricular requirements of attendance at Deaf community events, and observing
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interpreters at work. Provide any information you believe will help us better evaluate you as an
applicant for this program of study.
OR
Short Essay Two. Describe why you want to become an interpreter and what you hope to
achieve from the profession what are your goals and aspirations for work in the field?
Highlight the academic and life skills you possess that will help you succeed in achieving your
goal/s, and what you consider your greatest asset as a future professional interpreter.

Applicants were permitted 30 minutes to write the essay, with two pages the minimum
acceptable response. All candidates regardless of educational background were required to
complete the English essay. This aspect of the admission test was worth 25 points (out of 100)
and grading criteria included: content (addressing and answering the essay topic / providing
evidence, examples); clarity and register of language (including correct grammar, vocabulary,
spelling, punctuation); logical coherence and organisation of text; evidence of thought and
analytical skill; and insights offered into personal traits / motivation / interests.

5.6.2.2 Interview Auslan. The aim of this aspect of the admission test was to evaluate the
conversational competence of the applicant in Auslan. This test essentially measures both
Auslan comprehension and production by way of an interactive process between the candidate
and the examiners, where the examiners draw the candidate on different topics and issues in
accordance with the interview purpose (i.e. pre-prepared prompt questions were asked about
motivation for studying interpreting; personal interests; current affairs; experience of the Deaf
community etc). This test was fluid to the extent that candidate comments may generate a
spontaneous question by the examiner unrelated to the partially scripted range of questions.
Also, examiners might seek clarification on a comment made by a candidate for example, so the
emphasis was not so much to work through a prescribed list of questions with the candidate to
assess knowledge, but more so to get him/her talking as much as possible so language skills
could be observed and rated. Invariably, however, the measure also provided non-linguistic
insights too, due to the nature of the test and some of the pre-prepared prompt questions. This
was another measure based on an existing tool employed by Gallaudet University, this time for
their wider university admissions screening (not just for signed language interpreters) that we
adapted for our use. The Gallaudet University American Sign Language Proficiency Interview
(GU-ASLPI) is an evaluation tool used by the university for admission screening across various
courses on campus, to determine linguistic fluency in American Sign Language. It is modeled
130
after a language proficiency test developed by the US Foreign Service.
37
The GU-ASLPI is
holistically scored by assigning a proficiency level of 0 to 5 by considering the candidate's
performance in five areas: visual-gestural production, American Sign Language grammar, sign
vocabulary, fluency and comprehension. In the adapted version of the interview the grammar
and vocabulary of Auslan was evaluated rather than American Sign Language. By way of
example, a proficiency level of 3 on the test would mean the candidate demonstrated with
some confidence, the ability to use some Auslan grammar along with use of signs,
fingerspelling, and numbers, in everyday communication needs related to social demands, work
and/or study situations. In spite of occasional hesitations, there is fair to good control of
everyday sign vocabulary with which to narrate and describe topics in some detail. In spite of
some noticeable imperfections, errors rarely interfere with understanding. Comprehension is
fairly good as repetition or rephrasing is needed only occasionally.
38
The proficiency level
(graded from 0-5) was then converted to a score out of 10 for this part of the test (test total out
of 100).

5.6.2.3 Shadowing Auslan. A short pre-recorded monologic text in Auslan was viewed with a
brief introduction to set the context. Candidates were to simultaneously phonemically shadow
the signer, copying the signer as they produced a text, matching their signs production, prosody,
etc. as closely as possible, i.e. repeating each phoneme (handshape, orientation, location,
movement, facial expression) as it is seen. The text selected was a female native signer in her
50s talking about her holiday around Australia. No technical vocabulary was present, although
contextual knowledge of place names would have assisted the student. Given all students were
residents of Australia this should not have been a contextually difficult text. The narrative
nature of the discourse lent itself to significant use of classifier (general) signs of depiction, use
of space, constructed action and constructed dialogue. For most second language learners of
Auslan, these can be difficult linguistic features to acquire and in this sense the text would have
been challenging. This test measures command of the students second language, with Lambert
(1991) noting that one cannot shadow what one does not understand, and if a student is unable
to shadow in his or her B language, they do not have the linguistic competence for program
entry. Considerations in grading were resilience in maintaining phonemic shadowing; ability to
keep pace with the signers speed across the length of the text; clarity of production; and

37
Refer to http://www.ntid.rit.edu/slpi/documents/FAQSLPIHistory.pdf
38
GU-ASLPI functional descriptions at
http://deafstudies.gallaudet.edu/Assessment_and_Evaluation_Unit_(AEU)/American_Sign_Language_Proficiency_Interview
_(ASLPI)/ASLPI_Functional_Descriptions.html
131
adoption of prosody from the source text. This aspect of the admission test was graded out of 15
total points possible.

5.6.2.4 Paraphrasing/identification of main ideas Auslan to English. A short pre-recorded
monologic text in Auslan was viewed. Notes could be taken. Upon completion, candidate was
to offer a summary of the main ideas of the passage in English. The text selected was a male
signer in his 30s talking about his experiences in using interpreters during his university studies.
No technical vocabulary or jargon was present in the text and many of the concepts within the
text should have been familiar to most course applicants if familiar with Deaf culture, education
of deaf people and the potentially uneasy relationship between the Deaf community and
interpreters. The signer related some positive and negative experiences of his interpreted
education. This test required the applicant to visually process and comprehend the source
message and to recall and reformulate in a paraphrased form in English, a summary of the main
ideas presented in the source text. As this was potentially a difficult task testing pre-interpreting
skills, the passage selected was very clear and simple, and was presented at a slow pace.
Considerations for grading included number of main ideas presented; the coherent articulation
of the ideas in English; and quality of oral output in English (audibility, clarity, etc.) This part of
the admission test was graded out of 10 total points possible.

5.6.2.5 Dual-task exercise/memory English. A short pre-recorded monologic passage in
English was played, and while listening to the primary text the candidate had to write down the
numbers from 100 to 1 (backwards) on paper. At conclusion of the text, the candidate was to
render the text again in English. The text selected was a particularly touching story about the
intent behind giving a gift, by way of a particular example given. The speaker was an American
woman in her 40s. No technical vocabulary appeared in the text. This text was drawn from
Patries (2000) exercises for the development of cognitive processing skills in English and
measures ability to selectively attend to the primary task (listening and comprehending the
source text) while performing a distracting activity (the number writing backwards which
adds cognitive load). At the end of the passage the candidate had to recall and present the text in
English. Given the task of interpreting is a divided attention task (Gile, 1995; as cited in
Patrie, 2000: 200) due to having to listen (or watch) a source text at the same time as
reformulating and reproducing a target text, the interpreting student should have some capacity
to manage multiple simultaneous cognitive tasks at the time of course entry. Considerations for
grading included textual fidelity, coherent presentation of story in chronological order, and
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quality of oral output in English. This part of the admission test was graded out of 10 total
points possible.

5.6.2.6 Consecutive interpreting English to Auslan. A short pre-recorded monologic passage
chunked into units of meaning was to be interpreted from English into Auslan consecutively.
The text selected was drawn from Patrie (2004) and was delivered by an American woman in
her 40s. She described two children bathing a dog. The text was extremely simple and contained
no technical vocabulary. This task required the comprehension and analysis of the source text
and the reformulation of the message from English into Auslan. This text was selected due to its
contextually familiar content, brevity, and the simple chunking already built into the recording.
In addition, the text required candidates to spontaneously produce classifier (general) signs of
depiction, constructed action, and to spatially indicate the relationship between the parties
involved in the story. The separation of listening, then reformulating each chunk, allowed
candidates time to include these grammatical features in Auslan, so Auslan skills could be
assessed as well as message transmission. Considerations for grading included Auslan
production, classifier use, facial expression, use of space, role shift and capacity to convey the
message from one language to another. This part of the admission test was graded out of 15
total points possible.

5.6.2.7 Individual traits. An additional score was recorded by the interviewers based on
impressions of candidates overall performance from a personal perspective. This involved
considering the interpersonal skills, presentation, and manner of the candidate evaluating traits
and behaviour rather than technical skills. The evidence from the field of organizational
psychology suggesting a relationship between disposition and occupational performance
prompted this inclusion in the program admission test, as well as some comments from survey
respondents regarding personal traits of interpreters, and the skills gap data from study one.

At the time of conducting the survey and the screening test in 2005 and 2006 respectively, the
work of Stauffer and Shaw (2006), Shaw and Hughes (2006) and Lopez Gomez et al. (2007)
had not yet been published. However, the preliminary results of research by Bontempo (2005)
regarding the potential impact of personal traits on interpreter competence were available.
Financial considerations and time factors prevented the inclusion and trialling of reliable and
valid psychometric tools that could test some of the following factors in the pilot admission test
at TAFE, so examiners allocated a subjective score based purely on impression and individual
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performance during the interview and practical tests. Specific considerations included:-
confidence, maturity, demeanour and presentation, stress response to screening situation/testing
dynamic, cultural behaviour, social skills, resilience, general behaviour and professional
manner. This aspect of the admission test was worth 15 points (out of 100).

Candidates had to score a minimum of 65% overall on the test, however it was expected that
candidates should pass each and every section of the test, achieving at least 50% of the points
allocated for each section (that is, 5/10 etc). Candidates needed more than a bare pass in each
section of the test in order to reach the minimum 65% required for program entry however.

The overall results for the pilot program admission test will be compared with the exit results of
the end of year examination for the same cohort of students.

5.6.2.8 End of Year Exam
At the end of the one year program, students undertake a final examination. The result of the
final examination determines program outcome. The final exam is developed and administered
by the TAFE institution, but as the course is approved by NAATI, the test format follows the
standard expected by NAATI. If a student does not pass the final examination, they cannot
obtain their Diploma of Interpreting or their NAATI accreditation as a Paraprofessional. If they
pass the final examination by 70% or greater (this benchmark is set by NAATI) they are eligible
to receive their Diploma of Interpreting, assuming all other assessments across all other
modules on the course have been successfully completed and deemed competent. Once in
receipt of their advice of having passed the Diploma of Interpreting, students can apply to
NAATI to recognise their qualification and to be awarded the Paraprofessional level of
accreditation. This only applies if NAATI has approved the TAFE (or university) as a training
provider recognised by NAATI. Institutions have to apply to NAATI every 3 years to obtain
ongoing approval of their program content, format and lecturing staff.

The end of year Paraprofessional interpreter examination consists of a test on DVD (to ensure
standardized delivery to all students). The test has three sections, as follows:
Cultural and social questions. Candidates are asked four questions, two in English and two
in Auslan and must answer in the same language. (5 min - 5 points)
Ethical issues - as above (5 min - 5 points)
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Dialogue interpreting (2 x 300 word dialogues in Auslan/English to be interpreted between
a hearing and a deaf person):
Consecutive mode
Simultaneous mode (20 minutes - 45 + 45=90 points)
The overall passing grade is 70%; however, candidates must have a minimum pass in all
sections of the test (i.e. a minimum of 63/90 in section three, with at least 29/45 per dialogue,
and a minimum of 2.5/5 in both sections one and two). The test takes up to 40 minutes to
complete in its entirety.

The data from the final examination is contrasted with the program admission test data in the
results and discussion section.

5.6.3 Procedure for admission test
Prior to arriving at the college for admission testing, applicants received a letter advising the
entrance screening process would take approximately one hour and 15 minutes to complete.
They were advised they would be required to participate in a testing process that would evaluate
their Auslan and English skills, as well as tests that would ascertain their readiness to participate
in an interpreter education program. Screening interviews were scheduled with the 18 applicants
over two days, with staggered interviewing reducing the time commitment required by the
examination panel (i.e. while one candidate was doing his/her essay, the panel would be
interviewing the candidate who had just finished his/her essay, and so on).

Upon arrival at the test venue applicants received an information sheet articulating the
instructions for each of the tests in the entrance examination, and these instructions also
clarified what the examiners would be assessing, and how, for each test item. For example, in
relation to scoring the interview, candidates were given the 0-5 proficiency scale scoring
mechanism so they knew before entering the test room what the examiners would be looking
for. Applicants were required to read and review the test instructions / information guide for 15
minutes before commencing any part of the test. The testing period would then commence, with
the first 30 minutes spent on the English essay, and the latter 30 minutes spent on the more
practical elements of the admission test. The interview / practical screening aspects of the
program admission process were video-taped so examiners could return to the footage later if
they needed to review the performance of any candidate.

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During the screening sessions over two days the scores of each panel member were collated and
averaged to offer a final result for each candidate, which also included the result of the English
essay. As noted, candidates had to pass every section of the measure, as well as achieve an
overall minimum of 65% in the admission test to be admitted for program entry. The 65%
overall minimum was set as an achievable figure to allow progression through the course to the
NAATI benchmark of 70% on the final test. However, only the top twelve students were
expected to be selected for course entry, so achieving the minimum score was no guarantee of
course acceptance. The overall time commitment from each candidate was up to one hour in
total for all parts of the test (plus an additional 15 minutes for reading time).

5.7 Results and Discussion
As already mentioned, of the 18 people that applied for program entry, 11 were accepted on the
basis of admission test results, meaning 61% of presenting applicants gained program entry.
Student admission test results were compared with their end of year final examination scores.
Details are highlighted in Table 3, with ranking based on final examination score.

Table 5.3: Comparison of admission test score and final examination result

Candidate Admission test result (%) Final examination result (%)
1 71.3 81.75
2 74.8 79.25
3 77.2 77.50
4 77.5 72
5 74.1 71
6 66.6 71
7 74.1 65.75
8 75.5 64
9 74.0 63.75
10 73.0 62.5
11 69.9 60.75

As noted in Table 5.3, students 7 through to 11 did not pass the final examination, as the pass
mark for the final examination was 70% - this is a prescribed pass mark set by NAATI. The
mean admission test score for the students who passed the final examination was 73.58%, with
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a mean final examination score of 75.42%. Of the group of students who failed the final
examination, the mean admission test score was 73.30% and the final examination mean score
was 63.35%. In total, only 55% of candidates admitted to the program successfully completed
it.

Similar program exit results were identified by Timarov & Ungoed-Thomas (2008) in their
review of 18 spoken language interpreter education programs. They found that, on average,
admission tests accept only 24% of applicants (61% of applicants gained entry in this study),
and of the admitted candidates, only 56% successfully completed the interpreting program. This
pilot study produced similar end results, with just over half the accepted candidates who gained
program entry passing the final examination (55%).

Our findings suggest the admission test results from this small-scale pilot study were not
predictive of final examination performance. The mean admission scores for the students who
passed and the students who failed the final examination differed by only 0.28%. In hindsight,
the admission test we developed leaned towards testing pre-interpreting skills (i.e. existing
ability and declarative knowledge) and only vaguely tapped into individual aptitude per se, in an
ill-defined fashion due to many of the test items actually testing several different aspects of
skills and abilities even within one test.

The development and administration of this pilot test shed light on the need for greater
emphasis on objectively assessing aptitude in signed language interpreter program entrance
screening via psychometrically valid tools, measuring cognitive and affective factors rather than
performance on a series of tasks that may be variants of interpreting skills as such. Such tests
may assist educators in more effectively selecting students who have the capacity to learn and
transfer new skills and knowledge across different environments, rather than only selecting
students who have existing basic technical skills.

With general mental ability recognised to be the single most significant predictor of
occupational performance (Schmidt & Hunter, 1998), and to be more successful in recruiting
suitable people into the interpreting profession, perhaps we need to seriously consider
introducing general intelligence testing in some form for screening purposes, alongside
measures of language proficiency and temperament. In addition to its role in predicting on the
job performance, Ree and Earles (1992) confirm that general intelligence is the strongest
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predictor of job training success also, adding further weight to the suggestion to apply cognitive
ability tests to interpreter program applicants.

It is unclear whether the program admission test resulted in allowing people program entry that
in fact should were not ideal candidates for the program. Of greater concern, however, is the
possibility that program admission test results may have also excluded people from the course
who in fact would have been competitive students, if given an opportunity to gain entrance.

Many of the exercises incorporated into our program admission test were measures used
internationally with spoken language interpreters accessing conference interpreter level
programs and had never been used with signed language interpreters in Australia for program
entry testing purposes before. Specifically, shadowing, paraphrasing, and dual tasking were new
assessment items not used by any educator previously for program admission testing in
Australia. We were able to adapt these to suit our purposes, and we obtained texts that were
authentic and appeared well-suited for the tasks. However, the validity of these particular
exercises for entry level Auslan interpreters, who will work primarily with dialogic discourse in
community settings rather than in a conference environment, remains uncertain. The test results
did not show any particular test item as an important predictor, and the inclusion of a
consecutive interpreting task (albeit already in place in all the Australian screening tests, and
used in international screening tests also) also may not be an effective way to evaluate
interpreter-potential.

Prior to their final examination students were asked to elaborate on their perceptions of the
usefulness and relevance of the program admission test, in hindsight. Of the 11 students in the
program, only four volunteered to provide feedback on the screening tool. Of the four
respondents, two ultimately passed the final examination and two were unsuccessful in passing
the interpreter program.

All the respondents were in favour of screening at program entry. Each candidate gave feedback
on each of the admission test items, and trends in the data supported the use of an essay in
English and a candidate interview to assess language proficiency in Auslan. The shadowing;
paraphrasing/identification of main idea; and the dual task test items did not prove popular
overall, with respondents reporting these as daunting test items at the time, noting theyd never
been exposed to such exercises in their language acquisition classes. However, candidates also
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noted that in hindsight they could see the value in such exercises in terms of their application to
the interpreting process. Respondents were all in favour of the consecutive interpreting task.

Some direct quotes representative of the feedback include:
English essay The essay choice of two thought questions were good. Really made
students think about their future goals and their commitment to the Deaf community
(Candidate #7 - unsuccessful student)

Candidate interview This task should be relatively easy to a person who wants to enter
the interpreters course (Candidate #5 - successful student)

Shadowing Once you get the sense of where the story is heading the exercise becomes
a lot easier (Candidate #5 - successful student)

Identification of main idea This type of assessment is essential to show the students
ability to first understand what they are seeing, to remember details, and to then give a
summary (Candidate #9 - unsuccessful student)

Dual task I can see this would be a valuable tool to assess students' ability to
remember details while processing something else (Candidate #9 - unsuccessful student)

This task is just like multi-tasking a skill which I now realise an interpreter must have.
You must be able to hold and listen to something in English and deliver it in Auslan a
few seconds later (depending on your time lag) whilst still listening to the next lot of
information that will require interpreting (Candidate #5 - successful student)

Consecutive interpreting The passage shown was a very good choice as it involved the
use of space and many classifiers (Candidate #7 unsuccessful student).

Candidate #6 (successful student) who had actually unsuccessfully attempted program entry in a
previous year (when entrance testing had been more intuitive) noted of the whole process:
the interview process was strange but I remember on the way home thinking how
much better it was because it tested my individual skills and if they were good enough
to handle interpreting. For example, testing my memory, and my ability to multi-task in
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the dual task exercise. Overall this latest method was a lot more effective in testing my
abilities.

The low response rate to the call for feedback on the admission test (only 4 respondents out of a
cohort of 11 students) is a limitation of this aspect of the study, and needs to be considered
when interpreting the comments. In terms of using self-report data, the veracity of reports from
participants can sometimes be of concern, and can be influenced by social desirability bias. This
is a flaw of all social research survey design, and not unique to this study however.

5.7.1 Limitations of Study 2
A number of confounding variables could have impacted student progress and performance
between the time of program admission testing and the final examination. For example, the
quality of instruction in the program over the duration of the year would be important, and is not
measured in this study. As noted both in the survey responses, and in the literature, the role of
the educator is very powerful (Hattie, 2003; Robinson, 2002). Furthermore, issues surrounding
the transition from language student to interpreting student can throw learners off track (Shaw,
Grbic & Franklin, 2004); family and faculty support play a part (Shaw & Hughes, 2006); and in
particular, the students learning style, attitude, motivation and willingness to engage and
improve is also critical. Moser-Mercer (2008a) has adapted a visual representation of the
determinants of human performance, as follows in Figure 5.1. Such a model clearly shows the
interaction between an individual students aptitude/learning style/intelligence/abilities
(capacity), motivation and attitude (willingness) and opportunity to practice, and performance.

Figure 5.1: Determinants of human performance and their interaction (adapted from
Blumberg & Pringle, 1982 by Moser-Mercer, 2008a: 3)

140

With individual capacity and willingness suggested to play such a significant role in
determining performance, it is vital for interpreter program admission tests to start evaluating
the aptitude of program applicants more effectively than is the case currently.

Additionally, a consideration that would have affected the pilot admission test outcomes is that
the panel of examiners were using this tool for the first time. A lack of training and experience
in administering a complex screening tool and in understanding how to allocate scores may well
have influenced admission test results for the pilot.

Another potential limitation of the pilot is that it is precisely that a preliminary study. Such a
small scale preliminary study prevents any serious treatment of the results at this time, and the
admission test therefore remains a work in progress. Developing expertise in administering and
grading an admission test; and in collecting data from more Diploma of Interpreting cohorts
from different programs around the country would be useful, as a greater sample will allow for
a more comprehensive study, generalization of the results, and firmer recommendations arising
from the results.

A final note of reservation could be raised about the reliability and validity of the examination
used to assess students at the end of the interpreter education program. Although the
examination has good face validity, concerns about NAATI test format and content have been
flagged by Campbell and Hale (2003). As the final examination was modeled on the NAATI
Paraprofessional test (as required by the Diploma curriculum), the researchers were restricted in
being able to develop an alternative final examination. Thus we acknowledge that the reliability
and validity of the final examination could be a possible confounding factor in the study, in that
perhaps the final examination did not measure what it is supposed to, and the admission test
may not actually be the problem.

The caution from Sawyer (2004) regarding course duration is also noteworthy here. It may be
that some of the candidates accepted into the program based on their performance on the
admission test pilot could not sustain and improve performance to the standard required by the
end of the program. However, had the course duration been longer, it could be speculated that
perhaps these candidates would have met the exit standard required. The program admission
test, in largely evaluating ability (rather than aptitude), may have correctly pegged candidates
141
abilities at the time of course entry, however, the capacity of candidates to learn and transfer the
necessary new skills within the period of the course was not measured.

Despite the challenges evident in the admission testing process outlined in this pilot study, the
notion of standardized screening needs to remain on the agenda. Although this preliminary
attempt to administer an admissions test was not conducive to predicting candidates success in
passing the program of study, the fact that some kind of admissions screening is needed (and
research on such screening tools and their link to program outcomes is most definitely needed)
by interpreter practitioners, interpreter educators, interpreting students and researchers, cannot
be denied. This study is therefore a first step in attempting to more effectively recruit quality
candidates into entry level interpreter education programs in Australia.

In the absence of any other hard data provided on interpreter education program admission and
exit outcomes for signed language interpreters in Australia, this study breaks new ground.
Evidently much more work needs to be done in exploring admission test options, streamlining
admission processes nation-wide, collecting and reporting data, and in addressing the reliability
and validity of the tools used to admit and exit students from programs; and to certify
candidates via direct NAATI testing.

By way of a postscript, although full details are unavailable, the researchers were advised that
the interpreter education program involved in the test pilot employed the same screening tool
again a year later with the next prospective cohort of interpreting students (before knowing the
outcome of final examinations for the first pilot group). The same panelists were involved in
entry test administration (although one of the three panelists did not remain on the teaching
team a new teacher joined the program), and of 20 applicants to the course, 10 were selected
for program admission. A 100% pass rate on the final examination for this later cohort of 10
students was reported. Full data is not available to the researchers for this cohort of students,
however the significantly improved results in many ways simply muddies the water further, and
warrants further research.
142

5.8 Conclusion
In conclusion, we return to the specific research questions for the two related studies:

1. Are signed language interpreter education programs in Australia perceived by practitioners
to be preparing interpreters for effective performance in the profession?

According to the data collected via the survey, the majority of practitioner respondents (67%)
do not perceive the interpreter education programs in Australia for signed language interpreters
to be preparing interpreters for effective performance in the profession.

2. Can the interpreter education program admission tests commonly referenced in the literature
for spoken language interpreters be adapted and applied to signed language interpreters for
entry level screening purposes?

A selection of the exercises commonly used for program admission testing purposes for spoken
language interpreters were successfully adapted to suit the needs of signed language interpreters
in this study.

3. Are the results of program admission tests developed and administered in this study
predictive of final examination performance?

The program admission test developed and administered in this study was not predictive of final
examination performance.

The finding that entry level practitioners (Paraprofessionals) demonstrate significant skills gaps
and that interpreter education courses are perceived to be inadequately preparing interpreters for
the world of work should ring alarm bells for interpreter educators and program administrators
in Australia. Evidently an urgent review into current practices and an overhaul of the national
curriculum, instructional quality, resources, and so on, may be needed.

The signed language interpreting sector has much to learn from the path traveled by our peers in
the spoken language interpreting field (and vice versa also). If developments and progress are
143
occurring in the field and being documented in the literature, we can gain from this evidence-
based approach to interpreting pedagogy, and in particular by reviewing and sharing forms of
testing and assessment. Trialing methods and exercises that have proven useful to others is one
approach to continuous improvement, and our efforts to adapt, adopt, and document the use of
testing techniques should encourage others in our field to do the same.

A goal, and a challenge, remains for us in refining and further trialing a suitable admission
screening tool for interpreter course entry to support standardized entry level competence in
programs across the nation. It is an iterative process, and undoubtedly revisions will lead to a
more robust screening measure.

Sawyers (2004) assertion that screening instruments have to vary considerably from program
to program, and that a single screening instrument may never be possible to develop, may be
less valid in the Australian context. Given that TAFE interpreter education is delivered
according to a national competency based curriculum, which defines the number of program
hours available and resources for programs around the nation, it may in fact be possible to
develop a single screening instrument to be used to assess all Auslan interpreting program
applicants throughout Australia (and an adapted tool for spoken language applicants, as spoken
and signed language interpreter education programs at TAFE in Australia all adhere to the same
curriculum).

At present, colleges duplicate processes around the nation, with incumbent coordinators
developing and trialing entrance examinations with little or no moderation with colleagues, and
no collection of data to determine the predictive validity of the screening procedures employed.
Preliminary discussions with program coordinators suggest considerable support for a national
standardized approach to program screening, in the hope that not only will it lead to better
student outcomes and improved professional standards, but that the administrative load on
program coordinators will be somewhat alleviated by a national approach to admission testing.

5.9 Recommendations
It is recommended that steps be taken to initiate negotiations at the national level with program
coordinators and TAFE administrators, and for TAFE colleges to recognize the potential
benefits of a formal, standardized screening measure for entry level interpreter education
programs in Australia. To this end, coordinators for interpreter education programs around the
144
nation will be approached to discuss a national approach to screening prospective signed
language interpreters. We anticipate such discussions will lead to more complex and more valid
selection systems in time that will also be more reflective of the standards and expectations of
the interpreting community and service users.

Furthermore, reviewing and reforming curriculum and practices in entry level interpreter
education programs to suit the contemporary and rapidly changing needs of industry and to
increase quality outcomes is encouraged, with some urgency. Drawing on what has been
accomplished or documented in practice overseas, or in the literature, would serve local practice
well, such as seeking permission from the Commission on Collegiate Interpreter Education
national standards for interpreter education programs in the US to develop something similar to
suit the Australian context,
39
or implementing their comprehensive self study report
40
as an
evaluation tool to assess the adequacy of interpreter education programs in Australia.

Evaluating and moderating the programs in Australia, recording test outcomes, and increasing
our national and international collaborations will lead to greater consistency in program quality
and outcomes. Taking an increasingly evidence-based approach to signed language interpreting
pedagogy in Australia may also contribute to a greater understanding of how to identify
potentially successful applicants to spoken language interpreting programs in Australia.

Finally, research that works towards defining and documenting the specific cognitive processes
and affective traits relevant to interpreter competence, and factors that may be predictive of
performance on interpreter education programs and in the profession, should be a high priority
for the field. Using such information to screen and recruit people into the interpreting
profession, and to shape interpreter education curricula, can only benefit interpreter education
programs, resulting in the growth of our profession and increased standards and quality amongst
practitioners. In a similar vein, given the impact of teacher quality on the variation in academic
achievement in students, research that teases out a profile of the competent interpreter
educator would also be of considerable scholarly interest. Defining the desirable traits and
skills needed by instructors for effective teaching and learning in interpreter education programs
would be a welcome contribution to the growing body of knowledge about interpreting
pedagogy.

39
http://www.ccie-accreditation.org/PDF/Standards_Sept2007.pdf
40
http://www.ccie-accreditation.org/SelfStudyReview.html
145
Although in this case it would seem that we did not get it right from the start, the pilot has
reaffirmed our view that stringent entry requirements for interpreter education programs in
Australia should be developed and/or maintained. Sifting of some kind is definitely called for
in getting the recipe right it may be that on this occasion we did not correctly identify the
necessary ingredients, added in the right combination, for the pilot. The study has however
identified further issues to be explored in terms of the influence of disposition and traits on
interpreter performance in programs, and in the profession, as well as how to reliably measure
the components of interpreting related skill sets, and aptitude for interpreting for screening
purposes.

Considerably more data needs to be collected in regard to interpreter education programs in
Australia also, to examine their efficacy and the relationship between measuring aptitude,
program admission screening and course outcomes. As Arjona-Tseng (2006: 5) notes, we
should examine and define very carefully what constitutes appropriate and required aptitude for
entry into our schools and programs. This is not a trivial question, for after all, a persons
professional future and a whole lifetime of work may be at stake.

Undoubtedly, based on the literature, the survey results, the admission test results and the
interpreter program participant responses, there is a need to get it right from the start in order to
maintain standards of interpreting and service quality for all stakeholders.

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CHAPTER 6


Striving for an A grade:
A case study of performance management of interpreters
41


Abstract. Research regarding the efficacy of an interpreted education for deaf students has
suggested that the practice is fraught with challenges. This could be because interpreters
provide merely the illusion of access in a mainstream setting (Winston, 2004); or it may be
because many education systems are simply not interpreter-ready (Patrie and Taylor, 2008),
among other factors. A primary concern is often the extent of the skills gaps and proficiency
level of interpreters working in education settings. This paper will report on a best practices
process of diagnostic skills analysis, performance management and a tailored series of
ongoing training opportunities undertaken by a cohort of interpreters based at a secondary
school for deaf students in Western Australia. The project that is described, and the
performance evaluation principles and skill enhancement practices adopted, may be easily
embraced by other organisations employing interpreters, managers and mentors of
interpreters, as well as by individual interpreters themselves.
6.1 Introduction
The broader context of skill development and training for interpreters reaches far beyond the
scope of entry-level education programs for work in the profession. Ongoing training for
interpreters is critical to (a) mitigate the skills gap that exists for many practitioners upon
graduation from programs and (b) prevent the fossilization of skills in more experienced
practitioners (Bontempo & Napier, 2007). An onus on interpreters to access ongoing training
throughout the duration of their career is a stipulated tenet of many ethical codes of conduct and
guidelines adopted by interpreter associations and is a condition of maintaining interpreter
certification and licensure in several countries around the world. Providing suitable professional
development opportunities to practitioners to help them meet these requirements may be the
remit of interpreter associations, educational institutions, or the employers of interpreters. In
terms of employers, some may be more industrious than others in creating training programs

41
The original version of this journal article was published as: Bontempo, Karen & Hutchinson, Bethel (2011) Striving for an
A grade: A case study in performance management of interpreters. International Journal of Interpreter Education. 3: 56-71.
155
and skill development plans that are based on individually identified skills gaps and a
performance management process catering to the needs of interpreters in the workplace.

Regardless of employer capacity to do this in an adequate fashion, it remains incumbent on
individual interpreters to maintain or advance skills and to participate in ongoing skills
assessment, self-evaluation and reflection, and professional learning activities. This appears to
be more straightforward for interpreters to comply with when they work for larger employers,
some of which provide this type of ongoing performance management and training support to
meet the needs of individuals. In the case of signed language educational interpreters in
particular, however, this seems to be a rare practice. In this article, we report on one exception
to the rulea best-practices project of diagnostic skills analysis, performance management, and
tailored ongoing training opportunities initiated by an employer of Auslan
42
/English interpreters
at a public secondary school in Western Australia. The case study presented here took place
within an educational context. However, we believe that the principles and process of
performance management that we share here can be applied to interpreters employed by any
organization.
6.2 Background and rationale
Shenton College Deaf Education Centre (SCDEC) is a Western Australian (WA) public school
that caters to high school students, typically aged 1217 years, who are deaf or hard of hearing.
SCDEC is fully funded by the state governments Department of Education and has a reputation
as a Centre of Excellence. The school is situated within one of the top public high schools in
the state, Shenton College, with the larger school population totaling more than 1,200 students.
The 25 deaf and hard of hearing students enrolled at SCDEC are supported by a mix of full-time
and part-time staff, including eight teaching staff and 20 nonteaching staff (e.g., interpreters,
note-takers, onsite captioners, and administration staff).

The Department of Education in WA requires that each school link its school plan to the
Departments overall aim. The stated aim of the Department is for all students to reach their
learning and skills potential and to contribute to society. To enable the Departments aim and
the school plan to be implemented, teachers and nonteaching staff are required to participate in
professional learning activities that are linked to the school plan. To identify the specific skills

42
Auslan: Australian Sign Language
156
gaps and to determine what type of professional learning is required for each staff member to
assist them in achieving the school plan, each staff member undergoes a mandatory
performance management process, overseen by the school principal. Given the Departments
focus on the education of children, the professional learning that is made available at school
level across WA is largely geared toward the critical skill development and maintenance needs
of teaching staff rather than the training needs of nonteaching staff.

This means that interpreters working in schools are typically unable to access readymade
professional learning on site in their workplace, suited specifically to their professional
development needs as interpreting practitioners. In recognition of this, in recent years the WA
Institute of Deaf Education (WAIDE), a statewide Department of Education service for deaf
and hard of hearing students, has provided increasing formal support to individual interpreters
working in mainstream school settings throughout WA. Such support in schools from this
centralized service has been warmly welcomed by interpreters, particularly those working on a
solitary basis in a school, isolated from other interpreting colleagues. Interpreters are employed
at the local level by individual schools, not by WAIDE though, so providing the range and
extent of desirable support and professional learning opportunities to these interpreters across
many schools throughout the state can be challenging. SCDEC however has a significant
number of interpreters on staff, indeed considerably more than any other school in WA, forming
a critical mass in one school. It was therefore important for SCDEC to provide an effective
performance management process on site for this substantial group of employees with
specialised skills and professional learning requirements. Despite appreciating this need, there
was no internal knowledge source or expertise based within SCDEC to accurately evaluate the
performance of the interpreters on staff, identify gaps in skill, and develop professional learning
tailored to the needs of the interpreters. Consequently, to ensure that the interpreters were
properly supported to play their part in the implementation of the SCDEC school plan, in 2008
the principal of SCDEC, Bethel Hutchinson, sought out the professional expertise of an
independent external consultant. Karen Bontempo was the consultant appointed to conduct
individual diagnostic skills analyses of the interpreting team and to develop a professional
learning program suited to the needs of the individual interpreters on staff at SCDEC.

Educational interpreters in WA are employed under the job title of Education Assistant
Auslan by the Department. Although regarded differently from the typical Education
Assistant assigned to students with learning difficulties or disabilities, proper recognition of the
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complexity of educational interpreters specialized workand their employment statusis still
not as it should be. This is particularly apparent outside WA in other parts of Australia. For
example, it is not compulsory for interpreters to hold qualifications in interpreting in order to
work in a school; therefore, many interpreters in primary and secondary schools in Australia
have less than adequate Auslan proficiency for the task required of them and hold no interpreter
certification. For a number of reasons outside the scope of this article, there is a much more
effective system and structure in place for educational interpreters in WA than for those in other
states of Australia (Bontempo & Levitzke-Gray, 2009; Potter & Leigh, 2002), with Potter
(2010) noting that nearly 50% of educational interpreters in WA have completed an interpreter
education program and/or hold interpreter certification at the paraprofessional level (entry-level
interpreting certification in Australia, awarded by the National Accreditation Authority for
Translators and Interpreters [NAATI]).

At SCDEC, a pleasing anomaly exists, with 90% of the interpreting team holding interpreter
accreditation and the remaining interpreting staff enrolled in an interpreter education program at
the time of the project. This places SCDEC in a unique position in WA, let alone in Australia.
The process of interpreter evaluation and performance management initiated at SCDEC was,
therefore, underpinned from the start by an encouraging organizational culture for interpreters.
A formal diagnostic skills analysis of this number of interpreters in a school environment had
never taken place before in Australia. Formal school-based interpreter-specific performance
evaluation opportunities appear to be more widely available in the United States (e.g., the EIPA
process the Educational Interpreter Performance Assessment) and have been applied to
community interpreters in WA at the initiative of the WA Deaf Society (Bontempo, Goswell,
Leneham, & Tsapazi, 2007), but an undertaking of this nature and scale in an educational
environment in Australia was a first to our knowledge. Given the link between interpreter
competence and outcomes for deaf students (Schick, Williams, & Bolster, 1999; Winston,
2004), it was anticipated that taking a proactive, performance-oriented approach toward
developing interpreter skills on the job should have positive effects in the classroom for deaf
children and their peers as well as healthy outcomes for practitioners, administrators, teachers,
and parents.
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6.3 Structure and process
Once the consultant was appointed, it was vital that we obtain buyin from the interpreters on
staff so they would appreciate that the process posed no threatonly the potential for gains.
The school principal sent a notice to interpreters in advance of the onsite visit by the consultant
to clarify the structure and process of the performance management project. Assurances were
made regarding the parameters of the project: The process was simply a way of trying to grow
the skills of individual interpreters. As part of this program, the interpreters would engage in a
one-on-one diagnostic skills evaluation, analysis and discussion process; then, they would
participate in a tailored program of learning events over a period of time. Interpreters were
advised that employment contracts were not at risk as a result of the process and that this was
intended to be a supportive performance improvement exercise. Interpreters were given the
consultants contact details and were provided with the performance evaluation rubric in
advance. Participants were also advised that they were welcome to contribute to the rubric if
they felt that any aspects were missing or if they felt that any section was inappropriate to
include.

Participants completed a competency self-evaluation form 2 weeks in advance of the
consultants onsite visit. The purpose of this form was to assist interpreters in focusing on the
range of competencies central to their role and to encourage self-analysis of their skills in
advance of the monitoring perioda helpful exercise in terms of reflective practice. The form
also directed the consultants attention toward aspects of performance that the individual
interpreter identified as a concern. Such identification included the appreciation that areas of
priority may be debatedfor example, the area that an individual may identify as a weakness
may not be the most critical concern in regard to their performance; similarly, some interpreters
may be unconsciously competent and, therefore, unable to see where they are doing particularly
well.

The preliminary paperwork also served as a reality check whereby the consultant could
compare self-evaluation of competency and reported skills gaps with actual performance as
measured by the consultant on site by showing the interpreter any variance between the forms.
The self-evaluation forms were returned to individuals at debriefing sessions.

The consultant visited the school on stipulated days/times of the week over a 2-week period in
the middle of the school year in order to observe and evaluate the work performance of
159
individual interpreters in classroomsthat is, observing them interpreting in their everyday
work setting. Each interpreter was observed for one class period (lasting up to 60 minutes,
depending on whether the interpreter was working in the senior school or the middle school),
and the session was filmed. The evaluation did not focus on the first 10 minutes of performance
during the observation period, to allow the interpreter time to warm up and to allow time for
any initial performance anxiety to subside. The consultant completed detailed notes and
comments for each individual on a specially designed rubric during the observation period (see
Appendix Figure 6.1). The rubric provided the categories for the diagnostic skills analysis and
was informed by the findings of Bontempo and Napier (2007), which highlighted a common
range of skills gaps in interpreters. Observational data based on performance was collected in
written form, but in addition, footage of each individual was captured to (a) provide evidence
for personal evaluation and debriefing later and (b) provide clear examples of work
performance when reviewed in conjunction with the rubric. The diagnostic skills analysis gave
an indication of current levels of occupational performance and identified specific skills areas
upon which the interpreter could improve. Strategies and resources for self-development were
outlined to individual interpreters in a debriefing session held post observation.

The initial process in 2008 included 16 educational interpreters at SCDEC. The favorable
feedback received by the principal, and the positive outcomes arising from the process in 2008,
led to further external review of the educational interpreters during the following year. In 2009,
nine interpreters participated in the performance management process. The format was altered
based on the 2008 experience. The 2009 project included the following two additions: (a)
interpreters were not able to choose the class in which they were observed (in 2008 they were
given a choice) and (b) filmed modeling took place during a number of subjects (including
Year 8 science, Year 11 English, Year 10 home economics, a Year 11 Deaf Center support
class, and a senior school assembly), whereby the consultant worked as the interpreter, thus
allowing the regular interpreter of that class to observe the consultant and then discuss the
interpreted session afterwards with the consultant. This modeling took place after the initial
observation and debriefing session with the individual interpreters concerned. Modeling offered
the opportunity for interpreters to witness how specific linguistic features and effective coping
strategies could be integrated into interpretations in the classroom, rather than an exclusively
theoretical discussion with the interpreter about options they could implement in the future.

160
Annual meetings were held with SCDEC teachers in 2008 and 2009 to apprise them of the
performance management process. The purpose of these meetings was to gain their support and
to increase teachers awareness of the interpreters work.
6.4 Data collection and analysis
As noted, interpreters were directly observed and evaluated by the consultant from within the
space in order to capture performance in their authentic work environment. As the consultant
was not an employee of SCDEC at that time, this was particularly useful in allowing the
consultant to understand the bigger picture regarding operations at the school level, to
appreciate classroom dynamics, and to get a better sense of the deaf students with whom the
interpreters were working. Relevant permissions were obtained to film the interpreters in
classrooms, and discussions were held with mainstream teachers in advance to explain the
purpose of the filming.

The DVD footage of each interpreters work was collected and kept by the principal of SCDEC
as part of performance management records compliance, with copies made for the individual
interpreter. It was noted to the principal that all data collected and feedback documented for the
interpreters needed be treated with some caution in regard to the following considerations:
1 The performance measures were taken in a certain place, on a certain date, and at a certain
time. They were, therefore, frozen-in-time snapshots of performance and could not be
regarded as comprehensive indicators of performance across other contexts, or with a
different audience or altered subject matter.
2 Due to the aforementioned reason, it was also impossible to compare the performance of
one interpreter with that of another interpreter. Unless two interpreters were undertaking the
task of interpreting the same event (which was the case with only two interpreters out of all
the interpreted events observed over the 2 yearsand, even then, they interpreted different
parts of an interpreted event, not the same parts, so again, it was difficult to compare), it
should be understood that job events cannot be fairly compared with one another because of
the wide variety from classroom to classroom: different students, different subject matter,
different day, different time, different teacher, different classroom environment, different
background knowledge, and so forth.
3 It was noted that not all the interpreters were able to work in their preferred classroom
environment for the observation experience, particularly in 2009. To be observed and
161
evaluated in a less comforting environment may have had a negative impact on interpreter
performance. Conversely, though, it was noted that practitioners who performed at only a
just adequate level of performance in a nominated class of their preference should be
monitored to ensure that they are not placed in classes, or with children, that are beyond
their skill levels.
4 Typically, and due to the context, the consultant was largely able to view only monologic
instructional discourse interpreted from English into Auslan. The performance evaluation
records and feedback to interpreters was, therefore, primarily reflective of skill and
competence in one language direction only.

Data collection was hampered, to an extent, by classroom context, content, and teacher delivery
style. Some classes contained more teacher-centered instructional discourse than others,
whereas other classes were more interactive, particularly if the lesson was more practical in
nature or if a discussion-based activity was taking place. Some classes contained few
opportunities for data collection due to the independent-study nature of that particular lesson. In
the latter instances, if the interpreter was barely working at all, the observation session was
rescheduled.

Debriefing was scheduled for immediately after the interpreted class to facilitate the most
effective recollection of decision-making processes; this allowed interpreters to reflect on these
processes and discuss them while also analyzing their interpretations, with the consultants
guidance. Overall strengths and weaknesses were identified individually in the one-on-one
debriefing sessions with interpreters; recommendations for improvement were made, and
suggestions for change were offered to each interpreter. These sessions were typically 1 hour
long. The footage could be viewed during the session, and the completed performance
evaluation rubric was made available to each interpreter. The interpreters self-evaluation of
their skills (submitted to the consultant 2 weeks prior) was also brought up and discussed in the
debriefing session in order to address any areas of concern flagged by interpreters themselves
and, where applicable, to apply these concerns to the recently observed interpreted class.

During the debriefing sessions in 2008 and 2009, interpreters were asked several specific
questions by the consultant before walking through the details recorded on the rubric and
analyzing the footage with the interpreter. These preliminary questions included some or all of
the following: How do you feel? What were you happy with? What do you feel worked? What
162
could you do differently next time, and why? Do you think the teachers aims for the lesson
were conveyed effectively via your interpretation? Did your interpretation allow the student to
participate in the lesson? The question presented at the end of the debriefing session was, How
do you feel about the evaluation process you have just been through? The consultant found the
interpreters to be very forthright in their responses and generally conscious of areas of both
competence and incompetence in their performance.
6.5 Training opportunities and professional development action plans
We designed and delivered professional learning sessions arising from the outcomes of the self-
evaluations, the observations of the consultant, and the resulting discussions in the debriefing
sessions. Training days targeted at the needs of the educational interpreters were scheduled for
the student-free days available at the start of each quarterly term in the school year. The
professional learning days incorporated issues regarding performance that were observed as
being global in naturethat is, skills deficits or concerns noted in most of the interpreters, or
activities that could enhance the skills development of all participants. These global issues are
described in more detail in the next section.

During the professional learning sessions, where possible and appropriate, select footage of
individual interpreters demonstrating good practices was screened to the group (with the
permission of the interpreter). In addition, sample footage of some of the modeled interpreting
in classrooms by the consultant was viewed; we showed this footage to exemplify features and
practices that could be adopted by other interpreters or to illustrate specific concepts under
discussion in the professional learning session.

In addition, the participants wrote their own professional development plans during the first
professional learning day and revisited these plans at later sessions. When writing the plans,
participants bore in mind the overall goals of SCDEC and targets for the Department of
Education and were informed by (a) the self-competence evaluation conducted by the
interpreter prior to the performance evaluation; (b) the observation experience, footage, and
completed rubric written by the consultant; and (c) the debriefing discussion that took place post
observation. Goals for each individual were developed and documented. Each interpreter
submitted this individual plan to the principal in 2008, and goals were evaluated, revised, and
163
reported on in 2009 after the second iteration of the performance management process, with
new plans written for either skills maintenance or further development in 2010.

We encouraged interpreters to focus on their specific goals when asking for future feedback on
their work from mentors (either formal or informal) and from team interpreters as well as from
other peers and consumers, where applicable. The opportunity for interpreters to self-determine
their own professional development plan as part of the performance management process was
critical. They identified their own particular goals that they felt were achievable and then
developed strategies and a time frame for attending to these goals. We encouraged interpreters
to seek out mentors (from within the SCDEC interpreting team, the Deaf community, or the
wider interpreting community) as part of their ongoing skills development. In addition, we
strongly recommended that they take up membership of the local interpreting association, the
Australian Sign Language Interpreters Association (ASLIA), attend Deaf community events,
and participate in external training and professional development opportunities for signed
and/or spoken language interpreters in the local area.
6.6 Performance and progress
Overall, based on the data collected during the stipulated periods, interpreters employed at
SCDEC generally met or exceeded performance expectations in the observed sessions. It was
evident that a handful of interpreters on staff had more experience and skills to draw on than did
some other interpreters on staff, and these interpreters typically delivered stronger performances
during the evaluation period. The few interpreters on staff who did not yet hold NAATI
accreditationas well as those who could be described as novice practitioners holding
recently awarded NAATI accreditationdemonstrated more significant skills gaps, as might be
expected, and as supported by research in the field (Bontempo & Napier, 2007, 2009).
6.6.1 Skills gaps
The following skills gaps were observed at times in the various interpretations:
Lack of discourse markers
Issues with discourse cohesion
Insufficient use of depicting signs, constructed dialogue, and constructed action
Confusion of space/placement properties
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Illocutionary force not always conveyed
Prosodic features of Auslan not fully utilizedloss of speaker style and affect
Inappropriate positioning of interpreter in the classroom
Incidental communication in the environment not transmitted
Translation style leaning toward a dominant literal style with too much intrusion of
English source text features when classroom context really lent itself to a more
dynamic, or free, translation style
Superficial processing of informationoperating at sentential level rather than
discourse level
Difficulties, at times, in meeting the linguistic needs of students with minimal
language

Many of the aforementioned topics formed the basis of a series of training days conducted with
interpreters and were the focus of professional development goals for individuals.
Improvements were seen over time regarding some of these issues, with fewer of these skills
gaps appearing in the later performance evaluations. Interpreters who delivered better
interpretations and had more sophisticated coping strategies tended to be NAATI-accredited
interpreters with several years of experience. A number of these interpreters, although not all of
them, had not only educational interpreting experience but also community interpreting
experience or had extensive experience interpreting for native signerswhich, they noted
during debriefing sessions, had scaffolded their skill sets for work with a range of deaf children
in education settings.
6.6.2 Positive aspects
Positive aspects of interpreter performance and manner that were noteworthy and that appeared
global in nature included the following:
Perceptive insight into skills gapsself-evaluations were honest and largely accurate
when compared to the observed data
Practitioners were extremely flexible and accommodating to requests and changes
Appropriate demeanor and interaction in the classroom and with stakeholders was
observed
Interpreters generally represented the jargon associated with the subject area well
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Strong evidence of preparation and background knowledge
Good boundary management.

Generally, the participants demonstrated a willingness to be challenged, and the vast majority of
practitioners really embraced the opportunity to be evaluated and to receive feedback on their
performance. Even those who were uncertain at the start appeared positive at the end of the
project and saw tangible benefits in the process.
6.6.3 Concerns identified by interpreters
Many of the interpreters raised and shared the following concerns in relation to their work:
1. Time constraintsit is difficult to unpack concepts in the limited time available in
mainstream classes due to the pace and density of most lessons.
2. Mainstream teachers often lack awareness of the needs of deaf students. This was felt to
be an issue particularly in relation to compromised language proficiency and fund of
knowledge deficits faced by some of the SCDEC students.
3. The role of the interpreter is not well understood by staff and students. In addition,
interpreters felt that there was little understanding and recognition among the teaching
staff regarding the complexity of the interpreters work.
4. At the time of performance evaluations in 2008 and 2009, with the exception of a part-
time Auslan teacher, SCDEC had no other deaf staff members on site to support
students and interpreters. This resulted in a project recommendation to appoint full-time
deaf staff members to valued roles in the classroom. A full-time deaf mentor was
appointed in 2010, and she quickly proved to be a significant asset to SCDEC. In
addition, the part-time Auslan teachers hours were increased, and his role changed so
that he became a more integral part of the teaching team.
5. Many of the deaf students lack confidence in asserting their needs (to teachers and to
interpreters).
6. Little training is available for interpreters in regard to (a) interpreting for students who
have dysfluent language and (b) the linguistic development (both typical and atypical)
of deaf children.
7. Interpreters felt that they were not working in an interpreter-ready system (Patrie &
Taylor, 2008). They all reported that certain common issues have a significant impact on
their workissues regarding role, employment status, pay, teacherinterpreter
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relationships, school community awareness, and students linguistic readiness to work
with interpreters were all raised.
8. There was perceived encouragement of learned helplessness among deaf students, and
perceived low teacher expectations of deaf students, both of which frustrated the
interpreters.
9. Sometimes, there was visual confusion in the classroom, with teachers learning Auslan
occasionally trying to sign at the same time as the interpreter. Interpreters appreciated
that this was balanced with the need for teachers to interact directly and to establish
relationships with deaf students; however, they did feel that this created some tension
for them in terms of doing their work effectively when attempts to sign persisted during
lessons, particularly if the signs used were incorrect.
6.6.4 Progress
The original performance management innovations occurred in 2008 and 2009. In 2010, the
consultant started teaching at SCDEC and was no longer able to conduct the performance
evaluations of interpreting staff as an independent external party. Therefore, with the intention
of interpreters taking increased ownership over their professional growth and development,
SCDEC purchased four flip cameras and mini-tripods to enable the interpreters to film
themselves and then reflect on their own work. We anticipated that the interpreters would have
the skills and knowledge to be able to do this in a meaningful fashion themselves in 2010,
having been through a guided process previously. In addition to the previous learning
experiences with the consultant, interpreters were sponsored to participate in an external
professional development session in 2010 with Jemina Napier, a highly esteemed Australian
educator, researcher, and interpreting practitioner. The workshop focus was on reflective
evaluation and analysis of ones own interpreting work. Interpreters filmed samples of their
work during 2010. Time was set aside during the timetable and on professional learning days
where the interpreters paired up with one another, reflected on their performance, and critiqued
their skills within the successful evaluation framework established in 2008 and 2009.

Feedback from the interpreters on the learning gained using the flip cameras in 2010 was
extremely positive. Indications of how beneficial the self-evaluation approach was in 2010
prompted the decision to continue with self-reflective practice in 2011, with some further
adaptations to enhance the approach. In 2011, each interpreter gathered at least two samples of
interpretations from each term. These samples were from two different classes; however, in
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each term, the same two classes (same teacher, same group of students, etc.) were filmed to
obtain a longitudinal sample of work over the year. Interpreters analyzed his or her own
performance and nominated a colleague to conduct a critical peer review of the footage. At the
end of each term, time was given for the interpreters to view the footage and analyze the work
samples. The expectation is that by the end of 2011, the samples will show evidence of
interpreter improvement in areas of concern identified in the first sample. An assumption is that
samples can be more fairly compared, considering that controls are in place for class
environment, teacher, and student over the year. Time was also allocated in 2011 for deaf
mentors on staff to review performance footage and to provide feedback to the interpreters for
skill enhancement purposes.

In January 2011, interpreters attended the Supporting Deaf People Online Conference, a
virtual conference with themes specific to Deaf education and educational interpreting. SCDEC
sponsored their attendance and encouraged staff to access a broad range of other external
professional learning experiences in 2011. In March 2011, Marty Taylor, of Canada, an
interpreter educator and scholar of international repute with a particular interest and publication
record in the field of educational interpreting, was brought into the school by the principal of
SCDEC to conduct training with the interpreters.

In regard to 2012 and beyond, some thought has been given to a hybrid internal/external
evaluation, including increasing the role of the deaf mentors in formally supporting interpreter
skill advancement. Further thoughts include the possibility of allowing for a wider feedback
loop and receiving input from teachers and students as well as from a peer or an external
consultant in the evaluation process. It is intuitive that an enhanced understanding of language
acquisition, teaching and learning principles, adolescent development, and the linguistics of
both Auslan and English could assist interpreters in their work with deaf students. Professional
learning addressing some of these issues is planned for SCDEC interpreters in 2012. The
agenda, as we move forward, also includes implementing a more formalized mentoring
program and increasing opportunities for team interpreting. In addition, we intend to safely
extend the skills of interpreters by encouraging them to work outside their comfort zone,
providing support and training as needed. Finally, the intention in 2012 is to tackle some of the
broader issues identified by interpreters in an effort to make the school system more
interpreter-ready.
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6.7 Recommendations, resources, and project evaluation
Detailed consultant reports provided to the principal in 2008 and 2009 noted overall levels of
performance and included evaluations of interpreted events for each interpreter as well as
recommendations for future development of interpreters skills. The following list details some
of the general recommendations in the reports:
1. Allow onsite access to DVDs, books, journal articles, reference lists, and so forth, to
encourage professional learning during down time in the timetable or when students are
absent
2. Increase SCDEC and interpreter networks within the Deaf community
3. Employ more deaf staff in key roles
4. Interpreters to seek out mentors (formal or informal, internal or external)
5. Interpreters to network with interpreting peers external to SCDEC
6. Attend suitable external workshops and training, not just the internal professional
learning provided by SCDEC
7. Read current literature regarding educational interpreting
8. Complete an interpreter education program (where applicable)
9. Become a member of ASLIA
10. Participate in ongoing self-evaluation and monitoring by peers
11. Prepare/liaise more directly with teachers

Interpreters were provided with extensive resources as an outcome of the consultants report.
SCDEC took the following actions in response to the recommendations listed in this report:
1. Compiled a comprehensive list of skill advancement suggestions and activities
to work through.
2. Provided interpreters with a detailed list of relevant reference material and
reading suggestions (developed by Jemina Napier and Karen Bontempo for
ASLIA).
3. Purchased a range of DVD practice material, textbooks and journals.
4. Arranged copies of journal articles, book chapters, and websites to review during
down time or to read during class times in which students were mainly doing
independent study or taking an examination.
5. Created an interpreters resource room. Interpreters were given a dedicated
separate learning space including bookshelves, computers, TV/DVD equipment,
chairs, desks, etc. This was designated a place to prepare, reflect, review, and
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discuss work with colleagues. This was in addition to the existing interpreters
office located in the adjoining room, which is a more social, open space where
timetables are kept and team meetings are held.

Measures that we used to evaluate the success of the project indicated extremely positive
results; these measures included the following:
1. Individual face-to-face feedback on the process
2. Evaluation forms for all professional learning sessions
3. Copies of the professional learning plans developed (and respective timelines and
goals met)
4. Principal and administrator evaluation of efficacy of the consultants work
5. An evaluation form on which interpreters could rate and provide feedback on the
overall performance management process; the consultants conduct and interactions
with interpreters.

From 2010 forward, there was a great deal more ownership over the performance management
process by the interpreters, as they were increasingly empowered to be reflective and reflexive
practitioners. Opportunities to give feedback in various ways to management were created
through the project. Interpreters were able to clearly stipulate their training needs as
practitioners, and also to identify what proved helpful and effective for them in the performance
management process. In these ways, SCDEC is working toward best-practices in performance
management of interpreters.
6.8 Conclusion
To enable effective learning in a student, one looks for best practices surrounding the teaching
and learning experience. In this instance, part of that equation is ensuring that (a) the
interpreters work meets an appropriate standard and (b) that the value of this work is properly
recognized and reinforced within the organizational system. Although the case study presented
herein describes the efforts of one school in trying to address issues of performance quality and
ongoing training of a cohort of interpreters, the latter notion of working within a system that
properly acknowledges and supports the complex work of interpreters is a much bigger issue
and the larger system is much more difficult to revolutionize from the ground up.
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To assist in the understanding and recognition of interpreters and to aid in creating an
interpreter-ready environment, there needs to be a more effective job description and
employment category that is specific to educational interpreters in Australia. There also needs to
be salary differentiation, recognizing the qualifications and experience of those in the role. This,
in turn, would offer incentives for educational interpreters to complete interpreter education
programs, participate in ongoing professional learning and training, gain accreditation, and stay
working in schools as interpreters, highly valued for the multifaceted, challenging work that
they do. The readiness of the wider school community is flagged by Patrie and Taylor (2008) as
a key factor in creating an interpreter-ready environment. Not only must administrators, parents,
teachers, and interpreters understand one anothers roles, but the studentsdeaf and hearing
must also understand the interpreters role and how to work with the interpreter for the best
outcome. These interpreter-readiness issues are part of the bigger picture and remain as areas
needing improvement at SCDEC, within the larger school community, and within the broader
education system in Australia.

Ultimately, staff are the most valuable resource of an organization. Every employee affects
productivity in the workplace and has an impact on the organizational culture. SCDEC
management values interpreting staff and want to help continually improve interpreters skills,
believing that improved performance by practitioners should support better outcomes for deaf
students. This performance management project sent a clear message to staff that SCDEC
considers interpreters worth the investment, and SCDEC recognizes that it is indeed fortunate to
employ so many interpreters with appropriate credentials and good interpreting skills.

However, SCDEC still has much to learn and improve upon in regard to various aspects of an
interpreter-mediated education experience for deaf students. Given the work described in this
article, it seems that SCDEC might score a B grade for effort and results in regard to
developing a meaningful performance management process and in offering skill advancement
opportunities to educational interpreters. However, until the bigger and broader issue of creating
an interpreter-ready system in education settings can truly be addressed and rectified, SCDEC
will need to keep striving toward achieving that elusive A grade.


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6.9 References
Bontempo, Karen, Goswell, Della, Leneham, Marcel, and Tsapazi, Robyn. (2007, September).
Diagnostic skills analysis: Intensive interpreter PD. Unpublished conference paper presented at
the ASLIA National Interpreter Trainers Workshop, Sydney, Australia.

Bontempo, Karen, and Levitzke-Gray, Patricia. (2009). Interpreting Down Under: Signed
language interpreter education and training in Australia. In Jemina Napier (Ed.), International
perspectives on signed language interpreter education (pp. 149170). Washington, DC:
Gallaudet University Press.

Bontempo, Karen, and Napier, Jemina. (2007). Mind the gap! A skills analysis of sign language
interpreters. The Sign Language Translator and Interpreter, 1, 275299.

Bontempo, Karen, and Napier, Jemina. (2009). Getting it right from the start: Program
admission testing of signed language interpreters. In Claudia Angelelli & Holly E. Jacobson
(Eds.), Testing and assessment in translation and interpreting (pp. 247295). Philadelphia, PA:
John Benjamins.

Patrie, Carol, & Taylor, Marty. (2008). Outcomes for graduates of baccalaureate interpreter
preparation programs specializing in interpreting in K12th grade settings. Retrieved from
https://ritdml.rit.edu/bitstream/handle/1850/5383/CPatrieProject01-2008.pdf?sequence=7

Potter, Leanne. (2010, July). Managing educational interpreters: New roles for teachers of the
deaf in 21st century inclusive education. Unpublished conference paper presented at the
International Congress of Educators of the Deaf, Vancouver, Canada.

Potter, Leanne, & Leigh, Kate. (2002) An investigation into issues surrounding the efficacy and
use of educational interpreters for deaf students in the mainstream setting. Australian Journal of
Education of the Deaf, 8, 4760.

Schick, Brenda, Williams, Kevin, & Bolster, Laurie. (1999). Skill levels of educational
interpreters in public schools. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 4, 144155.

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Winston, Elizabeth A. (Ed.). (2004). Educational interpreting: How it can succeed.
Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press
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6.10 Appendix - Figure 6.1: Educational Interpreter Performance Evaluation Rubric
Elements to Consider

Comments

1. Interpreting Aspect

Equivalence of message (appropriate for context?
Contains textual integrity and fidelity? Info
exchange is successful overall?)

Avoids distracting mannerisms that impact on
performance (whispering, vocalisations, upper body
shifts, inappropriate eye gaze etc)

Uses appropriate time lag to allow concepts to be
conveyed accurately

Miscues (omissions, additions, substitutions,
intrusions, anomalies) any strategic?


TRANSMISSION ACCURACY: 1 2 3 4 5

5 = VERY ACCURATE

2. Language Aspect

Comprehends source message (English vocabulary,
denotative/connotative meaning, Auslan
signs/fingerspelling/numbers.)

Paralinguistic elements (facial expression, pace, size
of signing space, mouth movements, etc. English
prosody / inflection)

Articulation (clear production of signs, fingerspelling,
numbers, etc in Auslan. Clear production in English
at correct volume.)

Uses correct grammar & structure in target message
(complete thoughts in English & Auslan; use of
space, classifiers, tenses, indexing, etc in Auslan)

Fluency (smoothness, control and flow of language;
comprehensibility/ease of viewing or listening to
target text care taken not to overly smooth out
rough source text)

Vocabulary and register (using correct signs, right
style of language, appropriate vocabulary, idioms,
strategies for unknown / key vocab etc)


OVERALL LANGUAGE SKILLS: 1 2 3 4 5

5 = EXCELLENT

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3. Interaction / Role Aspects
Roles specific to education (classroom context
adjustments; checking student comprehension;
purpose & intent of lesson made clear?)

Managing overlap, turn-taking (& indicates speakers),
questions, interruptions, clarifications &
introductions

Handling ethical dilemmas & demonstrating ethical
behaviour (e.g. apparent preparation for lesson took
place)

Social / cultural / professional sensitivity (use of
appropriate strategies to gain attention; facilitation
of social interactions with peers; interpreter
interaction with student/s and teacher/s)


MANAGING INTERACTION / ROLE : 1 2 3 4 5

5 = EXCELLENT

4. Professional Conduct

Environmental management (to extent possible),
appropriate positioning, accessibility of class/content
in general

Appearance / presentation, demeanor, punctuality,
posture etc

Response to errors / overall confidence

General attitude, conduct and body language


OVERALL PROFESSIONALISM: 1 2 3 4 5

5 = EXCELLENT

5. General Comments


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CHAPTER 7

An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure:
Educating interpreters about the risk of vicarious trauma in healthcare settings
43


Abstract. The impact of critical incidents on healthcare professionals, and the fallout from
working in traumatic environments and with victims of trauma, are well-researched phenomena
in organisational psychology. A growing body of literature acknowledges the same potential for
psychological distress and vicarious traumatisation of interpreters, in their role as secondary
witnesses to stories of tragedy, grief, loss, damage and suffering. This chapter will discuss
features of healthcare settings that may present significant challenges for the interpreter on an
emotional level. The cumulative impact of sustained occupational stress and negative coping
strategies on interpreters will be explored, in addition to other variables that may predict the
development of compassion fatigue, also known as vicarious traumatisation. The importance of
understanding more about interpreter personality, and individual difference in coping
strategies in light of the findings of Bontempo and Napier (2011) will be explored. In addition,
the need for raising practitioner awareness of the psychological risks linked to the occupation
of interpreting will be highlighted, as well as strategies for developing resilience for
interpreting in traumatic settings. Implications for interpreting pedagogy will be addressed, and
recommendations for the organizational management and preparation of interpreters to work
under stressful conditions and in traumatic settings will be outlined.
7.1 Introduction
Interpreters working in healthcare situations often must manage the transfer of information
under difficult circumstances. The content of the message may be highly emotional or primarily
negative, or one or more of the parties in the interpreted encounter may be extremely vulnerable
or in a debilitated psychological or physical state. Such circumstances particularly ring true in
the healthcare context. In these cases, an interpreters repeated exposure to traumatic
information and the traumatized states of others can lead to a significant accumulation of
occupational stress. For the well-being of interpreters working in healthcare, employers,

43
The original version of this chapter was published as: Bontempo, Karen and Malcolm, Karen (2012). An ounce of prevention
is worth a pound of cure: Educating interpreters about the risk of vicarious trauma in healthcare settings. In Swabey, L. &
Malcolm, K. (Eds). In our hands: Educating healthcare interpreters. Gallaudet University Press: Washington DC. 105-130.
176
practitioners, and educators in the field must develop an understanding of the potential for the
vicarious traumatization of healthcare interpreters.
7.2 Vicarious trauma defined
Stress is the state that people experience when they perceive that the demands being placed
upon them exceed the internal or external supports and coping resources they are able to
mobilize. Stress is normal, and even healthy to an extent, and a certain amount of facilitating
stress may in fact enhance job performance. There is a difference, however, between what
might be described as typical job-related stress and the kind of occupational stress in which the
characteristics of the work environment, or events related to being in the workplace, generate
intense or cumulative levels of stress that lead to physical or psychological ill health. Some
occupations are more likely than others to expose workers to hazardous work environments and
circumstances (Cahill 1996), and the outcome can cause workers to become vicariously
traumatized as a result of these experiences.
Figley describes vicarious traumatization as the natural behaviours and emotions that arise
from knowing about a traumatizing event experienced by a significant other (1995, p. xiv).
Other terms that describe vicarious traumatization include secondary traumatic stress,
secondary traumatic stress disorder, traumatic countertransference, burnout, compassion
stress, and compassion fatigue (Moulden and Firestone 2007; Salston and Figley 2003).
Although the definitions of these terms have subtle differences, this chapter uses the more
common term vicarious trauma, as coined by McCann and Pearlman (1990).
Symptoms suggesting vicarious trauma may include consistent headaches, sleepiness, feelings
of dread prior to attending work assignments, intrusive thoughts, dreams, and flashbacks. Some
people may experience numbness and exhaustion, while others experience hyperarousal, which
manifests in behaviours such as hypervigilance, insomnia, or difficulty concentrating (Moulden
and Firestone 2007). Somatic complaints, stomach problems, irritability, loss of concentration,
emotional withdrawal from family and friends, disassociation, and anxiety may also result
(Cahill 1996). Feelings of exhaustion can arise, and workers sometimes develop a cynical
attitude as a coping strategy to distance themselves emotionally and mentally from the work
(Bakker et al 2008). Vicarious traumatization is an acknowledged phenomenon in healthcare
settings and among medical and allied healthcare personnel, and there is no reason to assume an
interpreter would be immune to the same experience if working in the same environment.
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As interpreters listen, comprehend, process, and reformulate the discourse of consumers as they
talk about their trauma, they bear witness to their victimization (Harvey 2001; 2003). Any
traumatic experience told through an interpreter, may test the interpreters own beliefs about
their safety, or that of their children or loved ones, and may affect their willingness or ability to
trust in others. However the key issue is whether the transformation potentially produced by
interpreting these traumatic experiences is of a cumulative and pervasive nature, and how this
impacts on the individual interpreter.
Much of the research on vicarious trauma has traditionally focused on people working in the
front lines of caring and helping professions, people such as doctors, nurses, therapists, and
crisis counsellors. However, all workers who engage in empathic communication with trauma
survivors are potentially vulnerable to cumulative changes in their own thinking, behaviour and
emotions. More recent research on vicarious trauma includes a wider range of people who work
with trauma survivors, including social workers, humanitarian workers, and the clergy.
Research has recently started to document how, and in what circumstances, interpreters may be
vicariously traumatized.
7.3 Challenges of healthcare settings for interpreters
Interpreting is an inherently stressful occupation (Kurz 2003). Interpreters often lack the
contextual information to make sense of the interaction; they have limited control over the
workload, and the pace of information delivery. Assignments that conflict with personal goals,
values, or beliefs can cause intense stress, and the management of complex message transfer
among parties can often be challenging. These factors are amplified in healthcare settings,
where outcomes are often very serious and potentially life threatening. The individuals involved
are frequently medically compromised and emotionally vulnerable and are likely to be
experiencing high levels of physical and / or psychological distress.
Searching for a source-text equivalent in the target language can be very challenging for
interpreters working in medical and mental health settings. Even a patient conversing with a
healthcare provider in the same language may be confounded by the highly esoteric nature of
the technical language used at times. Patients accessing a health service via an interpreter are
dependent on the interpreters capacity to comprehend and faithfully render such specialized
jargon. This presents a degree of difficulty for the interpreter, particularly as signed languages
historically have not had the opportunity to evolve within the domain of professional
discourses, due to the barriers to higher education and employment opportunities that have
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traditionally existed for Deaf people. This has resulted in lexical gaps for highly specific
medical and mental health terminology in signed languages. Furthermore, interpreters are
unlikely to have an intimate knowledge of healthcare jargon even in the spoken language of the
interpreted encounter unless they have had a specialized education, and this lack of
understanding potentially increases the risk of error in a high stakes environment.
In addition to managing the language aspect and the pressures of transfer of meaning with
fidelity in a healthcare setting, interpreters need to deal with environmental and interpersonal
factors, and their own intrapersonal demands (Dean and Pollard 2001). Environmental factors
might include working in a cramped doctors office, or waiting for several hours in a busy
emergency room of a large hospital. Some sights, smells and sounds may be unfamiliar and
unpleasant. There may be occupational health and safety issues unique to the healthcare
environment, such as the risk of exposure to communicable diseases in a hospital, or threats to
personal safety in a locked ward.
Interpersonal factors come into play when the interpreter engages with a wide range of
personalities, some of whom may be traumatized or upset. Professionally detached healthcare
practitioners may even come across as aloof or insensitive when exchanging information with
distressed patients, creating cognitive dissonance for interpreters as they transfer messages
between two parties exhibiting dramatically different affects.
On an intrapersonal level, interpreters may be dealing with assignments that conflict with
personal goals, values, and beliefs. Individuals vary in their responses to stress, so what may be
a traumatic interaction for one interpreter may not affect another. By the same token, what may
not be traumatic to interpret one day, may be problematic at another time if the interpreter is
fatigued, over-worked, or has had a recent personal experience that is triggered by the content
of the interpreted interaction.
Intense and traumatic interpreting experiences, or the cumulative effect of such events may
cause an interpreter to experience vicarious trauma. The first steps in managing the effects of
such trauma are to recognize the potential for it to occur, and to be mindful of ways to identify
it. Given the potential for traumatic content to be conveyed in healthcare settings, interpreters
should be properly prepared during interpreter education programs via training opportunities or
through mentoring to help them understand the gravity of some of the challenging scenarios
they may face in the healthcare context.
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Interpreting traumatic content takes a toll. Interpreters may develop relationships with clients
they work with, particularly if the medical care is of a prolonged nature. Interpreting for
someone with terminal cancer from time of diagnosis through treatment efforts and during
palliative care will be difficult. Such situations become particularly challenging in small Deaf
communities in regional and remote areas, where the interpreting pool is limited. Interpreting
during the medical evidence collection for a teenage girl after a sexual assault or for the
paediatric oncologist who must tell parents their childs brain tumour is highly aggressive or for
the obstetrician who is advising an expectant mother of the loss in-utero of a baby near full term
are all realistic healthcare interpreting assignments that undoubtedly present significant
challenges to the interpreter.
Given the potential for interpreters to experience vicarious trauma, it behooves the educators of
interpreters to address the topic and prepare interpreters for the possibility of its occurrence.
However, certain barriers impede both the understanding of vicarious trauma in the interpreting
profession and recognition of it by interpreter educators.
7.4 Dispelling the myth of neutrality
A significant barrier to developing an understanding of the impact of vicarious trauma on
interpreters is the machine model metaphor for the role of the interpreter and the paradigm of
thinking and behaviours this model precipitates. Many associations of spoken and signed
language interpreters around the world have adopted formal codes of ethics guidelines for
conduct and standards of behaviour for professionals in the field. Such codes frequently include
statements that implicitly, and at times quite explicitly, dehumanize interpreters and their role in
the interaction. The intention of these types of statements is respect for the autonomy of
consumers and the desire for interpreters to maintain impartiality and refrain from unduly
influencing the outcome of interpreted events. In practice, however, such statements have led to
the conceptualization of interpreters as machines or conduits who simply transfer meaning from
one language and culture to another, with no impact on the communicated event, and
consequently, with no impact on the interpreter as a person. There resulting misconception is
that the impartiality is accompanied by a lack of reaction or feeling within the interpreter.
A number of studies in recent years have altered our understanding of the role that interpreters
play and have fostered a growing acknowledgment in interpreting pedagogy and practice of the
way in which an interpreter actively co-constructs meaning in interpreted interactions. Such
studies have been instrumental in countering the traditional concept of interpreters as
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machines. The seminal contributions of Wadensj (1998), Metzger (1999), and Roy (2000)
were the first to challenge the prevailing view of the interpreter as a conduit. Angelelli (2003)
added to this body of work inasmuch as her findings reinforce the visibility of interpreters in
interpreted events: [I]nterpreters become visible when they do the following: explore answers,
expand and summarize statements, broker comprehension and explain technical terms, bridge
cultural gaps, express affect, and replace interlocutors (2003, p. 24).
Angelelli also states, another assumption is that the interpreter can temporarily block the self
and all the behaviours that may result (automatically or voluntarily) as a consequence of being a
social person who interacts with the other two parties (2003, p. 3). The concept of blocking
the self can be seen to relate to the machine model concept of interpreting and is evidently an
untenable metaphor in reality. It is never possible to temporarily block the self despite the
premise in interpreter education until recently that this is precisely what interpreter students
needed to work toward achieving. Some interpreter educators may still hold students to this
rhetoric despite the research and practice in the field.
A study by Gold Brunson and Lawrence (2002) of interpreters in mental health settings
demonstrates that an interpreters display of particular emotions influenced the participants in
an interpreted interaction. Gold Brunson and Lawrence investigated the impact of interpreter
and therapist mood and affective reactions on the therapeutic process. They established two
mood conditions: despondent and neutral/slightly cheerful. They then created
therapist/interpreter teams in which i) both employed the same mood state; ii) the therapist was
despondent and the interpreter neutral/slightly cheerful; iii) the therapist was neutral/slightly
cheerful and the interpreter despondent. Resulting responses from the Deaf participants in the
study indicated less willingness to interact with the team in the future when both the therapist
and interpreter were despondent and more willingness to interact when both were
neutral/slightly cheerful. However, of particular interest is the reported increased willingness to
interact when the therapist was despondent and the interpreter neutral/slightly cheerful, and
decreased willingness when the therapist was neutral/slightly cheerful and the interpreter
despondent. This study provides evidence that the interpreter is not invisible to participants, and
that an interpreters mood can impact interactions. It reasonably follows that the interpreter may
also be affected by the moods and feelings of the other participants in an interaction.
Effective interpreting involves, in part, conveying the affect of a speaker. The ability to
recognize and appropriately reflect affect requires empathy on the part of the interpreter in order
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to recognize others emotions and feelings before being able to convey them. Given that in
healthcare settings interpreters may encounter disclosures about abuse, violence, loss, pain,
suffering, trauma, death, and grief, it is clear that interpreters are exposed to highly emotional
content in this work context. In fact, they are not only exposed to it but are the means whereby
these messages are expressed. The use of first person heightens this exposure: For example,
rather than saying, He grabbed her and pushed her down and then raped her, the interpreter
says, He grabbed me and pushed me down and raped me. The use of first person voice in
conveying such emotionally laden content potentially increases the interpreters risk of
experiencing vicarious trauma.
Recent findings by neuroscientists offer new insights for our understanding of empathy. Mirror
neurons are a type of brain cell that responds equally when we perform an action and when we
witness someone else performing the same activity (Winerman 2005). Both producing and
observing facial expressions activate the same regions of the brain according to Iacoboni
(2008), and neural activity takes place in the same region of the brain whether a person
experiences pain, or watches a loved one do so. Similarly, Iacoboni reports the same segment of
the brain is activated whether participants smell something noxious, or watch a video of
someone smelling something noxious. In addition, being lightly touched, or watching someone
be lightly touched, also engaged the same area of the brain. Iacoboni notes that we understand
what others are feeling through mirroring. The existence of this involuntary and automatic
neural mechanism further supports the argument that interpreters may be susceptible to triggers
on an emotional or psychosomatic level from the content or ramifications of what they are
interpreting.
All of this research points us away from conceptualizing the interpreter as a machine or conduit.
The interpreter is not only a participant but is also empathically affected by the engagement of
mirror neurons. The potential for emotional contagion leading to the manifestation of vicarious
trauma is therefore a genuine risk for interpreters in the healthcare setting.
7.5 Research on vicarious traumatization of interpreters
Not everyone who works with traumatic material develops vicarious trauma. Key to educating
interpreters about the potential for vicarious trauma is understanding more about who may be
most at risk, and why. The literature provides a wide range of studies aimed at identifying the
predictors of vicarious trauma in at-risk workers. Much of this body of scholarly work
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documents the experiences of frontline human service workers rather than those of interpreters.
There are some exceptions, however.
Baistow (1999, cited in Pochhacker, 2004) surveyed nearly 300 community interpreters in five
European countries and found that more than half of the respondents reported significant
emotional stress arising from their work or the circumstances of their clients (p. 173). Weigand
(2000) indicates post-traumatic stress disorder has been reported in interpreters associated with
the hearings of the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Westermeyer (1990)
found interpreters who share the same country of origin as the refugees for whom they interpret
may be more vulnerable to psychiatric disorders. Rokenes (1992) found that 66% of the
interpreter respondents in Norway now and again experienced emotional reactions to their
work, rising to a level that made their work difficult, while Loutan et al (1999) found that
interpreters feelings of distress and related symptoms increased in direct proportion to the
number of sessions they had to interpret for victims of organized violence.
Adding credibility to the findings of these studies on interpreting and vicarious traumatization,
Rosseau and Foxen (2010) argue that a clear link exists between empathy and the transmission
of trauma. Given that interpreters effectively co-experience the information exchange in a
traumatic interpreted event, an empathic response by the interpreter as a result of this
transmission is natural and human. Harvey (2001, 2003) reports the following:
[Interpreters are] in danger of empathically drowning[T]ypically in this scenario, we
become depleted of energy; we withdraw from family, friends, and colleagues, perhaps
accentuated by the belief that no one could possibly understand our distress; in the case of
interpreters, one may also withdraw because of misinterpreting the code of ethics as prohibiting
the discussion of any thoughts and feelings concerning an anonymous Deaf consumer (Dean
and Pollard, 2001). We experience profound alterations of our identity, self-esteem, and
worldview; our ability to manage strong feelings suffers; we are vulnerable to intrusive imagery
and other post-traumatic stress symptomatology. In short, we are vicariously traumatized.
(Harvey, 2003, p. 211).
Valero-Garcs (2005) makes reference to the work of Corsellis, noting that it may be possible to
identify the specific features of interpreted situations that may present greater risk for
interpreters. These include interpreting for clients with whom the interpreter feels a strong sense
of identification or shares certain characteristics; interpreting in situations where violence,
torture, tragedy, grief, or other highly negative or distressing content is discussed; interpreting
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for clients who are in a vulnerable or deteriorated physical or psychological state; and
interpreting in emotionally difficult circumstances in which there is the impossibility of direct
help on the part of the interpreter and a sense of helplessness is pervasive for the interpreter
post-assignment.
The interpreted event itself is not the only determinant in developing vicarious trauma. A great
deal depends on the individuals response and reaction to an event or series of traumatic
exposures, and some people are naturally more resilient than others. In addition, the potential
for vicarious trauma is mitigated to an extent by compassion satisfaction the rewards that
outweigh the negative psychological reactions to stressful work, and the overall sense of
enjoyment one draws from performing ones job. However, a compassionate nature also
presents a potential hazard for interpreters if they over-identify with the people they interpret for
and the situations they are in. Too much empathy places interpreters in a position of risk
(Harvey 2003). Interpreter educators should flag these research findings and discuss the role of
empathy with interpreting students to prepare them for their work in the healthcare sector,
thereby increasing their awareness of any personal susceptibilities.
7.6 Personality and Coping
The impact of personality on coping is important and is well documented in relation to
occupational stress, job strain, and traumatic reactions (Alarcon et al 2009; Moulden and
Firestone 2007). People demonstrate dispositional tendencies in responding to trauma: for
example, persons high in agreeableness or extraversion may be more skilled (and therefore
more likely to be successful) in obtaining social support/peer support as a coping strategy. High
levels of neuroticism and introversion on the other hand are predictive of the development of
stress disorders (Gil and Capsi 2006). Individuals who are likely to experience job burnout are
highly empathic, and idealistic in their beliefs about how they can help others (Salston and
Figley 2003). So, an employer who makes changes to job design, introduces workplace
supports, and attempts to mitigate job stressors through various strategies and organizational
interventions, may still be faced with individuals who are more prone to vicarious trauma
largely as a result of their personality, and their limited range and efficacy of coping resources.
In regard to coping, neuroticism in particular seems to be a personality dimension of interest in
regard to coping. A large-scale meta-analysis of research studies on personality and coping by
Connor-Smith and Flachsbart (2007) found that traits of neuroticism, such as wishful thinking,
withdrawal, and other negative emotion-based coping strategies, predict poor coping strategies.
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Bozionelos (2004) identified that individuals who score high on neuroticism measures often
have poor self-confidence, are more emotionally reactive, become anxious more rapidly, and
are more vulnerable to stress. On the other hand, individuals who score low in neuroticism,
tend to be more emotionally stable and calm, display a more positive outlook on life, have
better coping strategies, and are less reactive to stress. Neuroticism is closely linked to trait
anxiety, and can be described and measured on some personality tests as negative affectivity
an enduring tendency to experience negative mood and emotion (Watson & Clark 1984).
A study by OBrien et al (2008) reports that, when presented with high demand tasks with low
behavioural controls, people with high negative affectivity were more likely to use negative,
and often emotion-based, coping strategies such as self-blame; and later reported lower levels of
task satisfaction and job satisfaction. OBrien et al also report that people high in negative
affectivity are particularly responsive to the amount of personal control they have in their work
environment and can be very reactive to negative features of the environment. Negative
affectivity is linked with disengagement as a coping strategy and less flexibility in coping in
various situations (Lee-Baggley et al 2005) and is a potent predictor of high levels of
occupational stress and strain (Mak and Mueller 2000).
Bontempo and Napier (2011) investigated negative affectivity in Auslan (Australian Sign
Language)/English interpreters in a study of factors that might be predictive of performance as
an interpreter. The study, which examined 110 interpreters, consisted of a detailed self-report
questionnaire identifying skills gaps, ratings of interpreter competence, and a series of
personality measures. Among the personality inventories, participants completed the Positive
and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) developed by Watson, Clark and Tellegen (1988). This
tool demonstrates high levels of internal consistency and stability, and is widely considered a
reliable, valid and efficient means of measuring dimensions of positive and negative affectivity.
It correlates highly with other tools that measure similar constructs (for example, the negative
affectivity items on the PANAS correlate well with the Beck Depression Inventory). The 10-
item version (for each positive affectivity and negative affectivity) of the PANAS was
administered in the survey.
Results indicate that negative affectivity is a significant predictor of interpreter competence:
That is, respondents with high levels of negative affectivity reported lower levels of competence
as an interpreter. The self-perceived competence rating was validated by a trend in accreditation
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level (interpreting qualification held): More competent and highly accredited interpreters
showed lower levels of negative affectivity and vice versa.
Bontempo and Napiers findings are further reinforced by data reported by Bontempo (2010) in
a separate study of interpreter disposition. Survey responses collected from 205 Auslan/English
interpreter participants in Australia examined the Big Five of personality (openness to
experience; conscientiousness; extraversion; agreeableness; and neuroticism) using scales
drawn from the IPIP (International Personality Item Pool), as well as the psychological
constructs of perfectionism (IPIP scale) and self-esteem (measured by the Rosenberg self-
esteem scale).
Self-esteem and conscientiousness proved to be significant predictors of self-perceived
competence as an interpreter. Level of reported competence also correlated with level of
accreditation; that is, higher levels of self-perceived competence were associated with higher
levels of interpreter accreditation. Low self-esteem and high negative affectivity are closely
related, reconfirming the strength of these particular personality variables as important
inasmuch as they impact interpreter competence. In addition to affecting ones competence as a
practitioner, fragile self-esteem and affective instability may also make less competent
interpreters more susceptible to vicarious trauma, given the link between certain personality
traits and coping.
Key to the effective management of traumatic exposure in an occupational context are the
coping strategies one uses to deal with stressors. These may be classified as engagement or
active coping (positive) strategies and disengagement or avoidant coping (negative) strategies.
As well as the highlighted links between personality and coping, differences in age, experience,
gender, and cognitive ability may also affect the way a person responds to a stressful work
environment. The type and the severity of the stressor affect ones capacity for coping, and the
impact of coping changes over time: Responses that are useful for an individual one day may
not always be suitable the next. It is therefore important for individuals to have a range of
coping strategies to draw upon when needed.
7.7 Negative coping strategies
Unfortunately, negative coping strategies are often the first line of response when an individual
experiences vicarious trauma. Overuse of alcohol and drugs and over-work as coping strategies
are largely acceptable in the Western world. Isolating oneself, denial, and avoidance are other
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common coping strategies that ultimately leave the trauma unresolved. Additional negative
coping strategies include trivializing the situation, or inappropriately blaming oneself or others.
Figure 7.1 depicts a range of possible negative coping strategies that may be adopted,
intentionally or unintentionally, by an individual experiencing significant occupational stress or
vicarious traumatization.
Figure 7.1: Negative coping strategies

It is important to note that improving ones personal coping strategies from negative or avoidant
methods to more positive coping mechanisms may not always effect significant change for
individuals if an employer does not address the work environment and conditions that put
workers at risk of traumatization. Changes made within workplaces, booking agencies, and
interpreter education programs can more effectively scaffold and support individuals if
undertaken in combination with interventions that aim to increase the range of positive personal
coping skills of people in hazardous occupations (Cahill 2006).


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7.8 Positive coping strategies
Responding to traumatic material or circumstances by feeling bad and by experiencing negative
emotions is a normal response for a healthy human being. Since this response is normal, it
would benefit interpreter educators to prepare students for this normal emotional response and
assist them in identifying positive, action-oriented coping strategies rather than defaulting to the
negative strategies highlighted in Figure 7.1. Moulden and Firestone (2007) report that the
strongest predictor of whether therapists experienced vicarious trauma is their use of negative or
positive coping strategies. Some of the coping strategies operate at an individual level, some at
an organizational level, and many can be raised for discussion in education programs for
interpreters. Figure 7.2 highlights a number of positive coping strategies that could be employed
to reduce the impact of exposure to traumatic material in the course of interpreting work.
Figure 7.2: Positive coping strategies

Many of the positive coping strategies outlined in Figure 7.2 could be teased out further. For
example, the self-care component is very broad and could include a wide range of diversions
ranging from recreational activities (watching a movie or attending a concert), spiritual
practices (attending religious services, belonging to a spiritual group), physical activities
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(having monthly massages, doing some gardening) and so forth. Where appropriate, such
pursuits might also allow the individual to connect/re-connect with people.
Nurturing oneself should be a priority rather than a luxury that is squeezed into a busy schedule.
Understandably, it is hard for interpreters to take time out for themselves, especially if working
on a piecemeal basis or as a freelance interpreter to earn a casual income. Nonetheless, it is a
necessity to take the time to check in with oneself on a daily basis even if it is only for a short
time. As Salston and Figley (2003) note, we need to balance caring for others with caring for
ourselves (p. 173). Having hobbies, activities, interests, and a life outside of interpreting is
important. Developing stress buffers and self-protection / self-healing strategies helps one to
manage occupational stress and responses to trauma. Educators and employers should
encourage students or employees to build a self-care plan that takes into account regulating and
caring for the following:
1) Physical health (diet, sleep and exercise are important)
2) Emotional health (being human and acknowledging normal human reactions to
traumatic material)
3) Social needs (family and friends are critical)
4) Spiritual needs (a belief system about the world helps)
5) Financial needs (determining how much is needed vs. how much is wanted helps one
say no to work if necessary) (Bontempo & van Loggerenberg, 2010).

Murphys (1996) meta-analysis of stress management interventions in the workplace found that,
as a single technique, meditation provided the most positive and consistent results in terms of an
intervention. However, combining interventions (for example, muscle relaxation, plus cognitive
reframing) were far more effective at reducing occupational stress than applying any single
technique alone.
As a general principle, specific interventions and coping strategies need to match the problem
and the outcomes targeted for change, and strategies that are not found beneficial need to be
changed. Ones natural resilience can be scaffolded and enhanced by engaging in positive
coping strategies. Optimism has proven important in the coping literature (Carver & Connor-
Smith 2010), and cognitive restructuring and figuring out ways to see challenging
circumstances and difficult situations in a more positive light have also proven useful strategies
adopted by traumatized workers (Schauben and Frazier 1995).
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7.9 Interpreting-specific coping strategies
As well as the positive coping strategies outlined here, interpreters may be able to make use of
job-specific strategies, such as drafting a discourse map to help prepare for an interpreting
assignment that may be challenging or stressful (Napier et al 2010). To help mentally prepare
for potentially emotionally difficult material, the interpreter can think through some of the
demands of the setting and interaction in advance of the job.
Journalling and reflecting on the assignment afterward might also prove helpful to the
individual interpreter as a method of coping post-assignment. Keeping a stress journal is
another alternative logging the situations that may generate stress or act as triggers and
recording how the stressor was managed on that occasion. Some strategies that may also work
and will maintain confidentiality include sending yourself an email describing your feelings
about the traumatic interpreted event (i.e. an email which is never sent to anyone else) and
drawing, scribbling or jotting notes about any frustrations in a small personal notepad to offload
the thoughts from the head to the page the notes could then be burned, torn up, or shredded.
Some interpreters may practice visualization of some kind to separate oneself from the
traumatic content of the day. An example may be visualizing the front door of ones home as a
shower, where an imaginary row of water droplets falling from above as one walks through the
door and into the home effectively cleanses the interpreter and washes the dirty parts of the day.
Allowing time to transition between work and home can be helpful. This may mean using time
in the car or on the train on the way home to dump the information of the day and to adjust to
home-life. Alternatively, the interpreter might allocate a certain period of time to ruminate
about an assignment; when the time expires, the interpreter by a self-agreement cognitively
moves on. An interpreter might engage in a ritual upon arriving home (such as changing clothes
out of the interpreting garb and into personal, at-home clothing, or switching handbags from
the work bag to the personal bag before going out after work) or go for a jog. Such transition
activities can serve as on/off switches for separating and compartmentalizing parts of the day
and can help psychologically shift the individual into different modes as needed.
Ensuring that interpreters do not take on more work than is healthy and spacing out challenging
clients and assignments can be a useful coping strategy. Similarly, developing relationships
with co-workers, mentors, educators, employers and so on can be a very important coping
mechanism. Attending professional development seminars and other training with colleagues
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cannot be underestimated the better resourced workers are, the more effectively they can do
their job. Becoming a member of the local professional interpreting association is also
important in terms of developing support networks.
7.10 Organizational strategies
Organizations can help their interpreting staff avoid vicarious trauma in a variety of ways and
address it if they do become affected. These organization based strategies should be raised with
interpreting students so that they can advocate for their needs if working in an organization that
has not adopted these practices. Good coping strategies on a personal level will not be sufficient
protection for interpreters if organizations are remiss in managing deficiencies in their work
practices and working conditions.
As a basic protective strategy, organizations should ensure that not just one individual is doing
all of the trauma work. The primary predictor of experiencing vicarious trauma is ones
exposure to the trauma of others. If employers ensure safe working conditions for employees,
such as distributing workload in order to limit the traumatic exposure of any one worker, they
can minimize the effects of vicarious trauma. The organization needs to be responsive to the
needs of an employee who reports becoming too affected and ensure that the interpreters
workload changes. Organizations should offer training and professional development
opportunities for interpreters specifically on dealing with emotionally challenging material.
These activities could focus on areas such as stress reduction and developing resilience.
Novice interpreters coming into organizations could be allocated a buddy to act as a mentor of
sorts during the initial period of service for a new employee. New interpreters should be able to
contact this buddy for support and advice and should be encouraged to do so in particular if and
when they are exposed to traumatic material.
Debriefing is an organizational strategy that could be formalized for interpreters; however, it is
also a support mechanism that can occur informally. Interpreters may access debriefing services
via their employer, perhaps from their manager or a peer on staff in the organization, or more
formally via external sources such as psychologists or counsellors through the employee
assistance program (EAP), if applicable. Informally, interpreters may debrief with their team
interpreter, an interpreting colleague, a mentor, a knowledgeable friend, or simply someone
who is a good listener within their network of social supports. Interpreting students should be
advised the code of ethics does not prevent the interpreter from speaking about de-identified
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challenging aspects of a traumatic assignment. Debriefing should be optional for interpreters,
not compulsory, but certainly should be made available. The efficacy of compulsory and
immediate critical incident debriefing has been questioned in recent years (van Emmerik et al
2002; Gist and Devilly 2002), so when possible, it should be left to interpreters as professionals
to seek out debriefing if needed rather than forcing it upon them. Nonetheless, contact from a
manager after an interpreter has been sent to a potentially traumatic setting would demonstrate
support for the employee and open the door for debriefing, if desired.
EAPs are becoming increasingly commonplace in organizations. They are corporate counselling
agencies that contract with an organization to provide psychological support services to
employees and their immediate family members. In addition to counselling, EAPs often provide
telephone advice and professional development courses for staff on topics such as stress
management and conflict resolution. An EAP may able to provide interpreting employees with
training on vicarious trauma.
Clinical supervision is another way that organizations can assist employees working in
challenging environments or with traumatic material. Supervision is clearly identified as a
moderator of job burnout in the helping professions (Salston and Figley 2003). Dean, Pollard
and English (2004) note the importance of supervision in the use of an observation-supervision
model in preparing interpreters to work in mental health settings. They note that supervision is
not intended to be a punitive process, but rather a process of discussion among professionals
with an aim to improving the effectiveness of their work. Moreover, they report that seeking
supervision on complex cases, ethical issues, etc., is a fundamental and common practice that all
mental health professionals engage in. (p. 66). These discussions take place within a context of
confidentiality and are always mindful of the purpose for discussion, which is the betterment of
service. In addition, a study of British Sign Language interpreters in the UK by Hetherington
(2011) strongly advocates for the development of consultative supervision processes within the
signed language interpreting profession. The use of supervision may afford interpreters an
opportunity to address challenges in their interpreting work, some of which could potentially be
the root cause of vicarious trauma.
7.11 Education and training perspective
It should be evident by now that education programs for interpreters need to address the issue of
vicarious trauma with students. Students need to understand that interpreters are affected to
varying degrees by what they interpret, and that interpreters may vicariously experience
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traumatization as a result. Whether information is provided to students in the form of a lecture
series, workshops, or a module of study during an interpreting program, it is important to learn
about situations of risk, and the importance of strategizing in advance about how to minimize
traumatic stress in work settings.
Suggestions on integrating a trauma curriculum into a program of study is outlined in Gere et al
(2009), and although based on a counselling program of study, some of the guidelines they
outline could be useful when adapted for interpreter education program purposes. In addition,
Cunningham (2004) provides a broad range of suggestions for teaching social workers about
trauma, the premises of which could be easily adopted into interpreting pedagogy. Incorporating
trait awareness into interpreter training, and developing skills such as self-confidence, positive
coping strategies, assertiveness, and resilience, would also most certainly be useful, given the
research evidence pointing to these aspects of personality as relevant for reducing stress and
maintaining effective occupational performance. Teaching interpreting students and accredited
practitioners to better manage anxiety may also be conducive to improving overall interpreting
performance, further to the findings of Bontempo and Napier (2011).
Educators may be able to address traumatic content and discuss the impact on the interpreter by
conducting role-plays based on stimulus pieces, such as scenarios written to generate fear,
anxiety, or sadness in the interpreting student. Suitable role-play material that interpreting
students may find emotionally challenging may be found in training materials for front-line
human service workers, such as social workers, and many online training resources are aimed at
increasing knowledge and skills around the issue of vicarious trauma
44
. Learning opportunities
via role-plays based on realistic scenarios written around a threat or crisis need to be carefully
managed however, as strong emotional reactions to traumatic content in course material can in
itself provoke vicarious trauma in some circumstances. For this reason, establishing ground
rules and boundaries in the classroom is critical before setting up role-play experiences for
students. Despite the need to effectively manage the learning environment, the contained and
controlled classroom space is certainly a better place for initial exposure to such concepts and
emotional reactions, and for discussing coping strategies.
Examples of safeguards include obtaining input and guidelines from students themselves
regarding the material they are willing to explore and any topics they might consider too
challenging to address in class. Helping students understand that a negative reaction to

44
Refer to http://www.proqol.org/Links.html
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challenging material is normal is important in early discussions. It may be useful to provide a
list in advance of dates on which certain content will be covered in class so students are
forewarned and can prepare themselves or, in some circumstances, even opt not to attend a
particular class for personal reasons. These approaches to safeguarding students interests may
also help to nurture a trusting relationship between students and teacher, strengthening the
students perception of support networks available to them upon graduation from an interpreter
education program.
As a less intimidating alternative to role-plays, or perhaps as a complementary activity,
vignettes of traumatic interpreting assignments and of case studies of crisis situations presented
to students provide opportunities for collaborative, problem-based learning through discussion
in the classroom. Realistic vignettes can provide rich and authentic opportunities for students to
engage with emotionally charged material with instructor support and guidance. Journal writing
that reflects on the vignettes and case studies can also be encouraged, as sometimes students are
willing to write and share with the teacher what they are not eager to reveal in a class setting.
This can be powerful for students also in recognizing their own responses to stressful scenarios
and perhaps traumatic realities in their own lives by helping them consider how they plan to
manage such personal material in a professional setting.
Interpreter education programs should permit opportunity for discussion in class on how to
distinguish professional relationships from friendships in the Deaf community, and explore with
students how they might create appropriate boundaries and clearly delineate aspects of their
professional identity as interpreters from their personal identity as friends or relatives of Deaf
community members. Students with their own personal experiences of oppression,
victimization, or abuse may need specific referrals to professional counsellors to deal with these
experiences to minimize the impact of their own emotional baggage on the way they interact
with the Deaf community, their interpreting peers, and the hearing people they may come across
in the course of their work.
In the learning environment, the peer group is of great importance. If students learn to trust one
another in the classroom, they are more likely to feel connected to their peers and to more
readily trust other interpreters once they graduate. Having a supportive peer network is a
significant positive coping strategy, so educators who take the time to build cooperative
classrooms that function collaboratively rather than competitively will create long term benefits
for students. Similarly, entering into a constructive mentoring relationship can provide a novice
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interpreter and a more experienced one with a support network in which the parties are
concerned for each others personal well-being and professional growth, so students should be
encouraged to seek out positive mentoring relationships upon graduation.
Formal learning about grief, loss, suicide, depression, neglect, mental health, abuse, and other
emotionally difficult topics, when integrated into interpreter education programs, would help
mitigate to an extent the powerful impact of these topics in a real crisis. Information is power,
and effective coping in a traumatic situation will be enhanced by having a range of problem
solving strategies, practical information about what to expect, and tangible support networks.
According to website information, the Deaf Studies and Interpreting program at Ohio
University, which confers an AAS degree, includes a module in interpreting in critical and
traumatic situations. The course outline indicates it addresses sexual abuse of Deaf children,
including causes, incident rate, interviewing techniques, investigation problems, and
involvement of law enforcement agencies, schools, hospitals, DARE and crime prevention
programs. Also discusses deaf people in disaster situations, emergency response centres, first
responders, and problems of victimization of deaf in research projects
45
. This kind of formal
preparation and information may greatly assist novice interpreters, upon graduation, in dealing
with emotionally challenging situations of this nature. Yet, this program appears to be unique
an online search of a range of programs failed to turn up any others that made reference in such
detail to a module on trauma interpreting.
The findings of Bontempo and Napier (2011) and Bontempo (2010) regarding the impact of
negative affectivity and low self-esteem on interpreter competence, and the link between these
personality traits and vulnerability to stress and ineffective coping suggest that introducing
positive coping strategies and resilience-building into interpreter education course curricula
would be useful. Teaching interpreting students and accredited practitioners to know themselves
and to better understand their own disposition and their default coping styles may be conducive
as well.
7.12 Conclusion
In the process of providing interpreting services to traumatized individuals, interpreters are
exposed to material that may affect their emotions, belief system, and world-view. It is normal
for a human being to empathically engage with another person, particularly over traumatic

45
http://www.catalogs.ohio.edu/preview_program.php?catoid=19&poid=4315&returnto=973
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material, and such engagement can be quite transformative in nature in positive ways that may
help the interpreter grow and learn from the experience or in ways that can be highly negative
and debilitating to the interpreter. Key to the management of the experience is how these
individuals recognize, accept and cope with their humanness and the potential for vicarious
trauma. Unquestionably, the signed language interpreter is not immune to the effects of trauma
exposure. All workers in healthcare settings deal with the impact of traumatic realities on a
daily basis and develop a range of personal strategies to cope with the nature of their work.
They have education and training systems that acknowledge the potential impact of trauma.
They belong to organizational bodies that recognize the risk to workers, and they adapt work
environments and implement interventions to mitigate the effects of severe occupational stress
and critical incidents in the workplace. It is time for the interpreting profession to recognize the
vulnerability of interpreters when working in traumatic settings or with emotionally challenging
material and to respond appropriately.
Developing and applying good personal coping mechanisms and accessing effective
organizational systems of support can ameliorate difficult working conditions for the interpreter,
thereby reducing the risk of vicarious trauma. Interpreter educators can introduce teaching tools
that make traumatic realities accessible in a safe learning environment. Authentic, controlled
activities in the classroom will help students develop coping skills and strategies for dealing
with occupational stress and cumulative trauma experiences, better equipping them for future
interpreting work in healthcare settings.
While wholesale change throughout the profession - in education programs, within interpreting
organizations, and among practitioners - may be difficult to bring about at least in the short
term, any incremental efforts to effect change and to acknowledge interpreters human reactions
to traumatic material will eventually take hold. Such interventions and preparations are the
obligation of everyone involved in the field in order to protect signed language interpreters from
the hazards of the work. Prevention is far better than a cure in the healthcare context; the adage
also holds true for the vicarious traumatization of signed language interpreters.
7.13 References
Alarcon, Gene, Eschleman, Kevin J. and Bowling, N. A. (2009). Relationships between
personality variables and burnout: A meta-analysis. Work and Stress. 23, (3): 244-263.
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Angelelli, Claudia. (2003). The visible co-participant: The interpreters role in doctor-patient
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CHAPTER 8
Conclusion

As outlined in the introduction, this study grew from an acknowledgement that there are
escalating demands and growing expectations of Auslan interpreters working in diverse and
complex environments today. A limited supply of suitably qualified and skilled practitioners
plagues the field at present, and strategies are needed to invest in interpreting students who are
likely to succeed in the field. There is also a need to stem the attrition from the field by
competent interpreters by encouraging the growth of the profession, appropriately recognizing
and remunerating interpreters, and nurturing and developing the skills base and coping
strategies of existing practitioners. Attention to selecting those with aptitude for interpreting,
and improving the abilities of those already in the profession, should lead to enhanced capacity
to meet the needs of the Deaf community.

This research study endeavoured to explore the factors that may predict and augment interpreter
performance. The findings of the study have been applied in pragmatic and purposeful ways in
regard to program admission testing and diagnostic skills analysis projects. In addition, the
impact of the findings have been discussed in relation to ensuring the well-being and effective
performance of interpreters. The quantitative and qualitative results of the survey yielded
valuable information in terms of better understanding the aptitude, ability and achievement of
interpreters. The conclusion sections highlighted in each of the individual chapters addressed
the findings of each slice of the study in detail, described the interpretations of the respective
findings and discussed the wider implications of the findings.

The unified body of work in this thesis ultimately highlights that a range of factors should be
taken into account in the future teaching and management of students and interpreters. The
interpreter educator should not focus only on the technical linguistic and interpreting skills
needed by the student. Educators must get to know their students and determine how to best
cultivate the breadth of skills, knowledge and abilities that will be required by them as future
practitioners and not just focus on language or processing skills, as the ability to work
effectively as an interpreter requires far more than just technical expertise. As Kalina (2002)
notes, interpreter training is not only about processing skills. All aspects of mediated
communication that may determine its success should be taught (p. 130). Interpreting
employees need management and support in a range of areas and do not only require ongoing
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professional development and training in relation to language skills. They need access to
professional learning opportunities tailored to their specific skills gaps, their individual
disposition, and opportunities to access supervision, debriefing and collegiate support to cope
with the challenges inherent in the work of interpreting, as evidenced by the findings reported in
the various chapters of this dissertation.
8.1 A review of the chapters
As described in the introduction, and evident throughout, this thesis is presented in non-
traditional format, with Chapters 2-7 inclusive all having been previously published. They are
included herein with only minor amendments to the original publication therefore this
conclusion section offers an opportunity to summarise each chapter and to report developments
in the field since the time of publication. This is particularly relevant with regard to progress
made in relation to the recommendations stated in the various chapters. A review of each of the
chapters follows.

To provide context for the study, Chapter 2 gave an overview of interpreter education and
training in Australia. Despite the vast size of the country, Australia is sparsely populated and
issues of critical mass and geographical constraints have been factors in delivering signed
language interpreter education and training opportunities. Programs have conventionally been
delivered in the major capital cities of most states on a sporadic basis. The tyranny of distance
has contributed to the lack of specific training, mentoring, resource development and
networking opportunities available to signed language interpreter educators. Spoken language
interpreter education programs, on the whole, occur more frequently than signed language
interpreter programs in Australia. However the training environment for spoken language
interpreters is also highly changeable. In particular, training opportunities for interpreters in less
common, or just emerging, spoken languages, such as those spoken by refugees, are virtually
non-existent (Slatyer 2006). A similar issue is faced by Deaf interpreters in Australia, with
recognition and interpreter education for Deaf people also in its infancy and in a rather fragile
state. Although some aspects of interpreter training in Australia appear healthy, there are a
number of challenges facing the field, in particular the lack of university level education
programs for Auslan interpreters. This chapter outlined some of the concerns regarding the skill
level and quality of interpreting practitioners, and explored some anticipated developments and
future directions for improved interpreter education and training for Auslan interpreters,
providing background information relevant for the research study.
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Since the publication of this chapter, there has unfortunately been little progress made with
regard to establishing an undergraduate degree program for sign language interpreters in
Australia. The author was a member of a working group brought together to develop a funding
submission to support the part time employment of a project manager, research assistant and a
curriculum designer to develop a Bachelor of Interpreting (Auslan/English) at Murdoch
University in Western Australia.

The working group consisted of members from Murdoch University, Macquarie University,
ASLIA, WA Deaf Society, NAATI, Victoria University of Wellington, NZ and Gallaudet
University of Washington DC, USA. Goals included cross-institutional collaboration in regard
to flexible delivery of units, in the knowledge that some of the course content should be
available through distance learning in order to obtain a viable cohort of students, potentially
drawn from around the nation. Unfortunately submissions to the Australian Learning and
Teaching Council were unsuccessful in 2010, and despite approaches to a number of
universities since that time, no institution was willing to further consider hosting an
undergraduate degree for Auslan interpreters due to the high financial and human resource
investment that would be required, given the relatively low enrolment numbers expected in such
a specialised course of study at undergraduate level. The continuing lack of access to an
undergraduate degree program for interpreters in Australia underlines the original concerns
raised in the chapter regarding skills gaps in Auslan interpreters.

Conversion from curriculum based courses to training packages in the delivery of interpreter
education programs at TAFE colleges throughout the nation have also presented challenges in
recent years, with some TAFE colleges forced to call a halt to programs in 2011 or 2012 whilst
unpacking the new units of training. This has led to an under-supply of trained interpreters in an
already stretched market in many states. Language acquisition feeder programs in some states
have also been affected by funding cuts and political forces, further impacting on the future of
interpreter training in Australia
46
.

Although no formal education and training opportunities for DRIs have been in place since the
chapter was published, the recent change from curriculum-based courses to a training package
for the TAFE interpreter courses means that future structured learning opportunities should

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http://www.theage.com.au/national/education/tafe-cuts-put-an-end-to-auslan-diploma-20120522-1z3ae.html
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exist for Deaf interpreters as the training packages offer flexibility in delivery and in outcomes
and assessment that did not exist in the old programs. Only two states are running the training
package for the first time in 2012 and both of these courses have a cohort of hearing students
only in 2012, however it is anticipated Deaf students may enrol in future years, finally offering
a meaningful and appropriate training qualification to DRIs. Pleasing to note also is the
increased number of Deaf interpreters attending ASLIA National Conferences, and Deaf
interpreter educators increased participation in the annual Interpreter Trainers Network
Symposium since this chapter was published. These events, and local professional development
activities, have become more accessible to Deaf participants in recent years, and the recognition
of DRIs by employers, and appreciation of the work of DRIs by Auslan interpreters and by the
Deaf community seems to have improved also (Levitzke-Gray, personal communication).

Positive developments have occurred in relation to the role of WASLI in the region, with strong
leadership being shown by the Australasia/Oceania representatives of WASLI in recent years.
Projects that have allowed interpreter trainers to travel to developing countries in the region to
deliver interpreter education, and efforts to support interpreters/educators from developing
countries in the region to come to ASLIA National Conferences each year have increased. In
addition, the frequency and the quality of the sign language interpreting research publications
originating in Australia has multiplied significantly since this chapter was published, largely
due to the active research agenda and the publishing efforts of students and staff associated with
the Centre for Translating and Interpreting Research at Macquarie University.

Chapter 3 presented the findings of a survey, which collected demographic data offering a
profile of the profession in Australia. In addition, the survey investigated sign language
interpreters perceptions of the skills, knowledge and abilities required for effective practice.
Specifically, practitioners were asked to rate the degree of importance of some of the identified
key skills, knowledge and abilities for professional practice based on the literature; and to
further rate their own degree of competence as a practitioner on the same parameters. In
addition, interpreters supplied an overall rating of competence, based on their perception of
their own performance as a practitioner.

A skills gap analysis was conducted to determine the significant differences between ratings of
importance and ratings of competence on each of the skills, knowledge and abilities
documented. This yielded information with regard to the most critical skills, knowledge and
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abilities for sign language interpreters, and clearly identified gaps in competence amongst
practitioners. Interpreter accreditation level emerged as a very significant dimension in the
context of self-reported level of competence and skills gaps for sign language interpreters. Of
primary concern in terms of skills gaps across interpreters of both accreditation levels were
skills, knowledge and abilities such as self-confidence; memory skills; concentration skills; self-
monitoring skills; specialist knowledge; contextual knowledge; objectivity; self-discipline;
world knowledge; and assertiveness. Ominously, the gap analysis also revealed that
practitioners accredited at the lower level of NAATI accreditation experienced additional
significant gaps in relation to their Auslan skills, interpreting skills, situation management skills
and listening skills.

The chapter outlined the implications of these findings for the education and training of sign
language interpreters, as well as the repercussions for ongoing professional development and
self-monitoring by practitioners. The chapter offered suggestions for the content and
improvement of interpreter education programs, and also recommended mentoring, targeted
professional development, and diagnostic skills analysis opportunities for accredited
practitioners. The data reported in Chapter 3 superficially touched on the role of disposition in
predicting interpreter competence, and the importance of personality constructs in acquiring the
skill of interpreting, and in successfully maintaining a career in the field, however this was not
addressed in detail until Chapter 4.

Following the publication of Chapter 3, there have been several positive developments.
Training courses for entry level practitioners have been overhauled, with training packages
requiring an increase in the number of units completed (6 core units and 4 elective units now,
compared to only 6 units in the old programs). The content of the units contain additional
elements and the degree and depth of knowledge to be taught and assessed is higher than in the
previous course. The course has had to change from a one year part time course to an 18 month
part time course to accommodate the additional requirements. As the training package is being
implemented for the first time in 2012 it is not possible to predict how this may impact on the
skills gaps of interpreters at the time of course completion, however it is surmised that a greater
depth of training over a longer duration of time should have a positive impact on interpreters
skills at course exit.

206
In addressing the needs of practitioners already in the field, several formal mentoring and
internship programs have been established in Australia since publishing this chapter, with
notable examples in Victoria, NSW and Western Australia, conducted by ASLIA branches,
Deaf Societies and/or by Deaf education institutions. A further development has been the
introduction of an Advanced Diploma of Interpreting at RMIT in Victoria, resulting in NAATI
Professional Interpreter accreditation upon successful completion, the second course in
Australia offering Professional Auslan/English Interpreter level accreditation (the other course
being the Postgraduate Diploma offered by Macquarie University). Such initiatives offer
opportunities for already accredited practitioners to hone their skills and to develop their
expertise under guidance and appropriate tutelage, hopefully addressing some of the skills gaps
reported in the original publication, and increasing the number of Professional level interpreting
practitioners in Australia.

Chapter 4 extended on the skills gap study described in Chapter 3, and proposed that successful
performance as an interpreter is dependent on dimensions of technical skills, cognitive
functioning and personality. General cognitive ability is shown to be a strong predictor of
success in many occupational contexts, however the relationship between personality and
achievement in a profession is less conclusive. Apart from the technical skills and the
intellectual resources required to perform a job, organizational psychologists have long
theorized that the notions of a person-vocation fit and a work personality have legitimacy,
but this notion had never been investigated in signed language interpreters in Australia, and
until recently, only in a limited fashion overseas. No definitive findings about the psychological
make-up of signed language interpreters have been gleaned from previous studies to date. Yet,
a number of disposition factors considered promising predictors of performance in the field of
organisational psychology had not previously been measured in signed language interpreters.
These included traits such as self-efficacy, goal orientation and negative affectivity.

Chapter 4 therefore reported on the findings of a questionnaire administered to 110 Auslan
interpreters, which was designed to measure self-efficacy, goal orientation and negative
affectivity, in addition to the demographic profile and the skills gap survey items outlined in
Chapter 3. A dependent variable of degree of competence was utilised, with participants
rating their perceived level of competence as an interpreter. It was hypothesised that interpreters
ranking themselves as highly competent or very competent would also demonstrate high
levels of self-efficacy and goal orientation, and would display low levels of negative affectivity.
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In fact, the dimension of emotional stability (represented by traits of anxiety and neuroticism,
and measured by the negative affectivity scale in this study) demonstrated the most significant
finding as a predictor of perceived interpreter competence.

The chapter expressed concern regarding the practical consequences of this finding with regard
to managing occupational stress in interpreters; in understanding practitioner responses to
situations of high demand; and their use of coping strategies and resources to mitigate work
pressures, expectations, and challenges. People with a low level of emotional stability (that is, a
high level of negative affectivity) may not make use of positive coping resources and may be
more reactive to job related stressors. It is also possible for such individuals to create stressful
work situations by their behavioral tendencies. Given that the capacity to control response to
stress is important in interpreting, the results of this study may be of particular value in
screening prospective interpreters to determine aptitude for interpreting. In addition, the
findings have implications for developing and enhancing interpreter performance; managing
interpreters in the workplace; the allocation of potentially stressful interpreting assignments;
teaching self-regulation and coping strategies; developing resilience; providing performance
feedback to employees and students; and in regard to mentoring interpreters in safe and
constructive ways. Considerations in relation to program admission testing and interpreter
education course curricula based on the findings of the study were explored in detail in the
chapter.

This particular paper was published in 2011 and there is nothing new to report in terms of
progress or developments in relation to the findings outlined, however the paper has generated
much interest, and has already been cited in the literature (see Russell, 2011; Schwenke, 2012,
for example). Several higher degree students based in countries as disparate as Scotland,
Canada, and Greece have been in direct contact with the author, indicating the findings have
been of interest to them and that the findings suggest links with their as yet unpublished
research studies.

Chapter 5 applied the data collected in the survey study to a program admission testing context.
In Australia, not unlike many countries around the world, there is no consistent approach to
admission testing of candidates for entry into interpreter education programs. The chapter
described how the study firstly identified the skills, knowledge and traits needed for competent
performance as a sign language interpreter (as noted in Chapter 3); and applied this potentially
208
predictive data by piloting an admission screening test to a cohort of signed language
interpreting program applicants. The results of the admission test were then contrasted with
program exit outcomes.

In the first part of the study, 110 Auslan interpreters were surveyed on their perceptions of the
efficacy of interpreter education programs in preparing graduates for work as an interpreter.
This data was collected from another section of the survey described in Chapters 3 and 4. The
pilot project was designed by drawing on the qualitative findings of the survey, coupled with
previously published results from the same survey that identified the skills gaps of interpreters
that need to be addressed in interpreter education programs (outlined in Chapter 3). A program
admission test was then developed to include six elements considered potentially predictive of
performance, based on the findings of the earlier study, as well as the literature regarding
spoken language conference interpreter program screening tests, and the limited information
available regarding the screening of signed language interpreters in various other countries. The
test was piloted with a cohort of applicants to an interpreter education program. The exit
outcomes showed however that only 55% of the screened and accepted students successfully
completed the program; thus the screening test results were not predictive of student
performance.

Chapter 5 explained in detail the screening test measures chosen. In addition, the relationship
between admission testing and achievement in interpreter education was examined. This
chapter strongly argued for an evidence-based approach to sign language interpreting pedagogy,
recommending educators document practices in interpreter education programs and collaborate
more effectively, sharing resources and assessment tools. In addition, it was suggested that
research findings that impact on interpreting pedagogy and practices, such as program
admission screening procedures, be shared with the field in accessible forums.

Whilst nothing further has been published in Australia or overseas regarding the details of
program admission tests for interpreter course entry, after the publication of this chapter, the
author worked with a steering committee to formally establish an Interpreter Trainers Network
(ITN) under the auspices of ASLIA. The ITN created an opportunity for peer information
exchange in an online forum. Educators were already meeting annually at an Interpreter
Trainers Workshop (later rebranded as the Interpreter Trainers Network Symposium), an
event which the author convenes annually, however communication throughout the year
209
amongst educators, trainers and mentors was fragmented and ad hoc in nature. The ITN was
formalized in 2009 and provided an online forum for the exchange of information and ideas,
with a website created by the author
47
including an extensive bank of resources and teaching
materials contributed by a number of interpreter educators.

The author sends out fortnightly updates to ITN list members signed and spoken language
interpreter educators a list which now numbers over 120 individuals, mostly residing in
Australia and in surrounding regions. A scoop-it site has been developed
48
and new information
and material is regularly curated to the site, and a facebook page has also been opened for the
ITN to allow networking with a wider audience of trainers and mentors beyond Australia and
surrounding countries. Formal links with sister associations CIT and efsli training in the US and
Europe respectively have also been established. Networking, exchanging information and
sharing resources in this way has been a very significant and positive step forward for the field
since the program admission testing chapter was published.

One of the most valuable aspects of the ITN according to member feedback has been the
repository for teaching resources a locked section of the site, which only list members can
access. This repository contains assessment material, including program admission testing
resources, which have been shared by representatives of various TAFE interpreter education
programs. Whilst data regarding student entry and exit results are not being shared by TAFE
colleges, the exchange of documentation being used at least allows for moderation of materials,
and adaptation of resources to build on and improve existing tests and teaching materials,
meeting a key recommendation of the original published chapter.

In addition, the ITN provides an opportunity for lobbying, consulting and advising on issues
impacting on interpreter education, training and mentoring. The ITN has been extremely well
received by interpreter educators around the nation, and the annual Symposium is well-attended
and with the opportunities highly valued by participants.

A further effort at applying the research findings from the original survey regarding skills gaps
of interpreters to an authentic setting is outlined in Chapter 6. Research regarding the efficacy of
an interpreted education for deaf students has suggested that the practice is fraught with

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http://itn.aslia.com.au/Interpreter_Trainers_Network/Welcome.html
48
http://www.scoop.it/t/interpreter-education
210
challenges, even when students are provided with highly skilled interpreters. In Australia, the
vast majority of the practitioners working in education settings around the nation are not
certified interpreters; typically receive supervision from personnel ill-equipped to understand
and support their role; do not undertake regular skills assessment and performance management
activities; and are not provided with tailored training and professional development
opportunities relevant to their practice as educational interpreters. This is not to suggest that
educational interpreters themselves have not pleaded for more appropriate support structures
and working conditions commensurate with the complexity of their job, or that advocates in the
Deaf community, deaf students, their families, and educators working with deaf students, have
not flagged concerns about the problems inherent in many educational interpreting practices.

A worrying future exists in terms of continuing a widespread approach to a mediated education
for deaf children without more quality assurance measures in the educational interpreting field
and without a greater degree of transparency regarding the skill levels of educational
interpreters. In acknowledgement of this, Chapter 6 reported on the process of diagnostic skills
analysis and performance management of a cohort of interpreters implemented at one
Australian secondary school for deaf students. The process of performance evaluation,
including observation of interpreted communication in authentic classroom contexts; skills gap
analyses; modelling and mentoring; tailored professional development; the creation of
professional learning plans for educational interpreters was discussed. The chapter also
elaborated on the steps taken in moving the cohort of interpreters towards becoming reflective
and reflexive practitioners, with the ultimate aim of more effective classroom communication
and improved outcomes for deaf students accessing an interpreted education.

Although this Chapter was published only in late 2011, there have been some developments
since that time. The mentoring project that was conducted in Western Australia was adopted
and adapted by ASLIA Victoria and the Victorian Deaf Education Institute in 2012. Funding
was allocated towards a mentoring project for educational interpreters in Victoria and 42
mentees in 15 different locations across the state of Victoria have benefited to date from a
program in 2012, including observation and feedback sessions, interpreter modelling sessions,
group forums, Auslan tuition, and the creation of a wiki for web-based interaction and self-
study activities. The project managers and mentors sought the advice of the author in creating
their Victorian project and the group are now collaborating on a chapter for a volume in an
211
upcoming RID publication on mentorship, due to be published in 2013, regarding their
experiences with mentoring educational interpreters in Australia.

The practical implication of the correlation between emotional stability and interpreter
competence described in Chapter 4 is addressed in Chapter 7. There are many situations in
which interpreters need to manage the transfer of information in difficult circumstances. It
could be that the content of the message is highly emotional or primarily negative; it may be
that one or more of the parties the interpreter is interpreting for is extremely vulnerable, or in
a debilitated psychological or physical state. Perhaps the interpreter is working with people
who are relating stories of trauma or torture; or relaying the reports of those who have been
victimised and abused. In such cases, occupational stress can accumulate, and the outcome of
sustained stress over time can manifest itself in various ways. Interpreters manage more than
just the linguistic transfer of information in an assignment, and whilst gaps or deficiencies in
technical skills may impact on the successful performance of a job, the affective impact of an
assignment can take a toll on an interpreter also, influencing performance and interpreter
well-being.

Chapter 7 couched the discussion of vicarious traumatisation issues in the healthcare setting,
given the risks presented by this area of work in particular. The impact of critical incidents on
professionals, and the fallout from working in traumatic environments and with victims of
trauma, is a well-researched phenomenon in organizational psychology. A growing body of
literature acknowledges the same potential for psychological distress and vicarious
traumatisation of interpreters, in their role as secondary witnesses to stories of tragedy, grief,
loss, damage and suffering (Dean and Pollard, 2001; Harvey, 2003; Valero-Garces, 2005).

Interpreting is an intrinsically stressful occupation (Kurz, 2003), and the latest research from the
US indicates interpreters report greater occupational health risks and problems than normative
groups from other occupations on measures of depression, psychological stress, and physical
exertion (Dean, Pollard & Samar, 2010). Although performance can be enhanced to an extent
by acceptable levels of stress, a lack of coping strategies to deal with the management of work
and personal stressors, or exposure to sustained, or excessive stress in the workplace, can lead to
compassion fatigue, vicarious traumatisation, and job burnout.

212
Chapter 7 therefore addressed features of interpreting assignments that present emotionally
difficult aspects and examined the cumulative impact of sustained stress and negative coping
strategies on interpreters. Further, a range of positive coping strategies that could be employed
to enhance interpreter skills and performance, and to deal with some of the intrapersonal
demands of the interpreting profession, particularly when working in traumatic settings, were
outlined. The chapter also defined vicarious traumatisation and noted the symptoms. The
relevant literature is described in detail, with links made in particular to the findings outlined
in Chapter 4 regarding the emotional stability of interpreters. The pedagogical and practical
impact of managing the risk of vicarious traumatisation, taking into account individual
difference, is discussed, with examples of possible training content and sequencing of
activities in interpreter education programs explained. The chapter argued that interpreters can
be protected from being harmed by the hazards in the work, if knowledge, empowerment, trait
development and skill-building form part of interpreter education and training courses and
employer support programs.

Further to publishing this Chapter in March 2012 the author was invited to deliver a
presentation on this topic at the conference of the Sign Language Interpreters Association of
New Zealand in July 2012. In addition, the author is conducting a workshop for interpreter
educators on the implementation of a trauma curriculum / content in interpreter education
programs at the Interpreter Trainers Network Symposium in Adelaide, Australia in August
2012. The published paper argues for practitioners and educators to be aware of the risks
associated with occupational stress and vicarious trauma. Opportunities such as these to share
the points made in this chapter regarding enhancing resilience and the need to develop
positive coping strategies in students and interpreters, offer valuable practical application for
the published work.
8.2 A tangential study
The findings of the body of research described in this thesis resulted in a direct approach by
Eastern Kentucky University faculty to collaborate on a further study, on an international scale,
investigating the personality dimensions and dispositional traits of the signed language
213
interpreter population considered to be most predictive of occupational performance
49
. The
purpose of this tangential study was to investigate the following questions:-
1. Does personality play a role in predicting job performance for signed language
interpreters?
2. If so, which aspects of personality are most predictive?
3. Can a profile be built to screen for signed language interpreter occupational
suitability?
The personality measures used were selected after identifying constructs in the psychology
literature that had been shown to influence learning and performance. The constructs selected
for investigation included The Big Five (Goldberg, 1990; McCrae & Costa, 1999; 2003),
perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Rice & Slaney, 2002) and self-esteem (Rosenberg, 1965;
Watson et al, 2002). The Big Five, also known as the five-factor model, refers to the broad
personality constructs of openness to experience; conscientiousness; extraversion;
agreeableness; and neuroticism (the latter is described inter-changeably in the literature as
emotional stability or as neuroticism). Although a popular and useful form of measuring
personality, the five-factor model is not without flaws the broadness of the constructs
cannot capture a complete portrait of personality from individuals and instead offer a more
global picture of personality. For this reason researchers will often hone in on specific aspects
of a construct for further investigation, hence the inclusion of perfectionism and also self-
esteem measures in the international disposition study as these factors were considered worth
delving into more deeply.

An online questionnaire in English was developed and distributed using Survey Monkey. The
question items were drawn from reliable and valid existing psychometric tools and measures
from the International Personality Items Pool (IPIP) and the Rosenberg self-esteem scale. Deaf
and hearing signed language interpreters were able to participate in the study. The survey was
widely distributed via interpreter associations, through the World Association of Sign Language
Interpreters, on facebook and via the extensive personal networks of the research team.
Participants completed the survey anonymously online. 2193 survey participants responded,
from 38 different countries. The data collected is significant, and has not been published as yet.

49
Chief Investigator for international disposition study: Karen Bontempo, collaborating with Jemina Napier (Macquarie
University), Laurence Hayes, Vicki Brashear, and Jerry Palmer (Eastern Kentucky University).
214
Preliminary findings have been reported at the Conference of Interpreter Trainers (CIT) in
Puerto Rico, USA, 27-30 October 2010 and at the ASLIA National Conference in Sydney,
Australia, 26-28 August 2011.

Without addressing the international disposition study research questions in any detail here, in
summary, the key finding from the disposition study, was that self-esteem is a significant
predictor of interpreter competence. This was a global predictor, with some variations on the
second most significant predictor in different countries. In Australia, for example, self-esteem
and conscientiousness were retained as significant predictors, with a multiple R of .390, while
in the US self-esteem and openness to experience (a construct akin to intellectual curiousity)
were significant (multiple R of .280). Self-esteem is closely linked to emotional stability,
reaffirming a key finding of the original study of Auslan interpreters described in this thesis in
Chapter 4. These findings from both the Australian study and the international study
regarding personality predictors of interpreter competence all reinforce the findings in the
broader scholarly literature in psychology, as described in the introduction section of this
thesis. The personality-performance link is complex, however personality is evidently an
important slice of the theoretical pie of the many skills, knowledge and abilities that make a
competent interpreter. The significant predictors of emotional stability, self-esteem,
conscientiousness, and openness to experience across both studies the Australian study and
the international collaboration demonstrate a high level of agreement with Judge and
Bonos (2001) meta-analysis and Mount et als (1998) findings regarding similar disposition
links with job performance across a range of occupations.
8.3 Limitations of the study
The findings of this research should be considered in light of the following limitations. Given
the nature of this study, sampling is not random, but purposive in nature, with the highly
selected group in the survey study all being NAATI accredited interpreters. The major
limitation of purposive sampling is the limitations to the inferences that can be drawn when
applying the findings to the wider population from which the sample came, however it can still
provide critical information for analysis, interpretation and further action and investigation.

Although the sample participating in the survey study was not large at 110 Auslan interpreters,
the sample was sufficiently representative of the working interpreter population at the time of
the study, having been drawn from throughout Australia and representing 42% of the interpreter
215
workforce at the time of survey distribution. The case studies on program admission testing and
diagnostic analysis and performance management of educational interpreters were small-scale
pilot projects, but of reasonable size for focused applications of the findings of the survey study.

One limitation of the study was that perceived competence was measured in the survey rather
than actual competence (on an interpreting task, for example) and self-rating of competence can
be inaccurate. Performance testing in the workplace would be an ideal way of measuring
competence rather than just depending on self-reported ratings of competence by practitioners,
however this is difficult to coordinate. It means evaluating some aspect/s of work performance
in an authentic work setting. Proficiency testing of this nature assesses current performance a
workers level of skills, knowledge and abilities at a certain time and in a certain place, rather
than simply obtaining theoretical information from an interpreter.

Despite the challenges associated with performance testing in the workplace, Chapter 6
described a performance evaluation project conducted by way of observation of a work sample
collected under authentic conditions, a form of assessment acknowledged by Schmidt and
Hunter (1998) to be a well-established and valid measure of a workers task-related proficiency.
Criteria used to assess workers in this way should identify the range and parts of the task critical
for effective overall performance. Scoring work samples is usually via ratings on a scale, rubric
or protocol, and ideally more than one person would be involved in independently rating the
work sample. Diagnostic ratings of relative strengths and areas requiring improvement are
common in such job performance evaluation (Guion & Highhouse, 2004) and were key aspects
of the project described in Chapter 6.

Further limitations of the survey study included its length and the time consuming nature of a
survey methodology. In addition, social desirability bias could have impacted on the survey
responses, however that did not appear to be a major factor in this study, with ratings of
perceived competence trending with level of accreditation, suggesting relative honesty and
accuracy from survey participants. The general limitations of this study were possible flaws of
all social research survey design, and not unique to this study. Specific details of any other
limitations were outlined in the various chapters, where applicable, as they related to each
aspect of the study.

216
The nature of a non-traditional thesis format and completion of the work over a period of years
as a part time PhD student could also be perceived as a potential limitation of this body of work.
Publication of the chapters herein sometimes occurred several years apart as the work
progressed and as opportunities to publish were presented. Change, albeit not dramatic in most
instances, has occurred since publishing the original chapters. It is hoped this conclusion section
has assisted in drawing together some of the loose threads, updating information and reporting
on the progress of some of the recommendations made in each chapter, where appropriate.
8.4 Final recommendations and further research
A zeitgeist appears to be occurring in the field. The current high level of interest in furthering
research in the area of interpreter aptitude is evidenced by the inaugural research symposium
hosted by the University of North Florida and Lessius University, at Lessius University in
Antwerp, Belgium, on 28-29 May 2009. This was the first symposium of its kind, bringing
together international scholars and leading interpreter educators in both signed and spoken
languages in a single forum to share research findings and to discuss the factors that play a
significant role in determining interpreting skill and in forecasting success in interpreting
programs. The presentations delivered at the symposium resulted in the publication of a Special
Issue of Interpreting, the John Benjamins international journal of research and practice in
interpreting, titled Aptitude for Interpreting, and included the paper which formed Chapter 4
of this thesis. The findings reported in the series of studies in the special issue on aptitude add to
the growing evidence, supported by the findings described in this thesis, that affective variables,
as well as cognitive abilities, impact on both aptitude and achievement in interpreting.
In the special journal issue, Timarov and Salaets (2011), Shaw (2011) and Bontempo and
Napier (2011) all highlight the important role of soft skills in predicting aptitude for
interpreting. Timarov and Salaets note successful students are those who seem to benefit from
a certain level of anxiety (p. 48), suggesting that facilitating, or positive anxiety (rather than
debilitating anxiety), is helpful and that successful interpreting students cope well with stress,
essentially using it to their advantage. Better understanding the individual difference variables
that predict performance on interpreter education programs and in the profession, such as
personality, aptitude, learning styles and so on, surely serves the ultimate goal of improved
interpreter quality well.
Further investigation of the predictive power of various personality dimensions, and in
particular negative affectivity traits, such as anxiety, neuroticism and fearfulness and their
217
impact in relation to interpreter performance and the ethical decision-making capacity of
interpreters while on task may be valuable. Whilst scholars have investigated the impact of
individual difference variables on second language acquisition to a considerable extent, the
same research endeavour has not been applied to the learning of interpreting to any great extent.
It is arguable that there are many parallels between second language learners and interpreting
students (Zannirato, 2008; Yan et al, 2010), and research identifying the similarities would be
welcome.
There is not a great deal of empirical research regarding interpreters from the market
perspective in the signed language interpreting field, with some key exceptions (Napier &
Rohan, 2007; Stone & Allsop, 2007; Napier, 2011). An increased understanding of user
expectations regarding the attributes and abilities of a good interpreter and quality
interpreting from the consumer stand point would also be valuable in helping shape and define
information regarding predictors of interpreter performance. Conducting an interpreting task
then interviewing interpreters post-interpreting performance and obtaining their perceptions
regarding their performance, and comparing these views with the observations of Deaf
participants on the interpreted piece would also be of interest.

Performance demands, cognitive ability, task related skills, knowledge, and dispositional
variables cannot be separated in understanding human performance. Empirically, general
cognitive ability is confirmed to be related to performance and outcomes in so many areas of
life more than any other variable measured in the social sciences (Schmidt, 2002: 199).
General cognitive ability is highly predictive of job performance across all occupations,
considerably moreso than non-cognitive factors. Knowing the cognitive complexity of the task
of interpreting, a strong link between an interpreters level of competence and his or her general
cognitive ability would be irrefutable, regardless of specific domains, but it is not a factor of
significant attention in this thesis. Further research regarding the cognitive domains required for
successful performance as an interpreter would be welcome, such as the work currently being
undertaken by Macnamara et al (2011).
In terms of recommendations arising from this thesis, consideration of personality traits at the
time of interpreter program admission might be of interest to educators. It may be premature to
apply personality testing as part of admission screening at this stage, however it is clear that
personality factors do indeed influence student performance and progress in interpreter
education programs. In addition, it would appear as well as addressing the technical skills gaps
218
of interpreters identified in this study in courses and training sessions, building assertiveness
training, positive coping strategies, confidence-building and resilience skills into interpreter
education curricula is recommended. Teaching interpreting students and accredited practitioners
to better manage anxiety and stress, and providing support structures within the workplace for
interpreting practitioners (debriefing, mentoring, supervision and so on) may lead to improved
competence and performance and would be of merit in the field. Research on the efficacy of
such measures once implemented would also be useful to the profession.

The pedagogical implications of the findings of this study include recognition that interpreter
education programs potentially present a threatening environment to students. Although
students should be prepared for the real world of work, for the purposes of effective learning,
providing a low anxiety classroom may help students maintain public self-preservation in an
assessment heavy and sometimes intense learning environment. Live role-plays, interpreting
examinations and so on, present evaluative challenges to students and can impact on self-
esteem. Perceptions of self-worth can be preserved or crushed based on performance feedback
(Thompson, 1994), and it is recommended that interpreter educators should be keenly aware of
this, particularly in relation to the findings of this study a propos emotional stability, and also
the findings of the international disposition study regarding the role of self-esteem in interpreter
performance.

In a practical sense, the findings of this study strongly suggest employers should be mindful
when matching interpreters to assignments, and when assigning team members to interpreting
jobs. Employers may be able to integrate the findings into their performance management
processes and mitigate the potential impact of vicarious traumatisation in employees by
increased awareness of the features of difficult assignments, interpreter disposition, and the
coping strategies of individuals. In designing mentoring programs and matching mentors and
mentees, consideration of the findings may be helpful in ensuring trust can be built and
agreeable relationships can be established between parties in the mentoring relationship,
creating a conducive environment for mutual learning.

A theme arising in the concluding comments of several of the preceding chapters is the notion
of who should be teaching interpreters. What qualifications and requirements should be
expected of interpreter educators? Given the increasingly complex learning environments and
future work settings faced by interpreting students, should students be able to require
219
interpreter educators to also meet the person-vocation fit notion described elsewhere in this
thesis, although this time for the job of educator, rather than interpreter?
8.5 Concluding comments
In conclusion, this thesis makes an original contribution to the interpreting field by exploring
the factors that may be predictive of interpreter performance. The study defined some of the
constructs required by interpreters, as identified by practitioners of interpreting, and via the
psychological profiling of accredited interpreters. It was the first empirical investigation
identifying the knowledge, skills and abilities predictive of performance in Auslan interpreters,
and is unique in this regard. Case studies drew on the research findings and applied them in the
context of program admission testing; interpreter performance management; and in regard to
developing coping strategies for handling the emotional hazards of interpreting in traumatic
settings, showcasing how such information and data can be applied in order to better prepare,
educate and support interpreting practitioners for their studies and their work in the field.

The findings described herein should be of interest to interpreter educators, employers,
consumers and practitioners. The details may help inform program admission screening
procedures; the management and support of students in interpreter education programs; the
management and support of interpreter employees; the ongoing training needs of interpreters;
the design of mentoring programs; the management of occupational injuries and stress-related
conditions in interpreters; and may impact on productivity and performance in the interpreter
population.

The chapters in this thesis have been published in a number of volumes and journals aimed at
both signed and spoken language interpreting practitioners, educators and researchers and have
broad ranging applicability. It is hoped the published papers add to the increasing body of
knowledge regarding the range and depth of knowledge, skills and abilities needed by
interpreters, and how these aptitudes, abilities, and achievements shape the teaching, training
and assessment of interpreters, and the management of interpreters in the workplace.

220
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247
APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Recruitment flyers


248
249

Appendix 2: Information and consent form

You are invited to participate in a study of interpreter performance. The purpose of the study is to
determine what factors may be predictive of successful performance, and will have implications for the
selection and recruitment of trainees into Auslan interpreting programs in the future, as well as assisting
working interpreters to understand the factors that may improve interpreting performance.

The study is being conducted by Karen Bontempo (email: bontempo@q-net.net.au or 0414 801 717) and
is being conducted to meet the requirements of Doctor of Philosophy under the supervision of Jemina
Napier (email: jemina.napier@ling.mq.edu.au or (02) 9850 8756) of the Department of Linguistics at
Macquarie University.

If you decide to participate, you will be asked to participate in a series of short interpreting related tasks
and to engage in an interview regarding your skills. You will be videoed during this process. There will
not be any physical risks or discomfort associated with your participation.

Any information or personal details gathered in the course of the study are confidential. No individual
will be identified in any publication of the results. Only the researcher, Karen Bontempo, and her
supervisor, Jemina Napier, will have access to the data. A summary of the results of the data can be
made available to you on request by emailing bontempo@q-net.net.au.

If you choose to participate in this study, you are free to withdraw at any time without having to give a
reason and without consequence.



I, _____________________ have read and understand the information above and any questions I have
asked have been answered to my satisfaction. I agree to participate in this research, knowing that I can
withdraw from further participation in the research at any time without consequence. I have been given
a copy of this form to keep.


Participants Name:
(Block letters)

Participants Signature: ______________________________ Date:

Investigators Name: KAREN BONTEMPO
(Block letters)

Investigators Signature: _________________________ ___ Date:


The ethical aspects of this study have been approved by the Macquarie University Ethics Review
Committee (Human Research). If you have any complaints or reservations about any ethical aspect of
your participation in this research, you may contact the Ethics Review Committee through the Research
Ethics Officer (telephone (02) 9850 8799; email ethics@vc.mq.edu.au). Any complaint you make will
be treated in confidence and investigated, and you will be informed of the outcome.


250
Appendix 3: Final ethics approval HE27MAY2005-PG04112


251
Appendix 4: Final ethics approval HE01MAY2009-D06449




















252





253
Appendix 5: Surveys

AUSLAN I NTERPRETERS PERCEPTI ONS OF PERFORMANCE

CONFI DENTI AL SURVEY

This questionnaire seeks information about your perceptions of interpreter performance. The researcher, Karen
Bontempo, (Contact 0414 801 717, email: bontempo@q-net.net.au) is acting under the supervision of Dr Jemina
Napier, Coordinator of the Auslan/ English Interpreting program in the Department of Linguistics at Macquarie
University. (Contact - phone no: (02) 9850 8756, fax: (02) 9850 9199, email: jemina.napier@ling.mq.edu.au).

The information you provide will be used to identify Auslan Interpreters perceptions of performance. This will allow
the collection of Australian data that may prove predictive of successful performance, and will have implications for
the selection and recruitment of trainees into Auslan interpreting programs in the future, as well as assisting
working interpreters to understand the factors that may improve interpreting performance.

It would be appreciated if you would consent to take part in this study by answering all questions and returning the
questionnaire in the envelope provided, by 29
th
July 2005. Please answer the questionnaire only in regard to
yourself and your own personal experiences as an Auslan Interpreter. The questionnaire should take approx. 40
minutes of your time to complete.

All information gathered in the course of this research shall remain confidential, and will only be accessed
by the researcher. Return of the questionnaire will be regarded as consent to use the information for
research purposes Any publications following on from this survey will not include any information which
may identify individual participants. You can obtain information regarding the results of this research (see
last page). Participation is voluntary. There are no potential risks or discomforts from participating in this
research project. All responses will be gratefully received.

1. Do you current l y work:

Pleasetick!one

2. At what NAATI l evel are you

accredi t ed?
Pleasetick!one

IFYOUARENOTACCREDITEDBYNAATI,
PLEASEDONOTCONTINUEWITHTHIS
SURVEY.THANKYOU.
3. I n what year di d you at t ai n t hat
l evel of accredi t at i on?

4. I n what i nt erpret i ng set t i ng/ s do

you general l y work?
Pleasetick!
Youmayselectmorethanoneoption

FulltimeasanAuslanInterpreter
!
Part time/casually as an Auslan
Interpreter
!
Other(eg.manageinterpreters;workina
different job that may or may not involve
interpreting; on maternity leave from
interpreting; on workers compensation)
Pleasespecify
!

Paraprofessional
(formerlylevel2)
!
Interpreter
(formerlylevel3)
!
NotAccredited
!
Communitybased
!
Primaryschool
!
Secondaryschool
!
TAFEinstitution
!
Universitycampus
!

5. What age group are you?

Pleasetick!one
Please note you cannot participate in
this study if you are under 18 years of
age.

6. What i s your gender?

Pleasetick!

7. I n what st at e or t erri t ory do you

l i ve?

8. What i s your f i rst l anguage?

Pleasetick!one

9. What i s t he hi ghest l evel of

secondary school i ng you have
compl et ed?
Pleasetick!one

(Orequivalent,iftheseyearlevelsdifferedinyourstate,
orduringyourtimeatsecondaryschool)

10. (a) Si nce l eavi ng secondary

school what i s t he hi ghest
qual i f i cat i on you have
compl et ed, ot her t han an
i nt erpret i ng award?
Pleasetick!one

(b) I f you have a qual i f i cat i on

f rom TAFE or Uni versi t y i n
i nt erpret i ng, pl ease i dent i f y
t he t ype of award.

18to19
!
20to24
!
25to29
!
30to34
!
35to39
!
40to49
!
50to59
!
60andover
!
Male
!
Female
!
English
!
Auslan
!
Other-Pleasespecify:
!

Year10ofhighschool
!
Year11ofhighschool
!
Year12ofhighschool
!
Traineeship
!
Apprenticeship
!
Certificate/Diploma(TAFEor
similartrainingorganisation)
!
Assoc/AdvDiploma
!
Professionalindustry
qualification
!
ProfessionalCertificate(Uni)
!
BachelorDegree(Uni)
!
PostgraduateDegree(Uni)
!
HigherDegree(Masters/PhD)
!
Certificate/Diploma
!
AdvancedDiploma
!
BachelorsDegree(Uni)
!
PostgraduateorHigher
Degree(Uni)
!
11. Below is a list of knowledge, skills and abilities that might be relevant for interpreters.
They are not listed in any particular order. For each one please firstly indicate how
i mport ant you think this domain is to interpreters, and then please indicate how
compet ent youfeelyouareineacharea.

N
o
t

I
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

S
o
m
e
w
h
a
t

I
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

M
o
d
e
r
a
t
e
l
y

I
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

V
e
r
y

I
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

E
x
t
r
e
m
e
l
y

I
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

V
e
r
y

L
i
t
t
l
e

C
o
m
p
e
t
e
n
c
y

L
e
s
s

T
h
a
n

C
o
m
p
e
t
e
n
t

C
o
m
p
e
t
e
n
t

M
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

C
o
m
p
e
t
e
n
t

E
x
t
r
e
m
e
l
y

C
o
m
p
e
t
e
n
t

Linguisticcompetence
ENGLISH
AUSLAN

1
1

2
2

3
3

4
4

5
5

1
1

2
2

3
3

4
4

5
5
Interpreting/translatingskills 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Interpersonalskills 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Self-advocacyskills 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Memoryskills 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Situationalmanagementskills 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Teamworkskills 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Problemsolvingskills 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Concentrationskills 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Publicspeakingskills 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Acting/performingskills 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Listeningskills 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Analyticalskills 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Self-monitoringskills 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Interviewmanagementskills 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Contextualknowledge 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Worldknowledge 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Specialistknowledge 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Flexibility 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Accountability 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Senseofhumour 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Independence 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Motivation 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Willingnesstolearn 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Self-discipline 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Culturalsensitivity 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Professionalism 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Trustworthiness 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Respectforothers 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Ethicalresponsibility 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Open-mindedness 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Assertiveness 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Empathy 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Abilitytousetact&judgement 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Objectivity 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

11. Cont i nued -

N
o
t

I
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

S
o
m
e
w
h
a
t

I
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

M
o
d
e
r
a
t
e
l
y

I
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

V
e
r
y

I
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

E
x
t
r
e
m
e
l
y

I
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t

V
e
r
y

L
i
t
t
l
e

C
o
m
p
e
t
e
n
c
y

L
e
s
s

T
h
a
n

C
o
m
p
e
t
e
n
t

C
o
m
p
e
t
e
n
t

M
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

C
o
m
p
e
t
e
n
t

E
x
t
r
e
m
e
l
y

C
o
m
p
e
t
e
n
t

Supportforpeers 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Humility 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Reciprocity 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Abilitytoassumealowprofile 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Punctuality 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Generalintelligence 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Commonsense 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Remaininghuman 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Self-confidence 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Understandinggenderdifference 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Intuition 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Networking skills 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Spelling skills 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Reputation 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

12. What ot her knowl edge, ski l l s and abi l i t i es do you t hi nk bel ong i n t he
repert oi re of an Ausl an i nt erpret er? Pl ease use addi t i onal paper i f t here i s
not enough room here.

13. How wel l do you t hi nk i nt erpret er t rai ni ng programs i n Aust ral i a prepare
i nt erpret ers f or ef f ect i ve perf ormance i n t he prof essi on?

14. What f act ors do you f eel i nf l uence your perf ormance as an i nt erpret er?

15. What aspect s of an assi gnment i nf l uence your deci si on t o accept / not
accept a j ob?

16. Under what ci rcumst ances woul d you wi t hdraw f rom an assi gnment af t er
havi ng i ni t i al l y accept ed i t ?

17. I n your opi ni on, what makes t he i deal i nt erpret er?

18. Overal l , how woul d you rat e your l evel of compet ence as an i nt erpret er?

19. Thissectionincludesquestionsthatcanbeappliedtoyourworkcontextasan
interpreter.Pl ease ci rcl e t he number t hat best descri bes what you t hi nk.
1=StronglyDisagree
2=Disagree
3=NeitherAgreeorDisagree
4=Agree
5=StronglyAgree

Theopportunitytodochallengingworkisimportanttome. 1 2 3 4 5
WhenIfailtocompleteadifficulttask,Iplantotryharder
thenexttimeIworkonit.
1 2 3 4 5
Iprefertoworkontasksthatforcemetolearnnewthings. 1 2 3 4 5
Theopportunitytolearnnewthingsisimportanttome. 1 2 3 4 5
IdomybestwhenImworkingonafairlydifficulttask 1 2 3 4 5
Itryhardtoimproveonmypastperformance. 1 2 3 4 5
Theopportunitytoextendtherangeofmyabilitiesis
importanttome.
1 2 3 4 5
WhenIhavedifficultysolvingaproblem,Ienjoytrying
differentapproachestoseewhichonewillwork.
1 2 3 4 5

ExtremelyCompetent
!
MorethanCompetent
!
Competent
!
LessThanCompetent
!
VeryLittleCompetency
!

20. Ci rcl e t he answer t hat best descri bes t he ext ent t o whi ch you experi ence
each of t he f eel i ngs or emot i ons bel ow i n general (not necessari l y i n a
work cont ext ).

1=veryslightlyornotatall
2=alittle
3=moderately
4=quiteabit
5=extremely

A. interested 1 2 3 4 5

B. distressed 1 2 3 4 5

C. excited 1 2 3 4 5

D. upset 1 2 3 4 5

E. strong 1 2 3 4 5

F. guilty 1 2 3 4 5

G. scared 1 2 3 4 5

H. hostile 1 2 3 4 5

I . enthusiastic 1 2 3 4 5

J. proud 1 2 3 4 5

K. irritable 1 2 3 4 5

L. alert 1 2 3 4 5

M. ashamed 1 2 3 4 5

N. inspired 1 2 3 4 5

O. determined 1 2 3 4 5

P. attentive 1 2 3 4 5

Q. jittery 1 2 3 4 5

R. nervous 1 2 3 4 5

S. active 1 2 3 4 5

T. afraid 1 2 3 4 5

21. Thissectionisdesignedtogetabetterunderstandingofyourbeliefinyourabilityto
accomplishthings.How much do you AGREE or DI SAGREE wi t h each of t he
f ol l owi ng st at ement s (pl ease ci rcl e):

1=StronglyDisagree
2=Disagree
3=NeitherAgreeorDisagree
4=Agree
5=StronglyAgree

Iwillbeabletoachievemostofthegoals
thatIhavesetformyself.
1 2 3 4 5
Whenfacingdifficulttasks,Iamcertain
thatIwillaccomplishthem.
1 2 3 4 5
Ingeneral,IthinkthatIcanobtain
outcomesthatareimportanttome.
1 2 3 4 5
IbelieveIcansucceedatmostany
endeavourtowhichIsetmymind.
1 2 3 4 5
Iwillbeabletosuccessfullyovercome
manychallenges.
1 2 3 4 5
IamconfidentthatIcanperformeffectively
onmanydifferenttasks.
1 2 3 4 5
Comparedtootherpeople,Icandomost
tasksverywell.
1 2 3 4 5
Evenwhenthingsaretough,Icanperform
quitewell.
1 2 3 4 5

22. Do you have any addi t i onal comment s?

The ethical aspects of this study have been approved by the Macquarie University
Ethics Review Committee (Human Research). If you have any complaints or
reservations about any ethical aspect of your participation in this research, you may
contact the Committee through the Research Ethics Officer (telephone [02] 9850 7854,
fax [02] 9850 8799, email: ethics@vc.mq.edu.au). Any complaint you make will be
treated in confidence and investigated, and you will be informed of the outcome

THANKYOUFORYOURTIME

PLEASERETURNTO:
KarenBontempo
C/DrJeminaNapier
ResearchFellow
Coordinator,Auslan/Englishinterpretingprogram
DepartmentofLinguistics
MacquarieUniversity
NSW2109

BY 29 JULY 2005

Ifyoudonothaveastamped,addressedenvelope,pleaseemailbontempo@q-net.net.aufor
onetobesenttoyou.