Water for the Future: Hydrology in Perspective (Proceedings of the Rome

Symposium, April 1987). IAHSPubl. no. 164, 1987.

Karst hydrology and water resources past,

present and future
OGNJEN BONACCI
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Split
58000, V.Maslese bb,

Sciences,
Yugoslavia

ABSTRACT
This paper first deals with the development
of hydrological analyses in the karst carried out in the
past, then it considers the state of hydrology today and
finally the trends of its development in the future.
It also describes the methods for providing water supply
and for flood protection in the past and at present.
The paper particularly stresses the importance of past
experience on future development of water resources
exploitation. It also stresses and quantitatively
describes specific characteristics of hydrology,
climatology and hydrogeology in the Yugoslav Dinaric
karst.

Hydrologie
aujourd'hui

karstique
et ressources
et a
l'avenir

en eau - au

pass,

RESUME
Cette communication traite en premier lieu de
la mise au point des analyses hydrologiques dans le
karst effectues dans le pass, puis elle examine l'tat
actuel de l'hydrologie et enfin le cour de son dveloppement dans l'avenir. Le mmoire dcrit aussi les mthodes
pour la prvision d'approvisionnement en eau et pour la
dfense contre les crues mises au point dans le pass et
prsent. Le mmoire souligne en particulier l'importance
des connaissances requises dans le passe pour ce qui
concerne le dveloppement dans l'avenir de l'exploitation
des ressources en eau. Elle souligne aussi et dcrit
quantitativement les caractristiques spcifiques de
l'hydrologie, la climatologie et 1'hydrogologie dans le
karst dinarique en Yougoslavie.

INTRODUCTION
The karst represents a specific area consisting of surface relief
and a surface and underground network of channels and pathways
resulting from the circulation of water and its aggressive chemical
and physical action on soluble rocks, such as limestone, gypsum,
chalk, and salt, and sometimes dolomites. The karst is characterized by soluble rocks located near or at the surface. The
karstification process results from the physical and chemical action
of water on the solution and transport of minerals from the rocks.
Owing to specific geological and geomorphological, and particularly
hydraulic characteristics, karst areas exhibit specific water
circulation patterns which should be studied by appropriate methods.
Karst hydrology is a relatively new scientific discipline, if it is
205

206 Ognjen

Bonacci

indeed considered as an independent scientific branch. It has been

included so far in the investigations of the processes of the
circulation of water, as a part of geology and hydrogeology, but it
is developing as an independent discipline. Its present and future
development are closely connected with the advances in other
disciplines; primarily geology, hydrogeology, hydraulics, geophysics,
hydrometry, climatology and statistics.
Karsified rocks can be found in many parts of the world. In
certain regions they are quite frequent and cover wide and deep areas
(e.g. in Yugoslavia along the Adriatic Sea), whereas in other regions
they are rate and appear only in certain areas , most often as shallow
surface karst (in countries of the north Europe and South America
for example). Karst is estimated to cover 20 to 25% of the surface
of all continents. Milanovid (1981) describes in detail the most
significant areas covered by karst in the world.
It can be stated, without exaggeration, that the karst areas of
Yugoslavia represent the cradle of the systematic study of the karst
of the world, taking into account particularly the circulation of
water in the factured and fissured areas. The first theoretical and
practical engineering investigations were carried out either in the
Yugoslav karst or by Yugoslav researchers: Cvijid (1893), Gavazzi
(1904), Grund (1903), Waagen (1910). It seems quite natural if we
bear in mind the fact that c. 75000 km 2 of the surface in Yugoslavia
(i.e. 3% of the total area) is strongly influenced by karstification
processes. In the past, the need for investigating the circulation
of water in karst in Yugoslavia has been caused by the fact that
men have continually inhabited these areas. While in other parts of
the world the karst regions are mostly not populated, in Yugoslavia
some karst areas are densely populated. The needs of people living
in those areas have brought about the development of both theoretical
and practical solutions in karst hydrology. With the increase in
the number of inhabitants on the surface of Earth, the karst areas
will become more densely populated, and this fact includes the settlement of people in the karst areas. Thus the interest in the study
of karst hydrology will increase especially with regard to the
circulation of water, the processes operating in terms of quantity
and quality.
Karst is a very heterogeneous space medium which can be explained
only by applying a great number of measurement points and by
monitoring and measuring various phenomena: the water levels, the
water discharge and velocity, the chemical composition of water, its
temperature, concentration of suspended particles and the microorganisms in water. Consequently karst should be distinguished from
the hydrologically more homogeneous non-karst areas which can be
treated using physical models or at least by "grey boxes". Karst
still calls for a systems approach to an analysis performed by
observing the water flow into and out of the system and by treating
the water circulation in the system as a "black box".

PAST
The centuries-old struggle for survival in the karst areas where
living conditions are unfavourable for human habitation, resulted in

Karst

hydrology

and water

resources

207

numerous practical and theoretical solutions to the problems occurring

there. The value and importance of these solutions cannot be
neglected nor forgotten. While solutions in the past were mainly
based upon experience, present and future solutions imply more
detailed interdisciplinary approaches. The study of the hydrology
of karst poljes in Yugoslavia as well as the method of their
drainage is very important. Poljes in the Yugoslav karst (and
similarly elsewhere) represent the only cases in the karst where
living conditions are favourable for human beings. These regions
are covered with arable soil and have either permanent or temporary
springs. Poljes are surrounded by bare, rocky, often inaccessible
terrain. They cover about 25% of the total karst massife in
Yugoslavia; 1350 km of land with relatively favourable living
conditions. They are relatively small in size but significant from
the economic and social standpoint. From the hydrological point of
view, poljes in the karst are very interesting phenomena in terms of
their system of surface and underground water movement. They are
almost regularly flooded in the cold and wet periods from October to
April. According to the hydrological regime (inflows and outflows)
they can be classified into four basic types: closed poljes,
upstream open poljes, downstream open poljes, upstream and downstream
open poljes. The poljes are situated on different levels and exert
a hydraulic and hydrological influence on each other. They become
flooded the moment the inflow quantities of water are greater than
the outflows. Flooding is caused by the limited capacity of outlet
structures (Bonacci, 1985).
Steps have been taken to improve the hydrological regimes of
these areas and more efforts will be directed to this objective in
the future. Many of the works brought about benefits; however they
also caused some damage which exceeded the profit. This occurred
where the hydrological system was not thoroughly studied and damage
appeared in the downstream direction with some negative changes in the
upper direction. During any work in karst poljes, it should be kept in
mind that they form a chain and are linked with the adjacent upstream
and downstream poljes. This is especially true in the Dinaric karst.
Man's influence on the changes of the water regime in poljes can
be divided into four categories: water storage, increase in the
capacity of the outlet structures, surface hydrotechnical works, and
pumping of groundwater.
Water storage in the karst has not only been effected by water
retention in the poljes themselves. Most schemes have been carried
out by damming river sections and in some cases the result has been
that adjacent parts of the poljes were either permanently flooded or
that they suffered from high water table levels. Man's wish is to
preserve the fertile parts of the pojes as oases and to flood
permanently only the less valuable parts of karst areas. The
building of reservoirs in the karst has a considerable influence
on hydrotechnical relations in the poljes and this influence is
often ambiguous. Spring discharges increase in downstream areas
but there may be some negative consequences that cannot be easily
amended. In upstream areas old drainaged systems, which have not
been functioning because of downward karstification (Milanovic, 1986)
may become active again.
With the objective of the prevention of flooding of the karst

208 Ognjen

Bonacci

poljes, the enlargement of capacities of ponors has been tried.

Such attempts have usually been condemned to failure because the
capacities of ponors depend to some degree upon the size of the
inflows. In the last hundred years, relief tunnels have been bored
and contacts between two poljes have been enlarged. One interesting
example is the fertile Vrgorsko polje located 25 m above sea level
near the Adriatic Sea. In 1938, the first tunnel made it possible
to drain water from the poljes into the Bacina lakes. Its capacity
was 25 m 3 s - 1 . In 1974, its dimensions were enlarged and its
capacity was increased to 36 m 3 s - 1 . Floods were not completely
prevented however, but they were of shorter duration although
conditions were not improved for intensive agricultural production.
The tunnel constructed in 1938 lowered the flood level by 3.09 m.
The tunnel reconstructed in 1974 lowered the flood level further by
2.31 m (yearly average). The average annual maximum discharges of
the Matica River into the poljes are 95 m 3 s - 1 , while the maximum
measured on 22 February 1969 was 154 m 3 s - 1 . It was estimated to be
a flood of a 100 years return period. It is clear that it is not
economically justifiable to build tunnels with a capacity in the
magnitude of 150 m s - in order to eliminate floods of 100 year
return periods. The capacity of the regulated Matica River is of
3

~~ 1

the order of 50 m s
The term "surface hydrotechnical works in poljes" means the
regulatory works in open streams and the channel construction for
surface drainage, as well as the large land reclamation projects
and other measures. It can be superficially assumed that the surface
drainage cannot have a considerable influence on the change of the
underground water level which essentially governs the outflow
processes in the karst. This is not always the case. Such works
are not completely harmless nor without consequences. This has
been illustrated in the case of the Clarinbridge River catchments
in Ireland described by Drew (1984). A surface drainage network
has been considerably developed (Fig.1(a)). It caused some
consequences which were unforseen but which, depending upon the

a) PRESENT DAY

(b) PRE-1850

Key;
^^

ri\er

seasonal lake

. - ' apioximate basin

limits

FIG.l
Surface drainage,
to Drew,
1984).

Clarinbridge

basin

(according

Karst

hydrology

and water

resources

209

geology, can be more or less expected in other karst regions.

The following effects have been noted: the high density of the
surface outflow network increased the direct outflow, therefore,
percolation to ground waters decreased; underground water that had
previously appeared over the entire catchment area was restricted
to sink lines which depend upon the season; surface channels
constructed in the limestone caused a better connection with ground
water but created underground pollution and the natural protection
was broken on channel lines which resulted in many environmental
problems; essentially, the reserves of groundwater have been
decreased and they have been partly polluted. This has led to
economic and other consequences.
The pumping of groundwater from a karst aquifer for irrigation
purposes and for water supply is a usual phenomenon. Moreover,
today it is gaining prominence as a method of water supply in areas
with karst conditions. When the groundwater is abruptly and
inadequately pumped out, it results in fractures of the upper layers
in unstable environments because of fissures in the karst mass which
are mutually linked. This can result in the formation of new
ponors and it can activate the existing ones. The pumping of the
groundwater in the karst also significantly lowers the groundwater
level in its path. Hall (1984) gave an example of the collapse of
22 ponors caused by pumping groundwater in the vicinity of Dover
Florida (USA) in January 1977 which caused extensive damage.
The systematic and scientific development of the theory of water
circulation in karst which began in the middle of the nineteenth
century, expanded at the turn of the century with the works of
Cvijic (1893), Grund (1903), and Katzer (1909). Part of the
scientific knowledge and theories of that time have been rejected
today, while the other has been included in the present theories of
water movement in karst aquifers. This paper will not deal with
these rejected theories.

PRESENT
The world population growth has resulted in many karst areas
becoming densely populated. This fact has caused an increased
interest in theoretical and practical research. Here we shall
give several present methods of investigation and measurement in
the karst which can be carried out to gather the necessary data
and to plan further activities. It should be noted that these
methods can hardly be classified as strictly belonging to specific
scientific disciplines. In essence they belong, in terms both of
their use and their results, to various specialities.
They are the following: piezometric data (geological structure
of the borehole and underground water levels); various tracers;
spelaeological investigations; remote sensing; geophysical methods;
measurements of chemical composition and suspended and/or mineral
substances in water; water temperature measurements; standard and
specific hydrological and hydrometric measurements; measurement and
observation of flora, fauna and microorganisms.
As far as the hydrological aspects are concerned, karst
investigations are incomplete and cannot give satisfactory results

210 Ognjen

Bonacci

if they are based on standard hydrological approaches alone and

unless they include information on the underground water level. On
the other hand, piezometric measurements combined with the other
above-mentioned procedures provide valuable and precise hydrological
data in karst regions. The karst calls for numerous, highly
organized and well-planned hydrological measurements to ensure a
better understanding of the relation between the flow of surface and
subsurface water and to define precise quantities of water in space
and time. Optimizing the exploitation of the rich water potential
of karst zones is the objective. Conclusions will be satisfactory
only if they are based on a combination of theoretical knowledge
and experience and on team work by specialists.
The initial point in hydrological analyses has been strictly
determined by defined limits and catchment dimensions. It is a
complex task to define catchment areas in the karst. Detailed
geological and hydrogeological investigations must be carried out
in order to precisely define surface and underground watersheds. The
relationship between ponors and springs is usually investigated by
one of the methods of tracing either with dyes, chemicals, or by
floating solid particles or radioactive substances. Experience has
shown that catchment boundaries in the karst vary in time as a
function of the groundwater level. These variations have been
greater or smaller, but the measurements definitely show that the
sizes of the catchment areas change considerably in some situations,
especially during the floods. The catchment areas of some springs

(a)

SITUATION

karst spring
topographical basin limits
hydrological
basin limits

iQ '
l f

( b ) CROSS SECTION

FIG.2
karst.

Explanation

about

catchment

areas

of springs

in

decrease while others increase. The present efforts of hydrologists

who cooperate with other specialists, are directed to precisely
defining the catchment area and its boundaries, as well as to
defining their changes in time as a function of the underground

Karst hydrology and water resources

211

water levels. Figure 2 schematically presents several of the

numerous possibilities for the relationship between topographical
and hydrological areas of karst springs. Figure 2(a) shows two
possibilities in which the real hydrological catchment area can be
smaller or larger than the topographic one. Figure 2(b) presents
a more complex case in which the relationship between impervious
rocks and permeable limestone in the underground karst mass causes
changes of the catchment area as a function of groundwater level in
the karst. While the springs 1 and 3 are permanent (Fig.2(b)),
spring 2 temporarily dries up. It often happens that two adjacent
karst springs have a common water-shed which changes depending on
the size of the stream.
Present karst hydrology has begun studying these problems in an
analytical way by the application of conventional well known
hydrological models (SSARR, Stanford, etc.). Their application in
karst conditions poses great problems and they do not give satisfactory results. The methods of hydrological budgeting have been
most often used, but they rarely give precise data on the outflow
conditions in the karst.
A promising method is based on the analysis of the groundwater
hydrograph which is caused mainly by groundwater discharge
fluctuations. The hydrograph variations which are dependent on
groundwater inflows describe the outflow from one groundwater
reservoir to an open spring. It is a typical method which can be
applied to hydrograph analysis of springs in general and especially
those in karst. The groundwater outflow can be affected either by
precipitation or by outflow from the reservoir, when there is no
precipitation or by the combination of both. As the theoretical
approach to a hydrograph caused only by groundwater is a very
complex problem in which the change of accumulated water quantities
controls spring discharge, the following simplified terms for the
computation of the hydrograph is used in teaching:

QT = f 1 d

- e

2T = f 2 ( 1 "

mT = V

"

T/j

~T/J>

e_T/J)

e _ T / J

+ e

"T/J

(m-1)T

where, Q m T is the hydrograph flow in time mT; f is sinking

consisting of the sum (difference) of precipitation, vapotranspiration or the lack of humidity; while j denotes a reservoir
coefficient expressed as a unit of time. The determination of the
catchment area is made by the computation of the spring hydrograph
according to the above mentioned terms and by comparing it to the
measurement of the spring hydrograph with a varying catchment area.
When an optimum match has been achieved by measuring the recorded
hydrograph against one computed by the model, the catchment area
of the karst spring is considered to be defined precisely.

212 Ognjen

Bonacci

FUTURE
Future events will represent the results of the gradual development
of past and present methods. Some revolutionary changes should not
be expected in karst hydrology. All the efforts are being directed
to better define water resources and to make the best use of them.
Presently karst groundwater is being used for water supply and for
other purposes. Figure 3(a) shows an example of water usage of the
Biele Vody spring in Czechoslovakia by tunnelling. Figure 3(b)
presents the difference between the hydrographs of the natural
spring 1, and the new intake of spring 2, which is significant and
amounts to 127 I s
or 40% more than the natural state. These
trends of water usage in the karst are likely to be greater in
future. Detailed and numerous hydrological and hydrogeological
investigations are required to obtain satisfactory and positive
(a)

average groundwater level before the tunnel

r ' construction
'

/oscillation of the groundwater level ater

permanent karst /
e , u " n e l construction
spring-(pre tunnel boring)
piezometer
LLJ

carbonate rock

new spring

- capture tunnel

(b)

spring 1 discharge before the

tunnel construction

"

1976
1977
spring 2 discharge
'
~ after tunnel construction- -;

FIG.3
Capture of the karst spring illustrated
on the
example of the Biele Vody (Velika Tatra
Czechoslovakia)
(according
to Kullman,
1984).

results by such works, because of some negative consequences which

might occur. In this connection, the construction and the usage of
underground water storages in the karst will be affected in the
future. The construction of these structures is a very complex
task, but water demands, as well as unreliable surface water storage
in the karst, require both theoretical and practical solutions to
these problems. Hydrology plays a very important role here.
In the near future, the application of complex physical

Karst

hydrology

and water

resources

213

hydrological models to outflow analyses in karst catchment areas

will be routine. Some specific characteristics of karst hydrology
should be incorporated in these models to obtain adequate results,
that is, first of all, fast conduit flow should be separated from
diffuse flow in the development of these types of flows in the
catchment area analysed. Conduit flow mainly occurs in the period
immediately after precipitation and diffuse flow is predominant for
the few days following. The problems of water losses by vapotranspiration are characteristic for karst areas due to the groundwater levels located deep below the ground surface which most often
has no vegetation. The outflow coefficients in the karst are
about 20 to 30% higher than the outflow coefficients in common
hydrological environments primarily due to the speed of water
sinking through karst cavities and due to less vapotranspiration.
The hydrological models mentioned should involve all specific
characteristics and some others which should be applied to the
outflow from the karst. In fact, karst hydrology today should be
based on conventional hydrology. Basically, adequate mathematical
models are not as essential as numerous and high-grade input data.
Therefore, in order to reveal "the secrets" of the karst outflows,
more detailed and better organized measurements are required than
those existing in conventional non-karst conditions.

REFERENCES
Bonacci, 0. (1985) Flooding of the poljes in karst.

Int.

Conf. on the Hydraulics

of Floods

and Flood

Proc.

2nd

Control

(Cambridge, September 1985), 119-136.

Cvijic, J. (1893) Des Karstphanomen. Pencks
geogr.
Abh.
Drew, D. (1984) The effect of human activity on a lowland karst
aquifer. In: Hydrogeology
of Karstic
Terrains
(ed. by A.Burger
& L.Dubertret), vol.2, 195-199. Verlag Heinz Heise GmbH,
Hannover, FR Germany.
Gavazzi, A. (1904) Die Seen das Karstes. Abh. d. Geogr. Ges. Wien 2.
Grund, A. (1903) Die Karsthydrographie. Pencks geogr.
Abh.
Hall, L.E. (1984) Sinkhole collapse due to groundwater pumpage for
freeze protection irrigation near Dover, Florida, January 1977.
In: Hydrogeology
of Karstic
Terrains,
(ed. by A.Burger & L.Dubertret, vol.1, 248-251. Verlag Heinz Heise GmbH, Hannover, FR
Germany.

Katzer, F. (1909) Karst

and

Karsthydrographie.

Kullman, E. (1984) Captage d'une source karstique par forages

horizontaux - Exemple de la source Biele Vody. In:
Hydrogeology
of Karstic
Terrains
(ed. by A.Burger & L.Dubertret, vol.1,
123-125. Verlag Heinz Heise GmbH, Hannover; FR Germany.
Milanovic, P. (1981) Karst Hydrogeology.
Water Resources Publications.
Milanovic, P. (1986) Influence of the karst spring submergence on
the karst aquifer regime. J.Hydrol.
84, 141-156.
Waagen, L. (1910) Karsthydrographie und Wasserversorgung in Istrien.

Zschr.

r. prakt.

Geol.

18, 229-239.