RB.2015 - T. 122-1 (pp. 26-45).

THE CRYPTIC THEME OF PSALM 46 AND

THE THEOLOGY OF THE KORAHITES
BY
Nissim AMZALLAG
Department of Bible, Archaeology and Near East Studies
The Ben-Gurion University in the Negev,
POB 653, Beer Sheba 84105, Israel
nissamz@post.bgu.ac.il

SUMMARY
Psalm 46 is generally approached as a song of Zion praising YHWH’s fight
against the forces of chaos. This view is challenged by the lack of an explicit
mention of Jerusalem, and the unambiguous praise of YHWH promoting destruc-
tive transformations, but no other theme is apparent. On the basis of affinities
with Psalms 47 and 87, it is suggested here that Psalm 46 is a song devoted to the
diffusion by the Korahites of the musical worship of YHWH among the nations.
This theme emerges when Psalm 46 is set in canonic responsa fashion, a mode of
complex antiphony in which the two voices dialog by singing the same text with
a deferral of a few verses. This setting yields a coherent composite text praising
the ability of musical worship to reveal the god among the nations, to collapse
centralized powers and to ruin the spirit of war. This analysis reveals the exist-
ence of a musical theology specifically related to the singers, and especially the
Korahites, which differs in some points from the “official religion” of Ancient
Israel.

SOMMAIRE
Le psaume 46 est généralement interprété comme un hymne à Sion glorifiant
le combat de YHWH contre les forces du chaos. Cette opinion est problématique
au regard de l’absence de mention explicite de Jérusalem dans le psaume, ainsi
que l’explicite mention de YHWH en tant qu’agent des destructions. Aucun autre
thème n’est cependant apparent. Au nom des affinités avec les psaumes 47 et
87, il est ici suggéré que le psaume 46 évoque la diffusion du culte musical de
YHWH parmi les nations. Ce thème apparaît clairement une fois le psaume 46
identifié comme étant conçu pour être interprété par deux chœurs se répondant en
canon. L’agencement du psaume 46 selon ce mode d’exécution génère un texte

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 CRYPTIC THEME OF PSALM 46 AND THE THEOLOGY OF THE KORAHITES 27
composite dans lequel le culte musical promu par les korahites révèle YHWH
aux nations, tout en ruinant les pouvoirs centralisés et les conflits qu’ils stimulent.
Cette analyse révèle l’existence d’une “théologie musicale” en vigueur notam-
ment parmi les chantres et poètes korahites, qui diffère par son cosmopolitisme
de la religion officielle de l’Ancien Israël.

1 To the Overseer, to the sons of Korah – At the upper voice (Alamoth), A

song.
2 God [is] to us refuge and strength – A help in adversities found most surely.
3 Therefore we fear not in the changing of the earth – and in the slipping of
mountains into the depth of the seas
4 Roar and be troubled his waters – Will shake mountains by his power –
Selah
5 A river, its rivulets will rejoice (the) city of God – Holy, the shrines of
Elyion
6 God [is] in her midst, she shall not be moved – Will help her God, at the
dawn of the morning!
7 Troubled have been nations, Moved have been kingdoms – He uttered his
voice, let be melted the earth
8 YHWH-Sebaoth is with us – A fortress for us, the God of Jacob – Selah.
9 Come behold the works of YHWH – Who provokes devastations on the
earth
10 Causes wars to cease unto the end of the earth – The bow he breaks and
he has cut asunder the spear, Chariots he will burn with fire.
11 Desist and know, for I am God – Exalted among nations, exalted over the
earth.
12 YHWH-Sebaoth is with us – A fortress for us, the God of Jacob – Selah.

1. INTRODUCTION
Psalm 46 is generally approached as a song of Zion.1 The mention of
mountains slipping in the sea and other cataclysmic events led many
scholars to interpret it in the context of a cosmic fight between YHWH
and the primeval forces of chaos threatening the organized universe.2

1
See H. GUNKEL,IntroductiontoPsalms.TheGenreoftheReligiousLyricofIsrael,
trans. J.D. NOGALSKI, Macon 1998, pp. 22, 55-57; B.C. OLLENBURGER, Zionthecityof
theGreatKing:AtheologicalSymboloftheJerusalemCult, JSOTSupp 41, Sheffield
1987, p. 16. This genre is also supposed to include Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122.
2
See for example L. ALONSO SCHÖKEL, Treinta salmos: poesia y oracion, Madrid
1986, p. 418; A.A. ANDERSON, TheBookofPsalms, vol. 1, Grand Rapids 1972, p. 356;
E.S. GESTENBERGER, Psalms–PartI.WithanIntroductiontoCulticPoetry, Grand Rapid
1988, p. 192; S. KELLY, “Psalm 46: A Study in Imagery,” JBL 89 (1970), pp. 305-312, 306;
A. MAILLOT, and A. LELIÈVRE, LesPsaumes–vol.1, Genève 1962, p. 291; J.M. SCHÄDER,

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The content of verse 10 even extends the chaos fought by YHWH to

wars and the disorders they induce.3 It praises the stability of Zion,
protected by YHWH, in a universe still threatened by the destructive
power of chaos.4 By extension, Jerusalem becomes the nucleus of sta-
bility from which the peace and order promoted by YHWH are expected
to expand to the whole earth.5 In such context of interpretation, Psalm
46 looks like an adaptation to the Israelite theology of the Ancient Near
Eastern mythologies expressing the victory of the prominent god upon
the forces of chaos. This approach of Psalm 46 is however challenged
by some observations.

The question of Zion

The expression ‫( עיר אלוהים‬city of god) in verse 5 is generally identi-
fied as a reference to Jerusalem, an interpretation supported by the addi-
tion of the definite article in the Greek translation. However, the absence
of the definite article in the Masoretic version is not necessarily an omis-
sion.6 In this case, we may wonder why the only mention of Jerusalem
(v. 5) remains so evasive.7 Three explanations have been proposed to
justify this anomaly:

“A Spatial Reading of Psalms 46-48,” OTE 23 (2010), pp. 129-160, 145-147. For this
reason, this psalm has been paralleled with Ps 74:13-16, where YHWH shatters the head
of the sea monster.
3
S. MOWINCKEL, ThePsalmsinIsrael’sWorship, trans. D. R. AP-THOMAS, Oxford
1962, p. 151-152.
4
See S. Kelly, “Psalm 46,” p. 308; P. VAN DER LUGT, CantosandStrophesinBib-
licalHebrewPoetry – vol. 2, Leiden, 2010, p. 45; R.S. WATSON, ChaosUncreated–A
reassessmentoftheThemeofChaosintheHebrewBible, Berlin 2005, p. 135.
5
See H. GUNKEL, “Psalm 46: An Interpretation,” BiblicalWorld 21 (1903), pp. 28-31;
H. Gunkel, IntroductiontoPsalms, p. 57; H.J. KRAUS, Psalms1-59, trans. H.J. OSWALD,
Minneapolis 1993, pp. 496-499. G.C. EARWOOD (“Psalm 46,” ReviewandExpositor 86
[1989], pp. 79-86, 80) divides this psalm in three parts: YHWH transforming Zion as a
refuge against natural catastrophes (vv. 2-4); against invaders (vv. 5-8) and praised for
final deliverance (vv. 9-12).
6
A parallel is observed between Ps 46:5 “‫ ”עיר אלוהם קדוש משכני עליון‬and Isa 60:14
“‫”וקראו לך עיר ה׳ ציון קדוש ישראל‬. However, the homology it promotes between ‫ ציון‬and
‫ משכני עליון‬is problematic because this latter expression, as a plural, does not fit the
mention of a unique place such as Jerusalem and her temple. Accordingly, the expres-
sion ‫ עיר אלוהים‬may mention of a multiplicity of holy places evoked as shrines of Elyion.
7
P.C. CRAIGIE (Psalms1-50, WBC 19, Waco 1990, p. 342) specifies that Psalm 46
“...differsfromtheclearlyestablishedSongsofZioninthatitcontainsnoexplicitrefer-
encestoeitherZionorJerusalem”.

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 CRYPTIC THEME OF PSALM 46 AND THE THEOLOGY OF THE KORAHITES 29

(i) This poem was originally a foreign hymn later integrated to the cult
of YHWH at Jerusalem.8
(ii) The song is devoted to the miraculous outcome of the siege of Jeru-
salem by Sennacherib (2Kings 18-19). This interpretation fits the
content of v. 2 and the mention of a stronghold in vv. 8, 12. Even
the help of YHWH at the dawn of the morning (v. 6) finds an echo
in the sudden death of the Assyrian soldiers on the night preceding
the attack.9 These indicators render superfluous the explicit mention
of Jerusalem.
(iii) Psalm 46 was conceived as an exilic song of confidence which was
integrated in a whole liturgical context centered on Jerusalem’s holi-
ness.10 Here again, the explicit mention of the city becomes super-
fluous.
None of these explanations is entirely satisfying. If the poem is of for-
eign origin, we may assume that the YHWH’s name has been intention-
ally added (vv. 8,9,12) to naturalize it. So we may wonder why Jerusalem
was not similarly introduced. The second proposition is also problematic
because the psalm does not evoke any victory upon specific enemies, but
an end of all the wars.11 The approach of Psalm 46 as a song of confidence
is not compatible with the triumphant and even jubilant tone constantly
expressed in the poem.12 For these reasons, Psalm 46 may hardly be
considered as a classical song of Zion.

8
A north Canaanite origin of Psalm 46 is suggested by P.C. Craigie (Psalms, p. 344),
M. DAHOOD (Psalms, Vol. 1, Anchor Bible, New York 1966, p. 280), H.J. Kraus
(Psalms, pp. 89, 462) and A. WEISER (ThePsalms,ACommentary, trans. H. HARTWELL,
Philadelphia 1962, p. 368). S. Kelly (“Psalm 46,” p. 305) and J.M. Schäder (“Spatial
Reading,” p. 142) assumed that the psalm has a Jebusite origin. M.D. GOULDER (The
PsalmsoftheSonsofKorah, JSOTSupp 20, Sheffield 1982, pp. 140-142) and J. GOLD-
INGAY (Songs from a strange land. Psalms 42-51, Downers Grove [IL] 1978, p. 66)
identified it as a hymn designed for the worship at Dan.
9
See E. BEAUCAMP, Lepsautier, vol. 1, Paris 1976, p. 203; A. Maillot and A. Lelièvre,
Lespsaumes, p. 291; E. ZENGER, “Von der Unverzichtbarkeit der historisch-kritischen
Exegese. Am Beispiel des 46 Psalm,” BibelundLiturgie 62 (1989), pp. 10-20, 19.
10
See E.S. Gestenberger, Psalms, p. 194; L. KRINETZKI, “Jahwe ist unsere Zuflucht
und Wehr: Eine Stilistisch-theologische Auslegung von Ps 46 (45),” BibelundLeben 3
(1962), pp. 26-42, 27.
11
The explanation has been rejected by A.A. Anderson (TheBookofPsalms, p. 359),
J. Goldingay (Songs from a Strange Land, p. 65) and L. Alonso Schökel (Treinta sal-
mos, pp. 421-422), because the psalm is totally devoid of explicit references to historical
events.
12
See D.T. TSUMURA, “Twofold Image of Wine in Psalm 46:4-5,” JQR 71 (1981),
pp. 167-175.

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 30 NISSIM AMZALLAG

The relation to chaos in Psalm 46

Many ancient Near Eastern mythologies praise the victory of the most
powerful god of the pantheon against the forces of chaos, and the stabi-
lization of the universe consecutive to it. Nothing similar, however, is
observed in Psalm 46. The expression “[He] Will shake mountains by
hispower” (v. 4) apparently refers to YHWH as being himself the source
of the cataclysm. This is confirmed by the parallel existing between the
fall of mountains (v. 4) and the fall of kingdoms (v. 7), this latter being
explicitly promoted by YHWH.13
It is also noteworthy that the cataclysms and disorders mentioned in
Psalm 46 are not deplored by the psalmist. They actually seem to be a
source of joy.14 In verse 4, the locution ‫ יחמרו מימיו‬associated with the
chaotic fall of the mountains also evokes the fermenting process leading
to the production of wine and beer.15 The rejoicing context associated
with this reality is evoked immediately after (v. 5). In verse 9, the paral-
lelism of members reveals that the destructive action of YHWH (‫)שמות‬
is approached by the psalmist as his great work (‫)מפעלות‬. The classical
interpretation of YHWH fighting the forces of chaos in Psalm 46 is dif-
ficultly compatible with these observations.

The volcanic imagery

The positive approach of the forces of chaos is confirmed in Psalm 46
by the volcanic imagery and its close relation to YHWH. This reality is
revealed in v. 7 by the expression: “Heutteredhisvoice,letbemelted
(‫)תמוג‬theearth”.16 This is confirmed by the intriguing mention of “his
waters” (‫ )מימיו‬in v. 4. In Mic 1:4, the lava flowing from mountains
is explicitly evoked as “watersthatarepoureddownasteepplace”.17

13
See D.T. TSUMURA, “Literary structure of Psalm 46:2-8,” AnnualoftheJapanese
BiblicalInstitute 6 (1980), pp. 29-55.
14
This singularity is noticed by E.S. Gestenberger (Psalms, p. 192): “Strangely
enough for our way of reasoning, vv. 5-6, flanked as they are by battle and victory,
expressjoyandtrust.” See also P.R. RAABE, PsalmStructures.AStudyofPsalmswith
Refrains, JSOTSupp 104, Sheffield 1989, p. 55.
15
See D.T. Tsumura, “Twofold Image”.
16
This point has been noticed by M. Dahood (Psalms, p. 281) and A. HAKHAM
(Psalms vol. 1, Jerusalem 1984, p. 266). Also the destruction evoked in verse 9 by ‫שמות‬
especially fits the extensive desolation provoked by volcanism.
17
The same representation of lava through the image of YHWH pouring his waters is
related in Hos 5:10. See J. KOENIG, “Aux origines des théophanies iahvistes,” RHR 169
(1966), pp. 1-36, 17-18.

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 CRYPTIC THEME OF PSALM 46 AND THE THEOLOGY OF THE KORAHITES 31

In Ps 114:8, the mention of YHWH turning “the rock into a pool of
water,theflintintohissource(‫)מיענו‬ofwater” was identified as a stone-
melting event.18 The interpretation of the liquid of YHWH in Ps 46:4 as
lava is confirmed by the mention, in v. 5, of the stream before its rivulets.
This image fits the flowing of lava from a crater which progressively
divides into small effluents.
The volcanic nature of the chaos promoted by YHWH is explicitly
revealed in verse 3, where the poet evokes the disappearance of moun-
tains within the sea. The only geological event corresponding to such a
description is the collapse of an island volcano following an eruption of
outstanding intensity. This is precisely what occurred at Thera during
the middle of the second millennium BCE.19
The positive dimension of volcanism is confirmed in other biblical
sources. The description of Mount Sinai smoking, quaking, lightening and
the fire evoked on its top (Ex 19:16-19) stimulated many biblical scholars
and geologists to conclude that Mount Sinai is described as being trans-
formed into an erupting volcano by YHWH’s presence.20 The psalmist
confirms this volcanic acquaintance when he claims: “The mountains
meltedlikewaxatthepresenceofYHWH” (Ps 97:5).21 An essential link
apparently exists between YHWH’s theophany and volcanism, notwith-
standing its destructive dimension.

18
See N. AMZALLAG, and M. AVRIEL, “The Canonic Responsa Reading of Psalm 114
and its theological Significance,” OTE 24 (2011), pp. 303-323, 312-314.
19
See W.L. FRIEDRICH, FireintheSea.TheSantoriniVolcano:NaturalHistoryand
theLegendofAtlantis, trans. A.R. MCBIRNEY, Cambridge 2000, pp. 67-81; W.S. DOWNEY
and D.H. TARLING, “Archaeomagnetic dating of Santorini volcanic eruptions and fired
destruction levels of late Minoean civilization,” Nature 309 (1984), pp. 519-523. The
impact of the eruption reached the East Mediterranean area. See F.W. MCCOY and
G. HEIKEN, “Tsunami Generated by the Late Bronze Age Eruption of Thera (Santo-
rini), Greece,” PureandAppliedGeophysics 157 (2000), pp. 1227-1256, 1246-1249.
The nature of this outstanding event may have hardly been ignored in Canaan, account-
ing for the cultural relations between Thera and the East Mediterranean coast before
the eruption. See A. RABAN, “The Thera Ships: Another Interpretation,” AJA 88
(1984), pp. 11-19. The myth of Atlantis related by Plato is apparently a reminiscent of
this event. See W.L. Friedrich, FireintheSea, pp. 147-159 and ref therein. This indi-
cates that the memory of this event was well vivid in the Mediterranean for many
centuries.
20
See Y. BENTOR, “Geology and the Bible,” TerraNova 1 (1989), pp. 326-338, 336;
C. HUMPHREYS, The Miracles of Exodus, London 2004, pp. 84-87; J. KOENIG, “Aux
origines,” pp. 1-5 and M. NOTH, Exodus, a Commentary, trans. J.S. BOWDEN, London
1962, p. 156. This feature is similarly evoked in Deut 4:11 and Judg 5:5.
21
Such a claim is also identified in Amos 9:5; Isa 63:19; 64:2.

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 32 NISSIM AMZALLAG

These observations reveal that Psalm 46 is probably not a hymn

of Zion praising the god vanquishing the forces of chaos, as generally
assumed.22 It is no more a song commemorating any famous military
victory or the safe of the city of Jerusalem from any other form of
destruction. However, no other theme clearly emerges from the reading
of Psalm 46. This situation opens the eventuality that the theme of
Psalm 46 remains intentionally hidden by the psalmist. It is the aim
of this paper to test such an eventuality.

2. THE THEME OF PSALM 46

Psalm 46 displays affinities with other songs of Korah, especially

Psalms 47 and 87. This may help us to identify its theme.

Relations with Psalm 47

On the basis of the literary bonds between Psalms 46 and 47, some
authors have assumed that these two songs belong to the same liturgical
ceremony.23 Condamin even assumed that Psalms 46 and 47 constitute
a single poetic entity.24 We may therefore expect that the central theme
of Psalm 47 is also expressed in Psalm 46.
Psalm 47 is an invitation to all the peoples of the earth to partici-
pate in a musical worship of YHWH (vv. 2,7,8), a feature promoting
his knowledge on the earth (vv. 3,4,9). Interestingly, a similar theme
is also evoked in Psalm 46:11, immediately before the transition to
Psalm 47.

22
See P.R. Raabe (Psalm structures, p. 64), J.M. Schäder (“Spatial Reading,”
p. 142) and M. WEISS, The Bible From Within – The Method of Total Interpretation,
Jerusalem 1984, p. 349. Indeed, B.M. ZAPPF (“Eine feste Burg is unser Gott” – Beo-
bachtungen zu Ps 46,” BN 95 [1998], pp. 79-93) suggests that it is not a song of Zion,
but rather a song devoted to the glory of YHWH in which Jerusalem is elusively evoked.
For M. Weiss (TheBiblefromWithin, p. 350), “...thelackofanyspecificindicationof
‘God’scity’,andtheabsenceofnationaldesignationscanonlybeexplainedbyassum-
ing that the psalm has a universal purpose”. For L. Alonso Schökel (Treinta salmos,
pp. 419, 423), the mention of ‫ עיר אלוהים‬refers at the same time to a heavenly reality, to
the city of Jerusalem and to all the places where the god is sanctified.
23
A. Maillot and A. Lelièvre, Lespsaumes, p. 292; J.M. Schäder, “Spatial Reading,”
pp. 141-147.
24
A. CONDAMIN, Poèmes de la Bible. Avec une introduction sur la strophique
hébraïque, Paris, 1933, p. 145.

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 CRYPTIC THEME OF PSALM 46 AND THE THEOLOGY OF THE KORAHITES 33

Relations with Psalm 87

Some scholars noticed that Psalms 46 and 87 are closely interrelated
and organized around the same themes.25 The expression “city of god”
(‫ )עיר אלוהים‬is found in both (Ps 46:5 and Ps 87:3). They similarly evoke
sources of water (Ps 46:5 and Ps 87:7) and mountains (Ps 46:3-4 and
Ps 87:1). They also enclose the same rare features. The first is the unu-
sual mention of ‫ משכנים‬in the plural (Ps 46:5 and Ps 87:2). The second
is the sudden irruption in both of something which looks like a divine
speech (Ps 87:4 and Ps 46:11).
A recent investigation has suggested that Psalm 87 is not a song
of Zion, as generally assumed. It rather articulates around a hidden cen-
tral theme: the extensive diffusion by the Korahite congregation of the
musical worship of YHWH among foreign nations.26 This song praises
Jerusalem as the homeland of the congregation, but it also specifies that
the spread of the musical worship creates new “sanctuaries” for YHWH
among the nations.
These observations reveal a similarity of themes between two songs,
Psalms 47 and 87, interrelating through their link with Psalm 46. It would
be very surprising, therefore, not to find this common theme developed
in Psalm 46.

The musical theophany in Psalm 46

The theme of diffusion of musical worship of YHWH among foreign
nations is not explicitly apparent in Psalm 46. Nevertheless, its presence
is suggested by two allusions. The first is the expression “will rejoice
thecityofGod” (v. 5), and its following locution “Holytheshrinesof
Elyion”. In cultic context, the verb ‫ שמח‬displays a musical connotation
revealed by the parallel frequently attested in psalms between ‫ שמח‬and
‫רנן‬.27 These two terms are even associated with the diffusion of musical
worship among the nations in Ps 67:5 (“Letbeglad[‫]ישמחו‬thenations

25
See M.D. GOULDER, PsalmsofAssafandthePentateuch, JSOTSupp 233, Sheffield
1996, p. 187; J.W. HILBER, Cultic Prophecy in the Psalms, Berlin 2005, pp. 214-217;
M.S. SMITH, TheOriginofBiblicalMonotheism:Israel’spolytheisticBackgroundand
theUgariticTexts, Oxford 2001, p. 157.
26
See N. AMZALLAG, “The Cosmopolitan Character of the Korahite Musical Con-
gregation: Evidence from Psalm 87,” VT 64 (2014), pp. 361-381.
27
Pss 5:12; 32:11; 35:27; 67:5; 90:14; 92:5 and 100:2. A similar parallel is pro-
moted between ‫ שמח‬and ‫( זמר‬Ps 9:3) or ‫( מחול‬Ps 30:12), which was apparently an
integrative part of the musical worship.

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 34 NISSIM AMZALLAG

andsingforjoy [‫ )”]ירננו‬and in Ps 100:2 (“ServeYHWHwithgladness

[‫]שמחה‬,Comeintohispresencewithsinging [‫)”]ברננה‬.28
The second allusion is relative to the theophany evoked by the men-
tion of YHWH among the “us” (vv. 6,8,12), and by the spontaneous
irruption of the voice of YHWH in verse 11. From these indications
Zappf suggested that YHWH’s theophany is a central component of
Psalm 46.29 This interpretation is corroborated by the volcanic activity
extensively mentioned in Psalm 46, and closely related to YHWH’s
theophany. However, the claim “God[is]inhermidst” (v. 6) certainly
does not evoke here this volcanic reality and its destructive character,
because it follows verse 5 which mentions a joyous musical worship.
We may conclude, therefore, that what is related in v. 6 is nothing other
than a theophany stimulated by the musical worship. Such a reality is
evoked in many biblical sources.30 It is even explicitly mentioned in the
subsequent psalm: “GoneupElohimamidsttheshouting;YHWHamidst
thesoundofthehorn” (Ps 47:6).
These considerations suggest that the volcanic and musical theophanies
of YHWH and their relationship may be a thematic element of central
importance in Psalm 46.

3. THE DESIGN OF PSALM 46

Also in Psalm 87, the central theme remains unapparent on a first
reading. This situation results from the design of this song for complex
antiphony.31 In this dialogic mode, the song is edited as two separate
scores conceived to be mixed during the performance. The content of the
song becomes apparent only when the segments of verses from the two
voices are combined. Songs designed for complex antiphony display a

28
See N. AMZALLAG, “Psalm 67 and the Cosmopolite Musical Worship of YHWH,”
BBR 24 (2014), inpress; “The Meaning of todah in the Title of Psalm 100,” ZAW 126
(2014), inpress.
29
See B.M. Zappf, “Eine feste Burg,” p. 79.
30
In the Chronicles, for example, the first mention of the presence of YHWH in the
temple, following its completion by Solomon, is introduced precisely in the verse evok-
ing the first occurrence of antiphonal performance (2Chron 5:13-14). See J.W. KLEINIG,
TheLord’sSong.TheBasis,FunctionandSignificanceofChoralMusicinChronicles,
JSOTSupp 156, Sheffield 1993, pp, 165-166 and ref therein. This theophanic dimension
of the musical worship is also stressed in 2Chron 29:27. For a general discussion about
the prophetic dimension of the song-poetry performed in Ancient Israel, see J.W. Kleinig
(TheLord’sSong, pp. 149-156) and R.J. TOURNAY (VoiretentendreDieu–Laliturgie
prophétiquedusecondTempleàJérusalem, Paris 1988, pp. 39-48).
31
See N. Amzallag, “Psalm 87,” pp. 370-374.

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 CRYPTIC THEME OF PSALM 46 AND THE THEOLOGY OF THE KORAHITES 35

well-organized structure and a coherent pattern of literary bonds between

distant verses. This latter characteristic reveals the way the two voices are
expected to combine during the performance.32 These considerations stim-
ulated us to examine whether a structured network of literary bonds
between distant verses may be identified in Psalm 46.33

The distant literary bonds in Psalm 46

The most singular feature characterizing the network of literary bonds
in Psalm 46 is the importance of the four-verse interval between related
verses. This is attested first by the total identity between verses 8 and 12.
It is also reflected by literary affinities between the pairs (2,6), (3,7) and
(7,11) of verses.34 This means that verse 3 is bonded with verse 7, itself
bonded with verse 11. The position of selah at the end of verses 4,8,12
generates a similar four-verse recurrent pattern.
The identity between verses 8 and 12 led many authors to approach
them as a refrain, and to assume that it was originally inserted between
verses 4 and 5.35 In this way, Psalm 46 became a highly structured psalm
of three stanza of three verses each (vv. 2-4, vv. 5-7, vv. 9-11) interre-
lated by a refrain.36 However, such an emendation diminishes the global
level of symmetry between distant verses, and especially the four-verse
pattern of recurrence identified in Psalm 46.37 This invites us to reject it,
as did many authors.38

32
See N. AMZALLAG, “The Musical Mode of Writing of the Psalms and its Signifi-
cance,” OTE 27 (2014), pp. 17-40.
33
Some authors already assumed that Psalm 46 was designed for antiphonal perfor-
mance. See A.A. Anderson, TheBookofPsalms, p. 355.
34
See P. AUFFRET, QueSeulementdetesyeuxturegardes, BZAW 330, Berlin 2003,
pp. 173, 176; P.C. Craigie, Psalms, p. 46; P. Van der Lugt, CantosandStrophes, p. 46;
M. Weiss, TheBiblefromWithin, pp. 337, 339, 351.
35
This emendation was accepted for a century by most of the scholars. H. Gunkel
(“Psalm 46,” p. 28), for example, assumed that “Therefrainmustbesuppliedinthisplace
forthesakeofthesymmetryofthestrophes”. See also L. Alonso Schökel, Treintasalmos,
p. 416; A.A. Anderson, TheBookofPsalms, pp. 355,357; C.A. BRIGGS and E.A. BRIGGS,
CriticalandExegeticalCommentaryontheBookofPsalms, Vol. 1, Edinburgh 1906, p. 393;
E.S. Gestenberger, Psalms, p. 191 and A. Weiser, Psalms, pp. 365, 368-369.
36
See P.R. Raabe (Psalm Structures, pp. 59-60) and ref therein. To preserve the
symmetry of the entire psalm (including selah), Raabe suggested (pp. 52, 56) to reinsert
the ‘refrain’ within verse 4, between the two last words (‫ גאותו‬and ‫)סלה‬.
37
P. Van der Lugt (CantosandStrophes, p. 50) noticed that “therhetoricalstructure
of Psalm 46 is for an important part determined by a deliberate positioning of verbal
repetitionsatexactlycorrespondingspotsinthetext”.
38
The addition of a refrain between verses 4 and 5 is now rejected by many authors.
See J.N. ALETTI and J. TRUBLET, ApprochepoétiqueetthéologiquedesPsaumes:Analyse

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 36 NISSIM AMZALLAG

The hypothesis of canonic responsa

The existence of a four-verse interval of recurrence generates a paral-
lelismusstropharum linking the themes developed in the three parts of the
song (vv. 2-4, vv. 5-8 and vv 9-12). However, a dissymmetry is observed
between the first part of three verses and the second/third parts of four
verses each. Two solutions have been proposed to resolve this structural
disharmony. Some authors integrated the first verse in the body of the
psalm, a feature generating three sections of four verses, each one ended
by selah.39 Others, on the basis of the literary continuity between verses 4
and 5, suggested that Psalm 46 encloses only two parts: vv. 2-8 and
vv. 9-12.40
Both solutions are unsatisfactory. The division of the psalm in three
parts (solution 1) is challenged by the literary continuity observed between
verses 2-8, a feature suggesting that this group of verses constitutes a
single, autonomous poetical entity. The division of the psalm in two parts
(solution 2) is challenged by the presence of selah at the end of vv 4, 8,
12, and by the existence of a four-verse pattern of recurrence throughout
the entire psalm.
These contrasting considerations may be conciliated if we assume that
Psalm 46 was designed to be performed in canonic responsa fashion.
This mode of complex antiphony is defined as a dialog between two
voices singing the same text, but not starting on the same verse.41 Here,

etméthodes, Paris 1983, p. 37; D.L. CHRISTENSEN, “Psalm 46,” Bibal.netProject (2004),
pp. 1-7, www.bibal.net/04/proso/psalms-ii/pdf/dlc_ps046-001-e.pdf, p. 4; R.J. CLIFFORD,
Psalms1-72, Nashville 2002, p. 228; A. Condamin, PoèmesdelaBible, p. 144; P.C. Crai-
gie, Psalms, p. 341; M. Dahood, Psalms, pp. 277-278; M. GIRARD, LesPsaumes:Analyse
structurelleetinterprétation(1-50), Montréal 1984, p. 373; J. Goldingay, Songsfroma
StrangeLand, p. 66; J.P. FOKKELMAN, ReadingBiblicalPoetry, trans. I. SMIT, Louisville
2001, p. 214; A. Hakham, Psalms, p. 264; F.L. HOSSFELD, and E. ZENGER, DiePsalmen,
vol 1 (1-50), Wurzburg 1993, 285; P. Van der Lugt, CantosandStrophes, pp. 45, 47,
49; M. Weiss, TheBiblefromWithin, pp. 331, 335.
39
See D.L. Christensen, “Psalm 46,” p. 1. This solution has already been proposed
in the 19th Century by J.L. SAALSCHÜTZ, VonderFormderhebraïschenPoesie, Königs-
berg 1825, p. 117. The integration of verse 1 in the body of the psalm is surprising at
first sight, because this verse looks like a heading. However, also in Psalm 87, verse 1a
(PsalmofthesonsofKorah;aSong) generally approached as a title, is to be included
in the body of the psalm. See N. Amzallag, “Psalm 87,” p. 368.
40
See J.N. Aletti and J. Trublet, Approchepoétique, p. 37; P. Auffret, Queseulement
de tes yeux, p. 172; M. Girard, Les psaumes redécouverts, pp. 373-376; A. Hakham,
Psalms, p. 264; F.L. Hossfeld and E. Zenger, DiePsalmen, p. 285; D.T. Tsumura, “Liter-
ary structure”; B.M. Zappf, “Eine feste Burg,” p. 84-85.
41
This mode of performance is already identified in Biblical poetry. See N. Amzallag
and M. Avriel, “Canonic Responsa Reading,” pp. 306-310.

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 CRYPTIC THEME OF PSALM 46 AND THE THEOLOGY OF THE KORAHITES 37

the four-verse interval of recurrence between literary bonds suggests that

the second voice sings the text from verse 5 in response to the first voice
singing the text from verse 1. This mode of performance is defined as a
four-verse canonic responsa and abbreviated as C4 responsa.
This solution generates two distinct “scores”: a first one comprising
vv. 1-8 (first voice), and a second one comprising vv. 5-12 (second voice).
It also resolves the controversy relative to the division of the psalm.
Verses 1-8, the score of the first voice, actually constitute a whole poetical
entity of autonomous character. At the same time, the markers of separa-
tion between verses 4 and 5 reflect the beginning of the second score from
verse 5.

The C4 responsa setting

In complex antiphony, the dialog between voices does not involve the
intertwinement of entire verses but of short segments defined as antipho-
nal units. We may assume, as the simplest hypothesis, that all the verses
of Psalm 46 enclose the same number of antiphonal units. The latter is
identifiable by examination of the pair (7,11) of verses. The first half of
verse 7 displays two parallel expressions (Troubledhavebeennations/
movedhavebeenkingdoms). The second half of v. 11 also displays two
parallel expressions (Exaltedamongnations/exaltedovertheearth). So
their pairing is possible only if each one of these two verses encloses four
antiphonal units. The division of all the verses in four antiphonal units
yields the following composite text:
1To the Overseer // 5Ariver
To the sons of Korah // Itsrivuletswillrejoice(the)cityofGod
At the upper voice (Alamoth) // Holy
A song // TheshrinesofElyion
2God [is] to us // 6God[is]inhermidst
Refuge and strength // Sheshallnotbemoved
A help in adversities // WillhelpherGod
Found most surely // Atthedawnofthemorning!
3Therefore we fear not // 7Troubledhavebeennations
In the changing of the earth // Movedhavebeenkingdoms
And in the slipping of mountains // Heutteredhisvoice
Into the depth of the seas // Letbemeltedtheearth!
4Roar and be troubled his waters //8YHWH-Sebaothiswithus
Will shake mountains // Afortressforus
By his power // theGodofJacob
Selah // Selah

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 38 NISSIM AMZALLAG

5A river // 9Comebehold
Its rivulets will rejoice (the) city of God // theworksofYHWH
Holy // Whoprovokesdevastations
The shrines of the most high // Ontheearth
6God [is] in her midst // 10Causeswarstocease
She shall not be moved // Untotheendoftheearth
Will help her, God // Thebowhebreaksandhehascutasunderthespear
At the dawn of the morning! // Chariotshewillburnwithfire!
7Troubled have been nations // 11 Desistandknow
Moved have been kingdoms // ForIamGod
He uttered his voice // Exaltedamongnations
Let be melted the earth // Exaltedovertheearth!
8YHWH-Sebaoth is with us // 12YHWH-Sebaothiswithus
A fortress for us // Afortressforus
The God of Jacob // TheGodofJacob
Selah // Selah

4. ANALYSIS OF THE COMPOSITE TEXT

The composite text displays a highly structured pattern: two strophes

of 4 composite verses (1//5 → 2//6 → 3//7 → 4//8 and 5//9 → 6//10 →
7//11 → 8//12), each one ending with a double selah (vv 4//8 and vv 8//12).
If Psalm 46 was truly designed for C4 responsa, each strophe is expected
to show a cohesive structure, a great level of literary coherency and emer-
gent meanings ignored by the linear reading. This point is now examined.

First composite strophe

CV1//5: The overseer (1a) is identified with a stream (5a) and the sons
of Korah (1b) with its rivulets (5b). This presents the sons of Korah in
relation to the founding father of the congregation. The involvement
of this congregation in the musical worship of YHWH is suggested
by the musical connotation of the verb ‫( שמח‬piel) in association with
the cult (‫עיר אלוהים‬, see above). It is confirmed by the subsequent
pair associating the musical worship evoked in 1c through ‫עלמות‬
(exactly as in Ps 68:26 and 1Chron 15:20) with holiness expressed
in 5c. The second meaning of ‫ עלמות‬as secrets (as translated here by the
Septuagint) fits perfectly the general context of revelation of YHWH
through the musical worship. All these considerations are gathered in
the last pair, claiming that the Korahite’s musical activity (1d) stimu-
lates YHWH’s theophany (5d).

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 CRYPTIC THEME OF PSALM 46 AND THE THEOLOGY OF THE KORAHITES 39

CV 2//6: The reality evoked in v. 6 as feminine singular is not men-

tioned. We therefore have to identify it in the previous composite
verse. The only possible eventuality being ‫( עיר אלוהים‬5b), the locution
“Godisinhermidst” (6a) here refers to one specific city of god, which
is no other than Jerusalem. Accordingly, this second composite verse
(CV2) claims that the closeness of the Korahites to YHWH (2a) and
the commitment of the god towards them (2b,c) is the source of the
divine presence at Jerusalem (6a) and protection of the city (6b,c).
The meaning of the last pair is clarified by the existence at Jerusalem
of a nocturnal musical worship apparently distinct from the official
diurnal ceremonies of public character (see Ps. 92:3 and 134:1). In this
context, the last pair (2d//6d) specifies that the nocturnal singing (6d)
reserved for the singers is the main source of divine presence among
them (v. 2) and protection of the city (v. 6). This interpretation is sup-
ported by the double meaning of ‫( עזרה‬2c//6c), designating both the
assistance and the courtyard. This latter meaning evokes a musical
performance reserved for the singers.
CV3//7: From the previous composite verse, we deduce that the “us” in
3a designates the Korahites. A relationship emerges between the col-
lapse of centralized forms of authority among the nations (3b and 7a,b)
and the activity of the Korahites (3a). Another relationship is evoked
in the two subsequent pairs between the “voice of YHWH” (7c) and
changes in landscape (3c,d and 7d). The homology between the voice
of the Korahite (two first pairs) and the voice of YHWH (two last
pairs) promotes a parallel between the volcanic and musical theopha-
nies and their consequences.
CV4//8: Extending the theme of the previous composite verse, the first
pair promotes a parallel between the volcanic theophany (4a) and the
musical theophany (the presence of YHWH among the Korahites, 8a).
It is followed by a contrast between the protection ensured to the Kora-
hites (and by extension, to their homeland, the city of Jerusalem, 8b)
and the quacking of the earth (4b). The use of the root śgb introduces
a double meaning in 8b: the musical worship is both in time a strong-
hold and a source of exaltation.42 The subsequent pair evokes again the
volcanic theophany, through the roaring (4c) of the god of Israel (8c).
These two parallel theophanies encounter in the double selah (musical
interlude) sung in echo by the two voices.

42
Concerning this latter meaning, see Ps 148:3, Isa 2:11,17; 12:4; 33:5

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 40 NISSIM AMZALLAG

The first strophe opens with a presentation of the Korahites (CV1),

followed by the emphasis of their role in sanctifying Jerusalem through
musical theophany (CV2). This reality is likened to the other, volcanic
theophany of YHWH in CV3. The last verse (CV4) recapitulates the ideas
evoked in the three first composite verses. The first strophe as a whole
exposes the theophanic dimension of the musical worship promoted by
the Korahites. It also stresses its ability to induce transformations similar
to those stimulated by the volcanic theophany of YHWH.

Second composite strophe

CV 5//9: The second strophe opens with an invitation to contemplate
something, because the call to come and see (9a) promotes the mean-
ing of ‫( נהר‬5a) as tostreamtowards (as in Isa 2:2//Mic 4:1). Its nature
is revealed immediately after: it is the joyous musical worship (5b)
evoked as the works/wonders of YHWH (9b). In the third pair, YHWH
is called the holy one (5c) that provokes devastations (9c). The last
pair reveals that these devastations are not volcanic events, but rather
the spread of the cult of YHWH (5d) on the earth (9d). This means that
here, the expression ‫( עיר אלוהים‬5b) does not designate Jerusalem, but
rather every place on the earth where the Korahites perform the musi-
cal worship.43
CV 6//10: The anonymous entity evoked in verse 6 refers necessarily
to a feminine singular noun evoked before. It was Jerusalem in the
first strophe. Now, it is the whole earth, the feminine noun mentioned
immediately before (9d). Accordingly, the opening claim (6a) utters
that YHWH is present on the entire earth through the spread of his
musical worship evoked in the previous composite verse. The 10a-d
cola evoke YHWH ruining the wars, and the corresponding antipho-
nal units stress that this divine intervention preserves the earth from
destruction (6b,c). The mention of YHWH burning the chariots at
the dawn of the morning (6d-10d), before the battle, reveals that the
musical theophany has even the power to annihilate the spirit of war.
CV 7//11: In Jer 6:23, the verb ‫ המה‬evokes the tumult at war. Such a
meaning in 7a leads to interpret ‫( הרפו‬11a) as a call to cease wars in the
name of YHWH (11b). The second pair extends the spirit promoted by

43
This double use of the expression ‫( עיר אלוהים‬Jerusalem in the first strophe and all
the places of musical worship in the second) may explain why the poet did not introduce
a definite article.

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 CRYPTIC THEME OF PSALM 46 AND THE THEOLOGY OF THE KORAHITES 41

the knowledge of YHWH (11b) to the collapse of centralized powers

(7b). It is remarkable that the short expression where YHWH speaks
(11b: “For I am god”) is immediately followed by the other voice
commenting this theophany (7c: “He uttered his voice”). The paired
antiphonal unit (11c) reveals that YHWH is praised by the peoples for
such a subversive action in regard to centralized powers. Here again, an
equivalence is promoted in the last couple between the melting of the
earth (volcanic theophany 7d) and the praise of YHWH on the earth
(musical theophany 11d).
CV 8//12: The last composite verse is sung in strict echo between the
two voices. It is a concluding praise stressing both the closeness of
the Korahites to YHWH (8a//12a), the protection/exaltation inherent
to their musical worship (8b//12b), their praise of YHWH (8c//12c)
through their musical performance: double selahas musical interlude
combining the two voices (8d//12d).
The second strophe opens with the spread of the musical worship
of YHWH (CV 5). It is followed by its immediate consequence: the fall
of the spirit of war among the peoples of the earth (CV 6) and the fall of
centralized powers (CV 7). The last composite verse (CV 8) focuses again
on the Korahites, the heroes of this “yahwistic wave” ruining the empires
exactly as molten lava ruins the mountains, the most stable reality on the
earth.

5. DISCUSSION

Complex antiphony in Psalm 46

After setting Psalm 46 in C4 responsa fashion, most of the paired
antiphonal units display figures of parallelism characteristic of biblical
poetry. In addition, the composite verses are well structured: the first pair
of antiphonal units exposes a theme which is developed in the two follow-
ing pairs and generally clarified in the last pair. The succession of com-
posite verses is not random, either: the whole composite text is articulated
in two strophes of four composite verses, each one displaying its own
theme and developments.
A great coherency appears here at all the levels of organization of the
composite text: from the couples of antiphonal units to the structure and
developments of the composite text as a whole. It is almost impossible
for this reality to emerge from a random pairing of distant fragments of

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 42 NISSIM AMZALLAG

verses. Furthermore, the setting of Psalm 46 as canonic responsa enables

the identification of the theme of the psalm, which in the linear reading
remains totally obscure. These evidences, when gathered, lead to con-
clude that Psalm 46 was intentionally designed for performance in C4
fashion.

Diffusion of the musical worship of YHWH

Psalm 46 evokes the extensive diffusion from Jerusalem of a musical
worship by the Korahites. Here, this theme does not sound like an escha-
tological hope but rather a genuine reality. The promotion of a musical
worship of YHWH among the nations has already been identified as
the central theme of Psalms 87 and 67.44 It is also evoked in many other
psalms.45 The ability of such musical worship to reveal YHWH to the
nations is even explicitly mentioned in Ps 40:4: “AndHehasputanew
songinmymouth,evenpraiseuntoourGod;manyshallsee,andfear,
andshalltrustinYHWH”.
The fact that Psalms 87, 46 and 47 are entirely devoted to such a
theme suggests a specific involvement of the Korahites in the diffusion
of this cosmopolite musical worship. This point is also suggested by the
mention of this reality in six among the eight songs of Korah opening
the second book of Psalms (Psalms 42-49). An explicit turn to foreign
peoples and nations is encountered in Pss 45:18; 47:2-3,10; and 49:2.
The speaker of Psalm 42 is a son of Korah who dwells far away (v. 7), in
a country where YHWH is apparently ignored (vv. 4, 11). He yearns for
the musical worship performed at Jerusalem (v. 5 and Ps. 43:4), and espe-
cially the nocturnal one (v. 9) apparently reserved to the singers. These
observations suggest that singers who self-identified with the Korahite
musical congregation were truly involved in diffusion of the musical wor-
ship of YHWH at the time these psalms were composed.

The subversive character of Psalm 46

The subversive dimension of the musical worship of YHWH is a cen-
tral motif in Psalm 46. It is claimed that this activity ruins the spirit of war
and centralized forms of power and authority, both replaced by a direct
knowledge of YHWH. Here again, Psalm 46 is not the only biblical

44
See N. Amzallag, “Psalm 87,” pp. 374-378 and “Psalm 67,”.
45
See Pss 57:10; 66:8; 96,1-3; 98,1-6; 100:1; 108:4; 117:1; 138:5; 148:11-13.

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 CRYPTIC THEME OF PSALM 46 AND THE THEOLOGY OF THE KORAHITES 43

source expressing such an opinion. The request of the Israelites to trans-

form the alliance of tribes into a centralized kingdom (1Sam 8:5) is imme-
diately interpreted by Samuel as a rejection of the kingship of YHWH
(1Sam 8:7). And exactly as in Psalm 46, such an emergence of a central-
ized power is explicitly condemned for its unavoidable consequences: the
constitution of an imposing army with war machines (1Sam 8:11-12), and
the promotion of the spirit of war (1Sam 8:20).
The same antimonarchic position is encountered in Isaiah 14. There,
behind the taunting elegy against the king of Babylon, is hidden a viru-
lent satire against every form of centralized power, and the promise that
YHWH will ruin all of them in the future.46 The invitation to everyone,
notwithstanding his title, age, sex, function and social statute, to come and
sing for YHWH in Ps 148:11-13, confirms that the musical worship was
an important component of this subversive process abolishing hierarchies.
The analogy promoted in Psalm 46 between the volcanic and musical
theophanies is a way to claim that the transformations this latter stimulates
cannot be counteracted by any form of authority or power. This point
finds, once again, confirmation in the book of Samuel, where the epidemic
nature of such musical theophany of YHWH is specifically emphasized.47
Its consequences are explicitly mentioned, too. The participation of David
in a musical worship organized by Samuel is enough to protect him against
the soldiers sent by Saul. This protection was consecutive to a spontane-
ous and epidemic process of revelation of YHWH ruining their allegiance
to the central authority (1Sam 19:20-21).48
Psalm 46 not only praises the subversive power of the musical worship
of YHWH, but also the active involvement of the Korahites in its diffu-
sion. This is not the only source revealing an opposition of the Korahites
against any form of centralized authority. Also Psalm 49 turns to all the
inhabitants of the earth, independently of their social status, with a “wis-
dom message” of a highly subversive nature. Samuel, the leader who
virulently opposed the emergence of kingship in Israel, is considered in
the book of Chronicles as a descendant of Korah (1Chron 6:7-12). The
founding father of the congregation, Korah, is the first man in Israel
46
See N. AMZALLAG, and M. AVRIEL, “The Cryptic Meaning of the Isaiah 14 mašal,”
JBL 131 (2012), pp. 643-662, 658-660.
47
1Sam 10:5-6,10-12; 1Sam 19:22-24.
48
This reality is confirmed by the subliminal messages of subversive nature against
the royal ideology identified in the book of Samuel. For analysis of this subversive dimen-
sion, see Y. AMIT, Hiddenpolemics inBiblicalNarrative, trans. J. CHIPMAN, Leiden 2000;
J. MAGONET, ThesubversiveBible, London 1997; R. MASON, PropagandaandSubversion
intheOldTestament, London 1997.

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 44 NISSIM AMZALLAG

who rejected any form of centralized authority, including that of Moses

and Aaron (Num 16:3). All these examples, together with the content of
Psalm 46, reveal the existence of a yahwistic antimonarchic tradition
especially promoted by the sons of Korah.

The ambivalent relation to chaos in the Bible

At first sight, the image of YHWH promoting chaos and disorder on
the earth is strange, because YHWH is generally approached as the god
defending order. Such an opinion is supported by the explicit mention,
in Ps 74:12-14, of the victory of YHWH upon Leviathan, the sea monster
symbolizing the forces of chaos.49 This prowess obviously recalls the
victory of Marduk upon Tiamat, the sea monster symbolizing the forces
of chaos, related in the EnumaElish, and the promotion by Marduk, the
new leader of the pantheon, of stabilized terrestrial and celestial uni-
verses.50 A theology praising the stabilization of the universe by YHWH
is apparently represented in the Bible.
Nevertheless, the opposite opinion may also be identified. In the book
of Job, YHWH is praised for the disorders and transformations he per-
forms on the earth: “Butthemountainfallsandcrumblesaway,andthe
rockisremovedfromitsplace” (Job 14:18). Permanency of this chaotic
process is confirmed later in the book of Job, where the apparent quiet-
ness of the earth hides extensive turbulences in the depths: “Asforthe
earthoutofitcomesbread,butunderneathitisturnedbyfire” (Job 28:5).
In both cases, this activity does not reflect any divine anger, but rather
a dynamic process of transformations through chaos and destructions.51
This view is corroborated by the fact that Leviathan, the sea monster
symbolizing chaos, is not an enemy of YHWH in the book of Job. Rather,
the god fully controls his activities (Job 7:12). Furthermore, the exalted
description of this animal (Job 40:25-41:26) promotes him as the YHWH’s
wonder among the creatures.

49
This is also expressed through the promise of YHWH not to destroy the earth
again by a new flood (see Gen 9: 8-17).
50
See S.G.F. BRANDON, CreationLegendsoftheAncientNearEast, London 1963,
pp. 90-117. This author stresses (pp. 101-102) the parallel between this story and the
Sumerian myth of the slaying of Kur, the monstrous dragon connected to primeval
waters (the chaos) by Ninurta, the warrior god and son of Enlil.
51
In contrast with many other peoples praising their gods for maintaining the world
as stabilized, Y. Bentor (“Geology and the Bible,” p. 337) assumes that “TheBibletakes
theoppositeview,thatofanEarthevolvingandchangingwithtime”.

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 CRYPTIC THEME OF PSALM 46 AND THE THEOLOGY OF THE KORAHITES 45

This dual relation of YHWH to chaos reveals the coexistence of

two distinct and even contrasting theologies in the Bible. In the “official
theology”, YHWH is praised for promoting stability in the world, his
commitment with the people of Israel, his support to the royal dynasty of
David and exclusiveness of Jerusalem in the cult. However, the content
of Psalm 46 reveals the existence in Ancient Israel of another system of
beliefs centered on the spread of the knowledge of YHWH everywhere
through musical worship, and opposing any form of centralized authority.52
The discrepancy between the content of Psalm 46 and the official theol-
ogy may explain why the genuine theme of this song is carefully hidden
in the linear reading. Psalm 46 was apparently skillfully designed for
releasing its genuine content only when it was performed in antiphonal
fashion. The discovery of such a reality points to the need for prudence
when interpreting the content of psalms. These songs are not necessarily
designed for the official cult, and their genuine content does not neces-
sarily fit the official theology. It may even be in conflict with it.53

52
This claim differs from the invitation of all the peoples of the earth to come and
praise YHWH at Jerusalem (see 1Kgs 8:41-43).
53
I would thank Susana Lezra for helpful comments and english revision of this text.

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