Hindawi

Progrès en génie civil

Volume 2019, numéro d’article 7069375, 17 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/7069375

Article de recherche
Différents modèles de déformation dans les barrages à parois
rocheuses à noyau élevé :
Étude de cas des barrages Maoergai et Qiaoqi

1 1
Rui Feng , Yun-Long He , et Xue-Xing Cao2
1
State Key Laboratory of Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering Science, Université de Wuhan, 8 Donghu
South Road, Wuhan, Chine
2Huaneng
Lancang River Hydropower Co., Ltd., Kunming 650214, Chine

La correspondance doit être adressée à Yun-Long He; ylhe2002@aliyun.com

reçu le 13 août 2019; Révisé le 9 novembre 2019; Accepté le 26 novembre 2019; Publié le 11 décembre 2019

Editeur académique : Hayri Baytan Ozmen

Copyright 2019 Rui Feng et al. est un article en libre accès distribué sous licence Creative Commons Attribution License, qui
permet une utilisation, une distribution et une reproduction sans restriction sur n’importe quel support, à condition que l’œuvre
originale soit citée correctement.
Le comportement en fonction du temps des barrages à fort remblai est complexe et difficile à prédire avec précision. De
nombreuses divergences ont été révélées par la comparaison des historiques de déformation observés des digues different, et la
déformation de certains barrages de remblai rocheux élevé ne correspondait pas à la loi générale de déformation. La surveillance
sur le terrain est donc une méthode efficace pour comprendre le comportement complexe de déformation des barrages. Dans le
présent document, les données réelles de déformation mesurées résultant de la surveillance continue des barrages Maoergai et
Qiaoqi sont analysées. deux barrages ont des hauteurs, des crêtes et des épaisseurs de morts-terrains alluvionnaires semblables.
Notre objectif est d’expliquer les historiques réels de déformation sur la base des comportements mécaniques de ces barrages
afin d’avertir les ingénieurs des problèmes potentiels qui ne peuvent être prédits. les résultats indiquent que les profils de
déformation des deux barrages sont complètement different. la construction de barrages et le calendrier de retenue d’eau sont les
principales raisons du different horizontal displacement patterns. Les taux de remplissage des réservoirs et les précipitations sont
les principales raisons des schémas de peuplement different. les études de cas sont utiles pour comprendre la vaste gamme de
déformations postconstruction possibles dans un barrage.
formation, qui constitue une menace majeure à l’état de
fonctionnement du barrage
et mérite une attention considérable.
la rupture des matériaux de remblai en fonction du temps
1. Introduction joue un rôle majeur dans le comportement de fluage des
barrages [1–4]. Dans les barrages de hauteur, comme les
Les barrages de remblai rocheux sont l’un des types
particules sont habituellement de grande taille et de forme
de barrages les plus courants.
angulaire, les matériaux de remblai sont sensibles à la rupture
autour du monde. Au cours des deux dernières décennies,
de nombreux des particules [5]. Dans certains barrages, les particules de
barrages de plus de 100 m ont été construits dans le roche peuvent dépasser 1200 mm. Les grosses particules
sud-ouest de la Chine, possèdent plus de défauts et
où près de 80% du total national
sources sont concentrées. Avec la demande sociale et
techniques de compactage, la hauteur de ce
le type de barrage augmente. Le stress interne est
élevé.
et le schéma de déformation est complexe. En outre,
élevé
Les barrages de remblai présentent également une

et sont soumis à des forces de contact élevées. Les
particules angulaires subissent plus de bris parce que la
concentration de stress se produit à leurs sommets [1].
Zhou et Song [1] ont signalé que l’augmentation des
niveaux de stress et de la taille des particules entraînera
une augmentation évidente de la déformation par fluage et
du taux de fluage du remblai. Sohn et al. [6] ont souligné le
rôle clé de la forme des particules dans la rupture en
discutant des expériences menées sur deux matériaux : les
billes de verre et le sable de quartz. Liu et al. [7] ont
constaté que la rupture des particules se produit
principalement dans les coins pointus des particules, et
après la rupture, les particules deviennent un peu plus
arrondies et plus petites. Dans ces études, la distribution
granulométrique et la forme des particules ont évidemment
changé pendant le cisaillage, ce qui peut avoir un grand
effect sur la disposition et la rotation des particules et peut
affect la performance à long terme des barrages.
Pour analyser et prévoir la déformation et la contrainte des
barrages de remblai, la méthode des éléments finis a été
principalement utilisée sur la base de paramètres mécaniques
déterminés en laboratoire. Cependant, les paramètres réalistes
ne sont pas facilement obtenus

2 comportement des barrages est difficult à capturer par des

tests de laboratoire [20, 21]. De nombreux chercheurs ont
moins mis l’accent sur les conditions environnementales
d’essais en laboratoire [8-10]. la principale raison peut être
que sur les causes mécaniques de la rupture des particules.
l’impact de l’échelle effect sur les comportements de rupture
et de fluage du matériau de roche. Il a été démontré que les L’interprétation du comportement des barrages de
effects à l’échelle influencent de manière significative la remblai de roche réels et de leurs enregistrements de
représentativité des résultats de laboratoire [11-13]. surveillance est utile pour comprendre les caractéristiques
Cependant, l’impact des effects à l’échelle sur la force n’est de déformation dépendantes du temps d’un barrage de
toujours pas entièrement quantifié, bien qu’ils aient été remblai de roche. L’analyse des données de surveillance
étudiés par de nombreux chercheurs [14-17]. provenant de projets pratiques d’ingénierie est essentielle
Au fil des ans, la méthode des éléments discrets (DEM) pour avertir les ingénieurs des problèmes potentiels qui ne
a été utilisée pour simuler des essais en laboratoire de peuvent être prédits ou analysés par des simulations
matériaux de remblai. Zhou et Song [1], Ma et al. [4], et numériques. Les barrages Maoergai et Qiaoqi ont des
Tapias et al. hauteurs, des crêtes et des épaisseurs de morts-terrains
[18] tous ont constaté que la souche de fluage alluviaux semblables, mais ont des profils de déformation
correspond bien aux résultats des essais de fluage en different. Dans le présent document, les dossiers de
laboratoire (p. ex., les paramètres déterminés en déformation continue couvrant une partie de la construction,
laboratoire et les paramètres déterminés par le DEM l’ensemble du bassin de retenue et plusieurs années de
sont assez semblables). Toutefois, de tels modèles fonctionnement du barrage des deux barrages sont
nécessitent l’adoption d’hypothèses restrictives présentés. L’interprétation des differences entre les profils
concernant la forme de chaque particule et de déformation des deux barrages peut fournir une
l’interaction de particules distinctes. Les résultats référence pour d’autres barrages pour des prédictions plus
numériques doivent s’appliquer directement aux fiables.
projets pratiques.
Les valeurs et les tendances de la déformation
observées pendant la construction et l’exploitation de
plusieurs barrages de remblai de haute hauteur dans le
sud-ouest de la Chine sont complexes et peuvent avoir de
grandes differences. Dans certains barrages, la déformation
de la digue ne correspondait pas au schéma général de
déformation des digues de remblai. Par exemple, comme
on pouvait s’y attendre, la déformation s’est développée
rapidement au cours de la phase de construction et de
l’étape du premier réservoir de retenue et a diminué
progressivement avec le temps. Cependant, au cours de la
deuxième retenue du réservoir, la déformation du barrage
Maoergai a montré une forte augmentation soudaine et a
donc causé des fissures longitudinales dans la crête du
barrage. En plus du bris de particules, le calendrier de
construction, les conditions météorologiques extrêmes et
même les conditions topographiques et géologiques ont un
effect complexly couplé sur la déformation de barrage.
Dans certains barrages, la première mise en eau se
poursuit avec la construction du barrage. processus
compliqué ne peut pas être reproduit dans le laboratoire. La
procédure de calcul peut ne pas suivre la trajectoire de
contrainte réelle observée sur le terrain. De plus, la rupture
des roches est sensible à l’humidité de l’environnement
[19]. effect de l’humidité relative ambiante sur le
 Progrès en génie civil et 0,74 H2, les valeurs de règlement après
construction étaient de 80 à 180, 150 à 180 et 335 à
350 mm, respectivement.
2. Problèmes pour certains barrages de remblai Le rendement des barrages pendant la première mise
à noyau élevé en retenue est un problème critique. Au cours de cette
période, la coquille en amont d’un barrage de remblai de
Certains phénomènes de déformation dans les barrages à fort roches peut connaître un peuplement rapide avec des
remblai sont susceptibles d’expliquer de façon raisonnable les valeurs relativement élevées en raison de l’immersion.
expériences de laboratoire et les simulations numériques en événement, généralement appelé « déformation par
raison des effects complexly couplés de bris de particules, du effondrement », a été signalé dans les digues de remblai de
calendrier de construction, des conditions météorologiques roche different [22, 23] et provoque toujours des
extrêmes, et même les conditions topographiques et discordances
géologiques sur la déformation du barrage.
dans le barrage de remblai, les données de
surveillance continue, qui peuvent refléter l’état du
barrage à chaque étape, sont importantes et
nécessaires à l’interprétation du comportement de
déformation des barrages de remblai.
Au cours des deux dernières décennies, sept
barrages de remblai de parois de base de plus de 100 m
de hauteur ont été construits dans le sud-ouest de la
Chine (tableau 1). Parmi ces barrages, six ont été
construits sur de profondes couches alluviales
compressives dans des vallées à culées abruptes. les
données d’observation sur le terrain de certains de ces
barrages montrent que, dans les barrages different, les
profils de déformation sont plutôt different et que le
modèle complexe de déformation ne correspond pas au
comportement général de déformation des barrages de
remblai.
Sur une période de 2,5 ans après la construction, un
règlement a été obtenu après la construction de
plusieurs barrages dans le sud-ouest de la Chine. Dans
les barrages de Pubugou, Qiaoqi et Shuiniujia, les
peuplements après construction près de la partie
centrale des barrages représentent environ 0,15 %,
0,08 % et 0,16 % de la hauteur maximale du barrage,
respectivement. Cependant, dans le barrage de
Maoergai, le peuplement après construction près de la
partie centrale du barrage atteint 0,54% de la hauteur
maximale du barrage.
De toute évidence, le peuplement après construction du
barrage Maoergai est beaucoup plus grand que celui des
autres barrages. Les barrages Maoergai et Qiaoqi ont des
hauteurs, des crêtes et des épaisseurs de morts-terrains
alluviaux semblables. la disposition des jauges de surveillance
des barrages de Maoergai et de Qiaoqi est présentée aux
figures 1(a) et 2(a), respectivement. Les valeurs de déformation
post-construction dans les deux barrages sur une période de
3,3 ans sont illustrées à la figure 3. Comme le montre la figure
3(a), dans le barrage Maoergai, à l’altitude (EL.) 2031 m
(0,27H1, où H1 est la hauteur du barrage Maoergai), 2048 m
(0,40H1) et 2078 m (0,60H1), les déplacements horizontaux
dans le sens du débit de la rivière étaient de 265 à 328, 310 à
355 et 590 à 645 mm, respectivement. Dans le barrage de
Qiaoqi, à EL. 2061 m (0,35 H2, où le H2 est la hauteur du
barrage de Qiaoqi), 2085 m (0,54 H2) et 2110 m (0,74 H2) , les
déplacements horizontaux après construction étaient d’environ
40 à 90, 110 à 150 et 160 à 215 mm, respectivement.

Comme le montre la figure 3(b), dans le barrage

Maoergai, les valeurs de tassement après
construction étaient de 390 à 465 mm à 0,3H1, de
330 à 600 mm à 0,40H1 et de 545 à 865 mm à
0,60H1. Dans le barrage Qiaoqi, à 0,35 H2, 0,54 H2
Progrès en génie civil 3

TABLEAU 1 : Barrages de remblai de parois rocheuses à noyau élevé dont la hauteur dépasse 100 m dans le sud-ouest de la
Chine.
Épaisseur de la couche Longueur de la crête
Barrage Hauteur (m) d’alluvion (m) (m) Emplacement du bassin
Changheba 240,0 79,3 520,8 Rivière Dadu, province du Sichuan
Rivière Langcang, province du
Nuozhadu 261,5 — 608,1 Yunnan
Pubugou 186,0 76,0 573,0 Rivière Dadu, province du Sichuan
Rivière Heishui, province du
Maoergai 147,0 52,0 458,5 Sichuan
Shiziping 136,0 110,0 309,4 Min River, province du Sichuan
Rivière Baoxing, province du
Qiaoqi 125,5 70,5 439,8 Sichuan
Rivière Fujiang, province du
Shuiniujia 108,0 30,0 317,0 Sichuan

Niveau d’eau normal 2138 m

1
 :

:2 1.

HV20
1
HV19 8 2108m

:2
HV21 1 :
1 Couche de transition 1.

:2 8

Couvercle de
poids 2036 m HV14 HV15 HV17 HV18 2078m
1

Rockfill HV16 1 :

2015 m :2 En amont 1.

8
.5

1 Filtre

cofferdam HV8 HV9 2048m

alQ4 HV1 HV2 HV3HV10

HV4 HV11 HV12
HV5HV13
HV6 HV7 1 2031 m

Mur Cutoff al + PlQ4 Couche de transition  :

alQ3 Core 1,8

al + PlQ3 Rockfill
Substrat En aval
rocheux
cofferdam

Argile hautement plastique

Mur Cutoff

Coulis de rideaux Substrat rocheux

(a)
0 + 123,0 m

0 + 244,0 m

0 + 320,0 m
0 + 000,0 m

50 + 458 m

2138,00 m

Barrage
 Argile hautement
plastique
Galerie
2004,50 m
1994,86 millions
alQ4

al + PlQ4

M
u
r

a
l
Q
3

C
u
t
o
ff
a
l

P
l
Q
3

(
b
)
FIGURE 1 :
Suite.
4 Progrès en génie civil

2140

2120

2100

(m)
2080

Élévation
2060

2040

2020

2000

2009/11/12 2010/11/12 2011/11/12 2012/11/12 2013/11/12

Données (a/m/j)

Niveau de remplissage du barrage

Niveau du réservoir

(c)

FIGURE 1 : Information sur le barrage de remblai du noyau de gravier Maoergai. (a) Section maximale et disposition des jauges de
surveillance.
(b) Coupe longitudinale. (c) Construction de barrages et processus de retenue des réservoirs.

Niveau d’eau normal 2140m 2143m

1  :
1.

8
TP12
:2 HV9 HV12 2110m
1
HV11
HV10
TP06
HV13 2085m
:2 HV14 HV15 HV16
1 Couche de transition TP01
HV18 2061m
Rockfill HV17 HV19 HV20 HV21 HV22 HV23
1  

Core Couche de transition

Rockfill
2
alQ 4
Filtre
2
al + PlQ 4 Mur de coupure
1
al + PlQ 4

fglQ3 1952,0 m
Coulis de rideaux
Substrat rocheux
(a)
0 + 315. m0
0 + 000. m0

00 + 115 m

00 + 215 m

2143,0 m

Barrage
 Argile hautement plastique
2032,5 m
2023,5 m
2
Galerie alQ4
Mur de coupure
2
al + PlQ4
1
al + PlQ4
1
fglQ3 1952,0 m
(b)
FIGURE 2 : Suite.
Progrès en génie civil 5

2160

2140

2120

(m)
2100

Élévation
2080

2060

2040

2020
2005/7/9 2007/1/7 2008/7/8 2010/1/6 2011
Données (a/m/j)

Niveau du réservoir
Niveau de remplissage du barrage

(c)

FIGURE 2 : Information sur le barrage de remblai rocheux du noyau graveleux de Qiaoqi. (a) Section transversale maximale et
disposition des jauges de surveillance.
(b) Coupe longitudinale. (c) Construction de barrages et processus de retenue des réservoirs.

Barrage Maoergai Barrage Qiaoqi

2138 m 2143 m

H19 H20 H21 2108 m H10 H11 V12 TP12 2110 m

H9

H14 H15 H16 H17 H18 TP06

2078 m H13 H14 H15 H16 2085 m

TP01

H18 H19 H20 H21 H22 H23 2061 m

H9
H8 H10 H11 H12 H13 2048 m H17

H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 2031 m

H1
2017,5 m

1991 m

200 mm 200 mm

(a)
Barrage Maoergai Barrage Qiaoqi

2138 m 2143 m

TP12

V19 V20 V21 2108 m V10 V11 V12 2110 m

V9

TP06

V14 V15 V16 V17 V18 2078 m V13 V14 V15 V16 2085 m

TP01

V18 V19 V20 V21 V22 V23 2061 m

V8 V9 V10 V11 V12 V13 2048 m V17

V1 V2 V6 V7 2031 m
 V3 V5 2017,5 m

1991 m

200 mm 200 mm

(b)

FIGURE 3 : Déformation post-construction sur une période de 3,3 ans. (a) Déplacement horizontal dans la direction du débit de la rivière.
b) Règlement.
6 vallée et la hauteur du barrage. Dans le barrage de
Maoergai, le rapport de longueur à hauteur est d’environ
2,3. Ici, la hauteur signifie la hauteur du barrage plus
déformation. la crête du barrage a une forte possibilité de l’épaisseur des couches d’alluvions. La base et les
fissuration. Par exemple, des fissures longitudinales ont été culées du barrage sont principalement constituées de
observées sur la crête du barrage de Cherry Valley [24, 25] méta-pierre et de phyllite.
et du barrage de Pubugou [26]. Cependant, les mesures sur état géologique le long de la section longitudinale
le terrain montrent que, dans le barrage de Maoergai, des Les figures 1(a) et 1(b) du barrage sont illustrées. Selon
fissures longitudinales sur la crête n’ont pas été observées à l’âge géologique, à la granulométrie, à la densité et à
lors de la première mise en fourrière, mais durant la l’origine géologique,
seconde. la deuxième saisie les morts-terrains alluviaux (Quaternaire non consolidé
riod peut être une autre étape importante de la durée posits) du haut vers le bas est classé dans le
de vie d’un barrage. les quatre groupes suivants : alQ4, al + PlQ4, alQ3 et al +
Le déplacement horizontal des barrages pose PlQ3.
également des problèmes. Parmi les barrages de plus la répartition des grains, la densité sèche, la
de 200 m, les barrages de Changheba et de Nuozhadu perméabilité et
ont également des hauteurs similaires. Toutefois, lors de L’épaisseur des dépôts est indiquée dans le tableau
la première mise en fourrière, le déplacement horizontal 3.
maximal en aval était de 150 mm à 0,4 mm de hauteur La construction du barrage de Maoergai a commencé
dans le barrage de Changheba et atteignait 890 mm à en décembre 2009 et s’est terminée en mai 2011. la mise
0,5 mm de hauteur dans le barrage de Nuozhadu. en retenue initiale du réservoir a commencé en mars 2011,
lorsque le barrage a atteint une hauteur de 130 m. le niveau
3.Déformation mesurée des barrages d’eau le plus élevé pendant la mise en retenue initiale était
Maoergai et Qiaoqi de 2104,4 m. En octobre 2012 (pendant la mise en retenue
du deuxième réservoir), le niveau d’eau a atteint
3.1. Barrage Maoergai et son système de surveillance
des déplacements. Maoergai gravier barrage de roche
de noyau de sol est 147 m de haut. longueur et la
largeur de la crête sont 458,5 m et 12,0 m,
respectivement. barrage est construit sur des morts-
terrains alluviaux profonds. Un mur cutoff d’une
épaisseur de 1,4 m et d’une profondeur maximale de 52
m est sélectionné en tant que système vertical anti-
seepage pour contrôler les fuites de fondation. La figure
1(a) montre une section typique du barrage, composée
de zones de remblai, de zones de transition, de zones
filtrantes et d’un noyau de sol graveleux central. Les
matériaux de roche de la digue sont composés de grès
quartzeux. Les courbes de répartition granulométrique
des matériaux sont illustrées à la figure 4. Les propriétés
des matériaux obtenues en laboratoire sont résumées
au tableau 2.
Dans le sud-ouest de la Chine, les hautes
montagnes et les vallées profondes sont deux facteurs
essentiels qui sous-tendent les grands projets
hydroélectriques. Le canyon Maoergai est caractérisé
par une large vallée en forme de V avec des pentes
d’environ 40 à 50° (figure 1(b)). Le facteur de forme de
vallée couramment utilisé en pratique est le rapport de la
longueur de la crête du barrage entre les culées de la
 Progrès en génie civil measure the horizontal displacement and settlement,
respectively. monitoring devices are installed at EL.
2110 (0,74H2), 2085 (0,54H2), et 2061 m (0,35H2).
niveau de stockage normal de 2133 m pour la
première fois. la construction du barrage et le
processus de retenue du réservoir du barrage
Maoergai sont illustrés à la figure 1(c).
Un système de suivi détaillé des déplacements est
mis en place dans le barrage de Maoergai. Dans
cette étude, seuls les résultats de la surveillance dans
la section transversale maximale 0 + 244 (figure 1(a))
sont analysés. Les transducteurs d’alignement des fils
de tension (H1–H21) et les jauges de tassement des
débordements hydrauliques (V1–V21) sont distribués
dans les zones en aval pour mesurer respectivement
le déplacement horizontal interne et le tassement.

3.2. Qiaoqi Dam and Its Displacement Monitoring

System. Qiaoqi gravelly soil core rockfill dam is 125.5 m
high, with a crest that is 439.8 m long and 10.0 m wide.
dam is also built on deep alluvium overburden, and the
maximum depth of the cutoff wall in the foundation is
70.5 m. Figure 2(a) shows a typical cross section of the
dam, which is composed of rockfill zones, transition
zones, filter zones, and a gravelly soil core. rockfill
materials of the Qiaoqi dam are composed of quarried
basalt. grain size distribution curves of the materials are
also depicted in Figure 4. material properties obtained in
laboratory are summarized in Table 4.
Qiaoqi canyon is characterized by a U-shaped valley
(Figure 2(b)). Above the elevation of 2095 m, the valley sides
°
gently widen with slopes of around 25 . Lying at below the
elevation, the Qiaoqi canyon is incised with steep slopes of
° °
around 45 –70 . ratio of length to height is about 2.3.
height means the dam height plus the thickness of alluvium
layers. dam’s base and abutments are composed pri-
marily of metasandstone and phyllite.
geological condition along the longitudinal section
of the dam is illustrated in Figures 2(a) and 2(b). According
to geological age, grain size, density, and geological origin,
the deep overburden (unconsolidated Quaternary deposits)
from the top
2
to the
2
bottom
1
is classified into the following
four groups: alQ , al + PlQ , al + PlQ , and fglQ . grain
4 4 4 3

size distribution, dry density, permeability, and thickness of

construction of the Qiaoqi dam started in January

2006 and finished in November 2007. initial reservoir
impounding started in December 2006 when the dam
was filled to EL. 2090 m and finished in November
2007. highest water level during the initial impounding
was 2125.1 m. In November 2008 (during the second
reservoir impounding), the water level reached the
normal storage level of 2140.0 m for the first time.
dam construction and reservoir impounding process
of the dam are shown in Figure 2(c).
In this study, the results of the monitoring gauges in
the maximum cross-section 0 + 215 are used. As shown
in Figure 2(a), tension wire alignment transducers (H9 to
H23) and hydraulic overflow settlement gauges (V9 to
V23) are installed in the downstream side of the dam to
Advances in Civil Engineering 7

100 100 100 100

80 80 80 80
passing

passing
60 60 60 60
Percent

Percent
40 40 40 40

20 20 20 20

0 0 0 0
1000 100 10 1 0,1 0,01 1E–3 1000 100 10 1 0,1 0,01
Particle size (mm) Particle size (mm)

Maoergai core Maoergai filter

Qiaoqi core Qiaoqi filter

(a) (b)
100 100 100 100

80 80 80 80
passing

passing

60 60 60 60
Percent

Percent

40 40 40 40

20 20 20 20

0 0 0 0
1000 100 10 1 0,1 0,01 1000 100 10 1 0,1 0,01
Particle size (mm) Particle size (mm)

Maoergai transition Maoergai rockfill

Qiaoqi transition Qiaoqi rockfill

(c) (d)

FIGURE 4: Grain size distributions of the dam materials in the Maoergai and Qiaoqi dams.

TABLE 2: Physical properties of the materials in the Maoergai dam.

Mean dry density Mean water content Mean permeability Mean compacting degree
Material (g/cm3) Mean void ratio (%) (cm/s) (%)
Core 2,04 — 10,92 1,5e–7 102,8
Filter zone 2,11 — 4,88 2.9e–3 –
Transition zone 2,22 0,26 3,42 1,79e–2 –
Dam rockfill 2,17 0,27 1,75 1,70e–2 –
Meanwhile, reference stations TP12, TP06, and TP01
lie on the downstream slope surface to monitor the
exterior displacements
3.3. Deformation of the of the dam.Dam
Maoergai
3.3.1. Horizontal Displacement. starting times of monitoring
points on a dam differ because the gauges are installed
only after the dam is filled to a certain elevation. In the
Maoergai dam, the displacement monitoring at EL. 2031 and
2048 m started in January 2011, and the monitoring at EL.
2078 and 2108 m began in March 2011 and September 2012,
respectively. August 2014, the dam experienced a total
of 3.5 cycles of rising and falling water levels. horizontal
displacements in the river flow direction in the Maoergai dam,
as a function of time, fill height, reservoir level, and
8 Advances in Civil Engineering

TABLE 3: Physical properties of the overburden layers in the Maoergai dam.

Deposits alQ4 al + PlQ4 alQ3 al + PlQ3

200 11,9 % — 11,5 % 7,2 %
60–200 24,5 % 7,6 % 24,8 % 29,3 %
>
Grain content (mean) 2–60 42,1 % 30,9 % 39,6 % 41,7 %
2–0,075 26,3 % 70,1 % 29,1 % 28,1 %
0,075 1,2 % 19,3 % 7,5 % 8,8 %
Mean dry density (g/cm 2,2 2,0 2,1 2,0
(m) < 6–11 8–18 10–20 5–12
Mean permeability (cm/s) 1.8e–1 2.2e–2 1,5e–1 3.5e–3

TABLE 4: Physical properties of the materials in the Qiaoqi dam.

Material Mean dry density (g/cm3) Mean void ratio Mean permeability (cm/s) Mean compacting degree (%)
Core 2,07 — 0,40e–5 99,8
Filter zone 2,28 — 10,7e–3 —
Transition zone 2,36 0,20 3,81e–2 —
Dam rockfill 2,30 0,26 15.4e–2 —

TABLE 5: Physical properties of the overburden layers in the 2108 m). displacement rates in this period
Qiaoqi dam. were the highest among all the stages.
2 2 1 Stage IV. During the period of operation (October 18,
Deposits alQ 4 al + PlQ 4 al + PlQ 4
2012–August 15, 2014), the displacement rate became
fglQ3
200 20,2 % 27,2 % 7,4 % 15,5 % very low. displacement curves at lower levels
60–200 27,5 % 23,3 % 20,7 % 25,0 % became smooth, which indicates that the
Grain content >
2–60 35,0 % 38,0 % 45,0 % 35,0 %
15,0 % 12,5 %
displacement in the lower part of the dam gradually
(mean) stabilized after the second full filling of the reservoir.
— —
0,005–2 15,0 % 11,5 % 2.1 2.1 4–
0,005 — 0,67 % 10.5 8–24
Mean dry density (g/cm 2,1 2,1 3.3.2. Settlement. Generally, during dam construction,
5.3e–3 2.2e–2
(m) < 17–21 17–28 significant settlement occurs due to the successively
Mean permeability increasing dam weight. settlement pattern of the Maoergai
5.3e–3 6.0e–4 dam is illustrated in Figure 6. In the Maoergai dam, set-
(cm/s)
figure shows that the horizontal displacements are displacement experienced a sudden increase, and the
in the downstream direction and that the total maximum increase reached 610 mm at point H21 (EL.
displacement values decrease with height. In the
Maoergai dam, the evolution of the horizontal
displacement was complex. According to the slopes
of the displacement curves, four time intervals were
identified (marked by dotted lines in Figure 5):
Stage I. In the first reservoir impounding period (March
23, 2011–November 17, 2011), the horizontal
displacements increased with the rising water level.
displacements at the lower elevations (EL. 2031 and
2048 m) were much larger than those at the higher
elevations (EL. 2078 and 2108 m).
Stage II. Before the water level reached 2104.4 m during
the second impounding period (November 17, 2011– June
29, 2012), corresponding to the highest water level during
the first impounding, the displacement rate decreased,
especially at lower levels.
Stage III. As the reservoir level rose from 2104.4 m to
2133.2 m (normal storage level) during the second
impounding (June 29, 2012–October 18, 2012), the
tlement observations at EL. 2031, 2048, and 2078 m began in
January 2011, when the dam was filled to an elevation of 2094
m. At EL. 2108 m, observations started at the beginning of the
second reservoir impounding. not complete, monitoring data
can also provide some useful information.
In the Maoergai dam, corresponding to the
evolution of horizontal displacements, the settlement
evolution was complex, and according to the slopes of
the settlement curves, four time intervals were
identified (marked by dotted lines in Figure 6):
Stage I. During the period of construction (before
May 20, 2011), the settlement increased with the
continual increase in the dam height
Stage II. Before water was impounded to the level of
2104.4 m during the second impounding (May 20,
2011–June 29, 2012), the settlement rate decreased
Stage III. As the reservoir level rose from 2104.4 m to
2133.2 m (normal storage level) during the second
impounding (June 29, 2012–October 18, 2012), the
settlement values experienced a sudden increase, and
the maximum increase reached 539 mm at EL. 2108 m
Stage IV. During the period of operation (October 18,
2012–August 15, 2014), the settlement rate decreased
Advances in Civil Engineering 9

400

400 350

Horizontaldisplacement(mm)

Precipitation(mm/month)
2011/11/17

300

2012/6/29

300

2012/10/19 250

Dam filling level

Reservoir level 200

200

150

100

100

50

0 0
2009/11/1 2010/11/1 2011/11/1 2012/11/1 2013/11/1 2014/11/1

Data (y/m/d)

H1 H5

H3 H6

H4 H7

(a)
400

400

350
Horizontaldisplacement(mm)

2011/11/17

Precipitation(mm/month)
300

300 2012/6/29

2012/10/19 250

Dam filling level

200 Reservoir level 200

150

100

100

50

2009/11/1 2010/11/1 2011/11/1 2012/11/1 2013/11/1 2014/11/1

Data (y/m/d)

H8 H11

H9 H12

H10 H13

(b)
700 400
Precipitation(mm/month)
Horizontaldisplacement(mm)

600 350

300

500 2011/11/17
400 Dam filling level
2012/6/29 250
2012/10/19 200
 Reservoir level

300

150

200

100

100 50

0 0

2009/11/1 2010/11/1 2011/11/1 2012/11/1 2013/11/1 2014/11/1

Data (y/m/d)

H14

H15

H16

(c)
FIGURE 5: Continued.
10 Advances in Civil Engineering

2350
800
2300
700
2250
600

Elevation (m)
2200
500 2012/6/29

Horizontal displacement (mm)

2150

2012/10/19 2100
400
2050
300
2000
200

100

2009/11/1 2010/11/1 2011/11/1 2012/11/1

Data (y/m/d)

H19
H20
H21

(d)
FIGURE 5: Evolution of horizontal displacements with time in the Maoergai dam. (a) EL. 2031 m; b) EL. 2048 m; c) EL. 2078 m; d) EL.
2108 m.

2350

600 2300

2012/6/29 2250

2012/10/19
2200
500 2011/5/20
2150
400
2100
Dam filling level
2050

300 2000
Settlement (mm)

200

100

Data (y/m/d)
0 2350
2009/11/1 2010/11/1 2011/11/1 2012/11/1
2300
Data (y/m/d)
2250
V1 V5
2200
V2 V6

V3 V7 2150

V4 2100

(a) (b)
2050

2000
700

600 2012/6/29
2011/5/20
Settlemen

500
2012/10/19
 Elevation (m)

Elevation (m)
FIGURE 6: Continued.
Advances in Civil Engineering 11

230
0
1200
225
2012/6/29 0
2012/10/19

Elevation (m)
220
1000
0
2011/5/20
215
800 0

210
0
600
205
Settlement (mm)

0
400
200
0

200

2009/11/1 2010/11/1 2011/11/1 2012/11/1

Data (y/m/d)

Elevation (m)
2350
V14 V17
2300
V15 V18

V16 2250

(c) 2200

800 2150

700 2100
600
2050
2012/6/29
2000
500 2012/10/19

Dam filling level

400

Reservoir level
Settlement (mm)

300

200

100

2009/11/1 2010/11/1 2011/11/1 2012/11/1

Data (y/m/d)

V19
V20
V21

(d)
FIGURE 6: Evolution of settlement values with time in the Maoergai dam. (a) EL. 2031 m; b) EL. 2048 m; c) EL. 2078 m; d) EL. 2108 m.
gradually, especially in the lower part of the dam,
which indicates that the settlement gradually stabilized
after the second complete filling of the reservoir
3.4. Deformation of the Qiaoqi Dam
3.4.1. Horizontal Displacement. In the Qiaoqi dam,
monitoring at EL. 2061 and 2085 m started in December
2006, and monitoring at EL. 2110 m started in July 2007.
October 2012, the dam experienced a total of 5.5 cycles of
rising and falling water levels. horizontal displacements
in the river flow direction in the Qiaoqi dam are illustrated in
Figure 7.
figure shows that the horizontal displacements are
in the downstream direction and that the total displace-
ment values decrease with height, and the horizontal
displacements mainly occurred during the first reservoir
impounding (or the dam construction), especially for the
lower portion of the dam. As shown in Figure 7,
before
November 25, 2007, with the water level rising, the
horizontal displacements at EL. 2061, 2085, and 2110 m
increased 186–355, 388–470, and 480–560 mm, re-
spectively. monitoring at EL. 2110 m started in July
2007, 4 months after the dam was filled to an
elevation of 2110.0 m. the first reservoir impounding
displacements at EL. 2110.0 m during the first months
are not included, and the displacements may actually
be much greater. After the first reservoir impounding,
the displacements were very small. During the second
water level cycle (from May 9, 2008 to April 28, 2009),
the displacements at EL. 2061, 2085, and 2110 m
increased only 70–75, 74–79, and 155–178 mm,
respectively. After the second water level cycle, the
horizontal displacements changed very little.

3.4.2. Settlement. settlement patterns of the Qiaoqi dam

is illustrated in Figure 8. settlement values at EL. 2061,
2085, and 2110 m were 560–1220, 620–700, and 440
mm, respectively, during the dam construction phase.
During the second water impounding cycle (from May 9,
2008 to April 28, 2009), the settlement values at EL.
2061, 2085, and 2110 m increased by 80–190, 26–56,
and 89–93 mm, respectively. After the second water
cycle, the dam settlement values at EL. 2061 and 2085
m were negligible. At EL. 2110 m, the settlement values
gradually stabilized after 3 years of operation.
12 Advances in Civil Engineering

2350
400
2300

2007/11/25 2250

2008/9/7 2200

300
2150
2008/11/3
2100

2050

Horizontal displacement (mm) 2000

200

100

2350
0
2300
2006/1/1 2007/1/1 2008/1/1 2009/1/1
Data (y/m/d) 2250

2200
H17 H21
2150
H18 H22

H19 H23 2100

H20 TP01 2050

(a) 2000

500

400

2350
300 2007/11/25
2300
2008/9/7
Horizontal displacement (mm)

2008/11/3 2250

2200

200 2150

2100
100
2050

2000
Data (y/m/d)
0

2006/1/1 2007/1/1 2008/1/1 2009/1/1
Data (y/m/d)

H13 H16

H14 TP06

H15

(b) (c)
Horizontal displacement (mm)

600

2007/11/25

2008/9/7

500

2008/11/3

400

Dam filling level

300 Reservoir level


Elevation (m)
FIGURE 7: Evolution of horizontal displacements with time in the Qiaoqi dam. (a) EL. 2061; b) 2085 m; c) EL. 2110 m.
4.Analysis of the Deformation Patterns of
the Two Dams
4.1. Different Deformation Patterns. Based on the
aforementioned analysis, the deformation patterns of
the Maoergai and Qiaoqi dams were obviously
completely different. By comparing the deformation in
the two dams, four conclusions can be drawn:
Elevation (m)
Elevation (m)
First, in the upper part of the Maoergai and Qiaoqi
dams, most of the horizontal displacement occurred in the
second impounding period and the initial impounding
period, respectively. Table 6 illustrates the horizontal
displacement of the Maoergai dam during every water cycle
and the ratio of the displacement to the total displacement
that occurred during the first three cycles. In the upper part
of the Maoergai dam (0.6H1), where most postconstruction
Advances in Civil Engineering 13

2350
1600
2300

1200 2250

2200

2150
800
2100

Settlement (mm) 2050

2000
400

–400

2006/1/1 2007/1/1 2008/1/1 2009/1/1
Data (y/m/d)
2350

V17 V21
2300
V18 V22
2250
V19 V23
2200
V20 VTP01

(a) 2150

900 2100

800
2050

2000
700

600

2007/11/25

500 2008/9/7

2008/11/3

400 2350
Settlement (mm)

2300
300
2250
200
2200

100 2150
0
2100
2006/1/1 2007/1/1 2008/1/1 2009/1/1
Data (y/m/d) 2050

2000
V13 V16

V14 TP06

V15

(b)

700

600
Settlement (mm)

(c)
500

2007/11/25

2008/9/7 Dam filling level

400 2008/11/3

300
200
 Elevation (m)
Elevation (m)

Elevation (m)
FIGURE 8: Evolution of settlement values with time in the Qiaoqi dam. (a) EL. 2061; b) 2085 m; c) EL. 2110 m.

TABLE 6: horizontal displacements of the Maoergai dam during every water cycle and the ratios of the displacement
values to the total displacement observed during the three cycles.
2031 (0,27 H1) 2048 (0,40 H1) 2078 (0,60 H1) 2108 (0,80 H1)
Value (mm) Ratio (%) Value (mm) Ratio (%) Value (mm) Ratio (%) Value (mm) Ratio (%)
1st cycle 180–230 53–63 125–200 40–50 70–103 12–16 — —
2nd cycle 80–150 28–41 163–190 42–52 445–470 72–77 550–630 —
3rd cycle 20–30 6–10 30–35 8–11 62–82 10–13 130–140 —
14 Overall, different deformation patterns in the two dams
resulted in quite different postconstruction deformation values.
horizontal displacement in the Maoergai dam is considerably
displacement is concentrated, the displacement ratio larger than that in the Qiaoqi dam. For instance, the horizontal
during the second water level cycle was 72–77%. displacement values at 0.40H1 and 0.60H1 in the Maoergai
However, at 0.54H2 and 0.74H2 in the Qiaoqi dam, dam are approximately 2.5 and 4.8 times that at 0.54H2 in the
the displacement percentages were 75–82% and 70–
Qiaoqi dam. Additionally, the settlement values at 0.40H1 and
84%, respectively, during the first water level cycle.
Second, the horizontal displacements in the Maoergai dam 0.60H1 in the Maoergai dam are approximately 2.8 and 4.2
experienced a large sudden increase after the water level times that at 0.54H2 in the Qiaoqi dam. Obviously, deformation
reached 2104.4 m (the highest water level during the initial differences between the two dams became larger with the
impounding) during the second reservoir impounding. increasing dam height, which means that different deformation
maximum increase at 0.80H1 reached 610 mm. In the Qiaoqi patterns are mainly caused by the deformation of the dam body
instead of overburden layers, otherwise the largest differences
dam, horizontal displacements also had a sudden increase
should occur in the lower part of the dam. Moreover, the
when the water level reached 2125.1 m (the highest water level
overburden in both dams is composed of gravel with stone and
during the initial impounding) during the second reservoir sand layers and has similar thicknesses.
impounding, but the increase was very small.
despite the different deformation patterns, the
total horizontal displacements in the two dams are similar at
different heights in the two dams. In the Maoergai dam, the 4.2. Analysis. Similar to the case of the Maoergai and Qiaoqi
total horizontal displacements at 0.40H1 and 0.60H1 were dams, the Changheba and Nuozhadu gravelly soil core rockfill
330–410 mm and 580–650 mm, respectively, whereas in the dams also have similar different displacement trends. In the
Qiaoqi dam, the horizontal displacements at 0.35H2 and upper part of the Nuozhadu dam, horizontal displacements
0.54H2 were 200–360 mm and 410–490 mm, respectively. mainly occurred during the initial impounding, whereas in the
horizontal displacements are mainly caused by the upper part of the Changheba dam, the
upstream water load. Maoergai and Qiaoqi dams with
similar upstream water loads therefore have similar
horizontal displacements.
Fourth, in July 2012 (during the second impounding),
the settlement of the Maoergai dam had a very large
sudden increase of 410 mm, and among all phases
(construction, first impoundment, and operation) in the
lifetime of the dam, the maximum deformation rate in the
upper part of the dam occurred in this period. In the
Qiaoqi dam, the post-construction settlement was very
small, and the maximum deformation rate in the upper
part of the dam occurred in the dam construction phase.
 Advances in Civil Engineering

displacements were quite small. As shown in Table 1, these

two dams also have similar heights. During the first
impounding, the measured maximum horizontal displacement
in the Nuozhadu dam was 890 mm towards the downstream
side, while in the Changheba dam, the measured maximum
horizontal displacement was only 150 mm.
small horizontal displacement in the Changheba and
Maoergai dams during the initial impounding may be
caused by collapse deformation. Figure 9 shows the hori-
zontal displacements in the downstream direction of the
Changheba core. Due to the collapse deformation, the
horizontal displacement of the upstream rockfill and core
will develop in the upstream direction, especially for the top
part of the dam. the enormous water load acting on the
core will have little effect on the downstream displacement.
collapse settlement in the upstream dam shell can
greatly affect the top part of the core and the downstream
rockfill zones, leading to small horizontal displacements. In
some other dams, such as the Pubugou dam, the influence
of collapse settlement is also obvious. Figure 10 shows the
horizontal displacement of the downstream side of the
Pubugou crest. Figures 9 and 10 show that the
displacement in the top part of the dam developed in the
upstream direction at the beginning of the initial impounding
period and then began to develop in the downstream
direction after a certain water level was reached.
In the Qiaoqi and Nuozhadu dams, as shown in Table 7,
the initial water impounding occurred simultaneously with
the dam construction. collapse in the upstream shell
and core was compensated by new material replacement;
thus, the impact of the collapse on the deformation
downstream was reduced. during the initial
impounding, the horizontal displacements of the two dams
were large.
In some dams, such as the Maoergai and Qiaoqi dams,
the reservoir was not filled to its normal storage level during
the initial impounding because of the power plant
requirements, dam height, and the seasonal variations in
precipitation. Here, we call the highest water level during
the initial impounding the first highest water level. first
highest water levels in the Maoergai and Qiaoqi dams were
2104.4 m (28.6 m below the normal water level) and 2125.1
m (14.9 m below its normal water level), respectively.
Because of the large difference between the first highest
water level and the normal water level in the Maoergai dam,
a large increase in dam deformation occurred after the
water level reached the first highest water level during the
second impounding.
In the Maoergai dam, during the period from June 30,
2012 (the first highest water level) to July 7, 2012, the
reservoir level suddenly increased at a very high average
rate of 2.6 m/day, with a maximum rate of 4.4 m/day. Due to
the high impounding rate, after July 7, 2012, the horizontal
displacement increased dramatically, and the maximum
increase reached 360 mm in the following month. In the
Qiaoqi dam, during the period from September 7, 2008 (the
first highest water level) to November 3, 2008 (normal water
level), the reservoir level increased at a very low average
rate of 0.41 m/day, causing small displacement.
Advances in Civil Engineering 15

150 1750 settlement difference between the two dams may

arise from the difference in the breakage characteristics of
1700 the particles in the two dams, as particle breakage has a
(mm)

100 significant influence on the settlement of rockfill materials.

Dam filling level 1650 Particle breakage is the result of microcrack propagation
within particles and mainly affected by the particle char-
Horizontal displacement

Reservoir level
50 1600 acteristics, stress level, and presence or absence of water [27].
As shown in Figure 4, except for the gravelly core, the grain

Elevation (m)
1550 size distributions of the other materials were similar.
0 crack propagation velocity is closely related to the
1500 relative humidity. higher the material humidity is, the
greater the amount of particle crushing is. Partial wetting,

–50 1450 induced by rainfall, has been shown to have the same rel-
2016/5/1 2016/11/1 2017/5/1 2017/11/1 evance as full flooding [28]. Downstream dam shells also
Data (y/m/d) collapse after rainfall [29]. simplified precipitation

0.8 dam height history based on monthly amounts is illustrated in Figures 5

0.2 dam height and 6 for the Maoergai dam site and in Figures 7 and 8 for
the Qiaoqi dam site. Both dam site regions are characterized
FIGURE 9: Horizontal displacement of the downstream side of the
by abundant rainfall, with major rainfall events occurring in
Changheba core.
the period from May to October every year. At the Maoergai
dam site, the average annual rainfall is 620 mm. At the
Qiaoqi dam site, the annual rainfall reaches 1000–1400 mm,

100
Dam filling level 850 and the average number of rainy days over the years is 146.7
50 Reservoir level days.
(mm)

annual rainfall at the Qiaoqi dam site was ap-

0
800 proximately twice that at the Maoergai dam site. Moreover,
–50 during dam construction, the Maoergai dam experienced
only one rainy season, whereas the Qiaoqi dam experienced
Horizontal displacement

–100
750 two. rainfall, which can accelerate the crack
–150 growth rate and creep strain evolution, had a much greater
Elevation (m)

700 impact on the Qiaoqi dam during dam construction. After

–200
the completion of construction, particles in the Qiaoqi dam
–250 Displacement may have had higher local roundness, and the particle size

650
may have decreased; therefore, the contact particle forces
2008/9/20 2009/9/20 2010/9/20 2011/9/20
were smaller at the same stress level, and the material was
Date (y/m/d)
hence less compressible. At the same time, crushing gen-
FIGURE 10: Horizontal displacement of the downstream filter zone erates more fines, and large pores are expected to be oc-
at the dam crest of the Pubugou dam. cupied by these small particles. Densification reduces the
subsequent rearrangement and thus further reduces the
compressibility [30]. a dam that experiences more
TABLE 7: dam construction and the initial impounding period. rainfall during construction is less sensitive to rainfall after
Dam Dam construction Initial impounding the completion of the construction. the creep settle-
 ments in the Qiaoqi dam were large during the dam con-
period period
Jul. 2013–Sep. 2016 Nov. 2016–Dec. 2017 struction but small after the completion of the dam
Changheba
construction. However, in the Maoergai dam, the reverse
Nuozhadu Jan. 2008–Dec. 2012 Dec. 2011–Dec. 2012
Maoergai Dec. 2009–May 2011 Mar. 2011–Nov. 2011 was true. postconstruction settlement values of the
Qiaoqi Jan. 2006–Nov. 2007 Dec. 2006–Nov. 2007 Maoergai dam were very large.
Pubugou Apr. 2007–Sep. 2009 Oct. 2009–Dec. 2010 For the Maoergai dam, Figure 6 shows a distinct cor-
relation between measured settlement rates and periods of
extreme rainfall intensity during the second impounding.
Note that at the Maoergai dam crest, longitudinal Settlement at EL. 2108 m mainly occurred in the period from
cracks appeared just on July 7, 2012. phenomenon June 29 to October 19, 2012. From July to October, when the
must be caused by the overly large postconstruction rainfall was high, the settlement at EL. 2108 m increased by
horizontal deformation. Although the collapse settlement 280 mm at V19, 400 mm at V20, and 550 mm at V21. At V21,
was smaller during the second impounding than during approximately 400 mm of settlement occurred in July 2012,
the first impounding, the sudden large increase in the coinciding with the heaviest rainfall. Figure 6 also shows
horizontal displacement in the downstream direction that, in the upper part of the dam, the settlement near the
during the second impounding could also have caused surface of the dam (V21) was especially high. However, in
cracks. the Qiaoqi dam, the increases in the postconstruction

16 Data Availability
data used to support the findings of this study are
settlement at the same elevation were nearly the same. fact
included within the article.
that the outer part of the Maoergai dam is more sensitive to
rainfall than that of the Qiaoqi dam further confirms that the
settlement rates are closely related to rainfall. Conflicts of Interest
authors declare that they have no conflicts of
5. Conclusion interest.
Monitoring data analysis of practical engineering projects
is helpful in understanding the time-dependent behaviour Acknowledgments
of rockfill dams and is essential for warning engineers
authors would like to thank the support provided by
about potential problems that cannot be reproduced by
the National Key Technology R&D Program (no.
models. dam construction and reservoir schedule always
2013BAB06B02).
differ among different dams because of project cost,
makespan, and quality. In dams where the reservoir
impounding begins after the completion of the dam References
construction, the horizontal displacements are small during
[1] M. Zhou and E. Song, “A random virtual crack DEM
the first impounding due to the effect of collapse model for creep behavior of rockfill based on the subcritical
settlements, but significant postconstruction displacement crack propagation theory,” Acta Geotechnica, vol. 11, no. 4,
occurs during the second impounding. In dams where the pp. 827–847, 2016.
first impounding occurs during the filling of the
embankment, the collapse settlement is compensated by
new material addition; hence, the horizontal displacements
are always large during the first impounding, and the
postconstruction displacements are small.
In some dams, the reservoir is not filled to its normal
storage level during the first impounding. a large
increase in the postconstruction horizontal displacement
may occur during the second impounding. When the
impounding rate is overly high, the displacement will in-
crease dramatically, and longitudinal cracks may occur at the
dam crest during the second impounding.
Careful consideration must be given to rainfall during
both construction and subsequent phases. A dam that
experiences less rainfall during construction is more
sensitive to rainfall after the completion of dam
construction. In this situation, significant postconstruction
settlement is expected to accompany heavy rainfall.
 Advances in Civil Engineering

[2] G. R. McDowell and M. D. Bolton, “On the micromechanics of

crushable aggregates,” G´eotechnique, vol. 48, no. 5,
pp. 667-679, 1998.
[3] Y. Nakata, M. Hyodo, A. F. L. Hyde, Y. Kato, and H.
Murata, “Microscopic particle crushing of sand subjected to high
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