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Bitumen and heavy oil geochemistry: A tool for distinguishing barriers from
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DOI: 10.2113/gscpgbull.59.4.295

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 BULLETIN OF CANADIAN PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
VOL. 59, NO. 4 (DECEMBER, 2011), P. 295–316

Bitumen and heavy oil geochemistry: a tool for distinguishing barriers

from baffles in oil sands reservoirs

MILOVAN FUSTIC1 BARRY BENNETT JENNIFER ADAMS2

Nexen Inc. Gushor Inc. Department of Geoscience
801 – 7th Avenue SW Bay #2, 925 – 30th Street NE University of Calgary
Calgary, AB T2P 3P7 Calgary, AB T2A 5L7 2500 University Drive NW
Calgary, AB T2N 1N4

HAIPING HUANG BILL MACFARLANE

Department of Geoscience Nexen Inc.
University of Calgary 801 – 7th Avenue SW
2500 University Drive NW Calgary, AB T2P 3P7
Calgary, AB T2N 1N4

DALE A. LECKIE STEVE LARTER

Nexen Inc. Department of Geoscience
801 – 7th Avenue SW University of Calgary
Calgary, AB T2P 3P7 2500 University Drive NW
Calgary, AB T2N 1N4

ABSTRACT

To optimize SAGD well-pair placement and improve thermal recovery operations, geochemical bitumen composition
logs are used to identify barriers and baffles to fluid flow, which may compartmentalize McMurray Formation reservoirs
in the Athabasca Oil Sands. SAGD steam chamber growth and cumulative steam oil ratios are sensitive to both vertical
permeability and bitumen viscosity variations, which are commonly encountered in the oil sands reservoirs. In the
McMurray Formation, tidally influenced meandering channel deposits are commonly vertically stacked, forming reservoir
columns up to 80 m thick. In many instances, inclined heterolithic strata (IHS), consisting of interbedded sand and silt
deposited on point bars, comprise barriers to vertical steam chamber growth at multiple horizons of a reservoir. Thus, the
identification, characterization, and delineation of IHS intervals is a critical step for evaluating the reservoir development
potential, and designing an optimal reservoir development strategy. While siltstone beds are routinely identified in cores
and geophysical logs, thin siltstone beds that can act as a barrier to fluid flow are not discernible in seismic reflection data
and have proven difficult to correlate between adjacent delineation wells.
In this study, geochemical bitumen analysis is used to determine the integrity and continuity of siltstone beds within
IHS in order to assess their potential impact on SAGD steam chamber growth. First, high-resolution molecular
composition profiles are obtained from gas chromatography – mass spectrometry analyses of bitumen extracted from cores.
The continuity of biodegradation-susceptible aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations measured through vertical profiles of a
reservoir were used to determine if siltstone-prone intervals observed in log and core data acted as barriers or baffles to
fluid flow over geological time. Integration of the bitumen molecular composition data with geological cross-sections
fosters predictions of the lateral extent of the identified barriers. Furthermore, inferences about reservoir charging and
in-reservoir fluid mixing histories are also made. Geochemical log data indicate that thickness of a heterogeneous low
permeability interval is not necessarily the critical attribute of a barrier to fluid flow. Integration of both sedimentological
information and bitumen geochemical data is useful for the identification of barriers and baffles to fluid flow in oil sand
reservoirs. The method can be applied prior to positioning of SAGD well-pairs and thus could represent an important step
for development planning of heterogeneous reservoirs.

1 Currently at Statoil Canada Ltd., 3600 – 308 4th Avenue SW, Calgary, AB T2P 0H7
2
Currently at ConocoPhillips, 600 North Dairy Ashford, Houston, TX 77079-2197, USA

295
296 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER

RÉSUMÉ

Pour optimiser la mise en place de puits doubles dans le cadre du DGMV et améliorer les activités de récupération
thermique, des diagrammes sur la composition géochimique du bitume sont utilisés pour identifier les barrières et
déviations face à l’écoulement des fluides, lesquelles pourraient cloisonner les gisements de la Formation de McMurray
dans les sables pétrolifères de l’Athabasca. L’extension de chambre de vapeur au cours du procédé DGMV et les rapports
vapeur / pétrole cumulatifs sont sensibles à la perméabilité verticale et aux variations de la viscosité du bitume, ce qui est
courant dans les gisements de sables bitumineux. Dans la Formation de McMurray, les gisements en forme de traînées
sinueuses d’origine maréale sont généralement empilés verticalement en forme de colonnes de 80 m d’épaisseur. Dans
nombre de cas, les strates hétérolithiques inclinées (S.H.I.), constituées de sable et de silt interstratifiés, déposés sur des
bancs de rive convexe, incluent des barrières affectant l’extension des chambres de vapeur verticales en de multiples
horizons d’un gisement donné. Par conséquent, l’identification, la caractérisation et la délimitation des intervalles des
S.H.I. représentent des étapes essentielles pour évaluer le potentiel de mise en valeur du gisement et en concevoir une
stratégie optimale. Bien que l’on identifie couramment les lits de siltites dans les carottes et les diagraphies géophysiques,
les minces lits de siltites, lesquels peuvent barrer l’écoulement des fluides, se révèlent indiscernables dans les données de
sismique réflexion et il s’avère difficile de voir leur corrélation entre les puits de délimitation adjacents.
Dans la présente étude, l’analyse géochimique du bitume nous permet de déterminer l’intégrité et la continuité des lits
de siltites à même les S.H.I., afin d’évaluer leur effet potentiel sur l’extension des chambres de vapeur au cours du DGMV.
En premier lieu, au moyen de la chromatographie et de la spectométrie de bitume tiré de carottes de forage, on obtient des
profils à haute résolution sur la composition moléculaire de cette matière. Puis, nous portons notre attention sur la
concentration d’hydrocarbure aromatique susceptible de biodégradation continue, laquelle nous mesurons à travers le
profil vertical d’un gisement donné. En effet, il s’agit de déterminer si les intervalles qui tendaient à contenir le silt observé
dans les diagraphies et carottes agissaient comme barrières ou déviations face à l’écoulement des fluides au cours des
temps géologiques. Intégrer la composition moléculaire du bitume aux coupes géologiques favorise les prévisions de
l’étendue latérale des barrières identifiées. De plus, des inférences sont mises de l’avant en rapport avec l’alimentation du
gisement et le mélange des fluides en réservoir. Les données géochimiques indiquent que l’épaisseur d’un intervalle
hétérogène à faible perméabilité n’est pas nécessairement l’attribut essentiel d’une barrière face à l’écoulement des fluides.
Intégrer l’information sédimentologique et les données géochimiques sur le bitume se révèle utile pour identifier les
barrières et déviations face à l’écoulement des fluides dans les gisements de sables bitumineux. La méthode peut être
appliquée avant de positionner les puits en double dans le cadre du DGMV et pourrait représenter une étape importante
pour planifier la mise en valeur des gisements hétérogènes.
Michel Ory

INTRODUCTION vertically separated by 4–5 m placed at the base of a reservoir.

The Athabasca Oil Sands deposit, one of the world’s largest
petroleum accumulations, contains an estimated 1.7 trillion
barrels of heavily to severely biodegraded, largely immobile
petroleum at reservoir conditions (Fig. 1; Alberta Energy and
Utilities Board, 2007). This super heavy oil (API gravity 6 to
11º) is trapped in highly permeable, unconsolidated sand sec-
tions of highly heterogeneous reservoirs varying in thickness
from 10 to 70 m or more, with the bulk of the resource buried
too deeply to be economically exploited by surface mining
methods (Kaminsky, 1974). The resource, buried to at least
approximately 200 m depth, is exploited using in-situ extrac-
tion methods involving subsurface stimulation to significantly
increase the mobility (i.e. ratio of effective permeability to
fluid viscosity) of the highly viscous oil. This is done by low-
ering bitumen viscosity via heating, solvent dilution, in-situ
upgrading, gasification or combustion.
Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD) is currently the
most widely applied method for producing bitumen from non-
surface-mineable Athabasca oil sands reservoirs (Butler, 1994).
The SAGD technology involves pairs of horizontal wells
Steam injected into the upper well moves upwards, driven by
buoyancy, through the permeable sands to heat the reservoir
and thus mobilize the bitumen, forming a steam chamber over
time. The steam chamber expands as bitumen is heated and
then flows via gravity drainage down the outside of the cham-
ber into perforations in the lower well (Butler, 1987; Butler,
1994). The velocity of steam chamber rise is proportional to the
vertical reservoir permeability and bitumen viscosity at reser-
voir conditions (Butler, 1987; Strobl et al., 1997; Cody
et al., 2001).
The economic success of a SAGD operation is contingent
on vertically connected, fully bitumen-saturated (75% to 85%
oil saturation by volume) reservoirs at least 10 m in thickness
(e.g. Strobl et al., 2011). For instance, injected steam will stop
rising when it encounters lower permeability strata that it
cannot penetrate or bypass (Butler, 1994), as in the case of a
laterally continuous permeability barrier. While SAGD has
been widely deployed, ubiquitous bitumen viscosity gradients
and reservoir heterogeneities have severely impacted actual
reservoir performance and thus will limit the applicability and
effectiveness of this technology in poorer quality reservoirs
GEOCHEMISTRY FOR DISTINGUISHING BARRIERS FROM BAFFLES
Fig. 1. Location map of the Athabasca oil sands and other major oil sands deposits in Alberta, Canada, modified after Hein and Marsh
(2008). Approximate location of study area is indicated with a star.
(Larter et al., 2008). Hence, to ensure maximum recovery, opti-
mal well placement and efficient (most economic) SAGD
recovery, identification and mapping of barriers and baffles to
fluid flow are critical.
The identification of inclined heterolithic strata (IHS) silt-
stone and assessment of their lateral continuity is very chal-
lenging, because they are too thin for detection on seismic
imaging and are difficult to correlate between adjacent delin-
eation wells. The compositional gradients observed in the bitu-
men of the oil sands deposits document the diffusive flux of
light hydrocarbons towards the oil-water contact during the
process of biodegradation (Larter et al., 2003), and thus may be
an avenue to evaluate the effective permeability of mudstone
layers in the oil sands. Here we hypothesize that geological lay-
ers identified as potential barriers to diffusion of light hydrocar-
bon compounds (C16 and lighter) over geological time may also
inhibit steam chamber growth and prematurely curtail or
adversely impact SAGD operations. Conversely, recognition of
petroleum mixing through a potentially low permeability mud-
stone layer or IHS deposit using geochemical bitumen profiling
may be an indication that the mudstone interval is in fact ade-
quately permeable and/or of limited lateral extent to allow trans-
mission of light hydrocarbons, and thus is considered a baffle.
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the utility of bitu-
men geochemical logs through stacked meandering channel
297
units to characterize the effectiveness of low permeability silt-
stone beds within the inclined heterolithic strata (IHS) as
potential barriers or baffles to diffusion fluid flow over geolog-
ical time. Here we discuss the integration of bitumen molecu-
lar chemistry gradients and sedimentological studies to identify
and map the barriers and baffles in the context of reservoir
stratigraphic architecture for the purpose of optimally position-
ing SAGD well-pairs and managing the SAGD recovery oper-
ation. The presented principles are applicable for distinguishing
barriers from baffles in other stratigraphic settings in the
McMurray Formation where low permeability layers may
compartmentalize the reservoir, such as floodplain and/or tidal
flat deposits.
BARRIERS AND BAFFLES TO THE
SAGD RECOVERY PROCESS
Effects of vertical permeability variations on steam chamber
growth have been the subject of many simulation studies
(Pooladi-Darvish and Mattar, 2002; Chen et al., 2008; Ipek, et
al., 2008; Li et al., 2008; Shin and Choe, 2009; Le Ravalec et
al., 2009; Heidari et al., 2009), a limited number of laboratory
studies (Yang and Butler, 1992), and field case examples
(Strobl et al., 1997; Ito et al., 2001; Strobl, in press). In these
studies, low permeability layers within reservoirs are com-
monly referred to as barriers or baffles to steam chamber
298 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER
growth. Baffles are commonly considered low permeability
layers that inhibit or impede, but do not completely stop steam
chamber growth. Examples include mudstone clast breccias
(Yeung, 2009; Strobl, in press), or a low permeability mudstone
layer of limited extent that steam can bypass laterally at its
outer limits (Ito et al., 2001; Li et al., 2008; Fig. 2a). Unlike
baffles, barriers are considered impermeable layers, inhibiting
steam transfer over the multi-year time scales of typical SAGD
operations. Steam cannot penetrate through or laterally bypass
a barrier over the time period of thermal recovery (Fig. 2b);
however, conductive heating may reduce the bitumen viscosity
above the barrier. Some simulation studies report the possibil-
ity of steam-induced dehydration and fracturing of overlying
impermeable barriers over extended periods of time (i.e. after
several years of injection; Li et al., 2008), but no subsurface
studies have confirmed these hypotheses.
The integrity of impermeable barriers under various reser-
voir conditions is the focus of ongoing research by industry and
academia (e.g. Ito et al., 2001). In SAGD operations, the lateral
extent of a low permeability mudstone dictates whether it
behaves as a barrier or baffle (e.g. Li et al., 2008). Generally,
reported studies do not define the minimum lateral extent of an
impermeable layer such that it behaves like a barrier, although
Fig. 2. Impact of baffles and barriers (extensive low-permeability
layers) on steam rise in SAGD operations (modified after Li et al., 2008).
a) A baffle temporarily impedes steam rise due to its discontinuous
extent such that, over time, the steam may detour around the baffle into
the overlying reservoirs. Decreasing viscosity of produced bitumen over
time is a function of the steam chamber accessing and producing the
less viscous bitumen commonly found in the upper portions of the
reservoir. b) A barrier impedes steam and does not allow it to go through
the impermeable layer for certain periods of time. So stands for the pore
saturation of oil, Sg for the pore saturation of gas, and Sw for the pore
saturation of water.
Shin and Choe (2009) have suggested that barriers are imper-
meable layers with lateral extent greater than 50 metres.
BITUMEN QUALITY CHARACTERIZATION
The Athabasca oil sands bitumen has low API gravity (6 to 11º)
and high viscosity, ranging from 1E5cP to >1E7cP at reservoir
temperatures (Seyer and Gyte, 1989; Erno et al., 1991; Strausz
and Lown, 2003). Over an order of magnitude viscosity varia-
tion within a single petroleum column is commonly seen and
has been attributed to anaerobic oil biodegradation driven from
a basal water saturated reservoir zone (Head et al., 2003;
Aitken et al., 2004; Larter et al., 2006; Larter et al., 2008;
Adams, 2008). Anaerobic biodegradation occurs within the oil-
water transition zone where diffusion of biodegradable hydro-
carbon components through the oil column to the active
biodegradation zone is responsible for observed vertical com-
positional gradients. Larter et al. (2006, 2008), Adams (2008),
and Fustic et al. (in press a) document the strong relationship
between vertical molecular compositional variations and oil
viscosity gradients in the Alberta oil sands.
RESERVOIR ARCHITECTURE
Tidally influenced meandering river channel deposits com-
monly consist of large-scale point bars up to 40 m thick (e.g.
Mossop and Flach, 1983; Flach, 1984; Wightman and
Pemberton, 1997; Strobl et al., 1997; Labrecque et al., 2011),
or a series of stacked, smaller channel architectural elements
(Wightman and Pemberton, 1997; Strobl et al., 2004) (Fig. 3a).
The meandering channel deposits may be subdivided into
large-scale depositional elements such as abandoned channel,
lower point bar, and upper point bar deposits (Fig. 3a). Upper
point bar deposits commonly comprise IHS, which contain
interbedded sand and low permeability siltstone beds in vari-
able proportions that are inclined (commonly 4 to 12 degrees)
and commonly bioturbated (cf. Pemberton et al., 1982; Thomas
et al., 1987; Smith et al. 2009; Hubbard et al., 2011).
In the McMurray Formation, IHS packages are up to 40
metres thick, as mapped in outcrop (Mossop and Flach, 1983;
Flach, 1984; Wightman and Pemberton, 1997; Strobl et al.,
1997), high-resolution seismic data (Druesne et al., 2007;
Hubbard et al., 2011, Fustic et al., 2012) and interpreted dip-
meter data (Muwais and Smith, 1990; Strobl et al., 1997;
Brekke and Evoy, 2004; Fustic, 2007; Brekke and Couch,
2011). IHS units associated with upper point bar deposits typi-
cally overlie genetically related cross-bedded sands attributed
to lower point bar deposition (Fig. 3a); however, in some
instances IHS down-laps onto the channel base (Wightman and
Pemberton, 1997).
Although IHS deposits host significant bitumen resources in
the McMurray Formation, their reservoir development poten-
tial is controversial. Previous work has indicated that when ris-
ing steam encounters low permeability siltstone strata and/or
laminae (centimeter to decimeter thick) within the IHS units,
chamber growth is reduced and steam is forced to migrate lat-
erally, following the natural paths of least resistance (Strobl et
GEOCHEMISTRY FOR DISTINGUISHING BARRIERS FROM BAFFLES 299

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of three stacked meandering channel deposits and the impact of reservoir architecture on steam chamber growth
(modified after Strobl et al., 2004). a) Emplacement of channel 2 has completely eroded the upper IHS layers of channel 1, while channel 3 has
partially removed IHS layers at the top of channel 2. b) In areas where siltstone-dominated IHS are removed, a thick clean reservoir allows steam
to rise with no obstacles (steam chamber on left). In areas where clean sand is separated by siltstone-dominated IHS layers (above the well-pair at
right), steam may (i.e. baffle) or may not (i.e. barrier) be able to rise through siltstone beds to heat and mobilize bitumen from clean reservoirs at
the base of channel 3. Aligned filled black and open circles indicate injection and production SAGD wells, respectively. UPB - upper point bar deposit.

al., 1997; Ito et al., 2001; Strobl, 2007; Strobl, in press). In the
worst-case scenario, this leaves bitumen entrapped in overlying
sandy sections of the IHS inaccessible to steam, and thus
potentially stranded (Strobl et al., 1997; Ito et al., 2001; Strobl,
2007; Strobl, in press).
The lateral extent of the low permeability siltstone beds
depends on many factors including the presence and/or absence
of erosional surfaces (Thomas et al., 1987; Strobl et al., 1997),
and the size of the channels (i.e. large channels tend to have
more extensive IHS). The geomechanical properties also
depend on the thickness of the siltstone strata, the level of
bioturbation (Cody et al., 2001; Lettley and Pemberton, 2003),
and the content and the mineralogical composition of clay
within siltstone layers (e.g. smectite expands and fractures
more easily than other clay minerals; pers. comm. Yang
Yanguang).
SAGD pay or net continuous bitumen criteria vary among
oil sands operators. In general, economically viable SAGD
300 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER
reservoirs must have a minimum uninterrupted, highly bitumen
saturated pay thickness of at least 10 m (Strobl et al., 2011).
Most operators also define the top of pay based on the operator
specific economic cut-off thickness of individual low perme-
ability layers, or shale volume (Vsh) over a certain thickness
interval, which can vary from 1 to more than 4 m. Although the
economic cut-off thickness of low permeability layers varies
from operator to operator (Strobl, 2007), a major effort is given
to characterizing the lateral and vertical dimensions of silt-
stone-dominated intervals for the purposes of assessing the
effectiveness of these layers as baffles or barriers to steam
chamber growth (Cody et al., 2001).
Assessment of the lateral extent of IHS by correlation and
mapping of siltstone beds between delineation wells has proven
difficult (Fustic, 2007). Individual IHS beds are not likely to be
penetrated in adjacent wells, since an 8° dip of beds in a verti-
cal section that is 40 m thick would only be present across a lat-
eral distance of approximately 285 m, which is less than typical
delineation well spacing. Therefore, evaluation of the effec-
tiveness of IHS siltstone beds as barriers or baffles to steam rise
across reservoirs is a difficult challenge. It is probable that in
some instances more laterally persistent low permeability beds,
or intervals, are not inclined, perhaps deposited as floodplain or
intertidal deposits on the tops of point bars. Regardless, the
impact of low permeability units on fluid flow is crucial for the
optimal placement of SAGD well-pairs (Cody et al., 2001;
Strobl, 2007) and subsequent production optimization (Byerley
et al., 2009). A method capable of assessing fluid compartmen-
talization from individual well data is desirable.
RESERVOIR PERMEABILITY PROPERTIES
Generally, cross-bedded sands of lower point bar deposits are
characterized by vertical permeability ranges of 2 to 6 darcies
(D), while siltstone in abandoned channel deposits and upper
point bar units are characterized by a 2 to 3 order of magnitude
decrease in permeability (Strobl et al., 1997; Strobl, 2007,
Strobl, in press). Intra-reservoir siltstone permeability in oil
sands reservoirs is generally in the micro- to nano- darcy range
(Jokanola, 2007), effectively making the fine-grained units
barriers to SAGD performance if laterally continuous. The dis-
tribution of these barriers and baffles, in terms of lateral
extent, gross thickness and vertical position within the reser-
voir column, determines the economic viability of a SAGD
recovery operation.
In cases where channel units are stacked vertically, each suc-
cessive channel commonly erodes the uppermost parts of the
underlying channel package, often resulting in removal of unde-
sirable low permeability siltstone beds. The complete erosion of
laterally continuous upper point bar deposits may result in very
thick sand reservoirs (Strobl et al., 2004; Fig. 3a). Frequently,
only portions of IHS packages are removed, resulting in com-
plex reservoir architecture (Fig. 3a). In cases where the reservoir
comprises two or more isolated, vertically stacked channel
packages, the characterization and distribution of multiple dis-
tinctive IHS units is critical for devising a development strategy
aimed at production of bitumen from each horizon (Fig. 3).
PREVIOUS WORKS
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR IDENTIFYING
SILTSTONE BEDS WITHIN IHS
The presence and extent of low permeability siltstone beds
within IHS in oil sands reservoirs are assessed with a range of
methodologies prior to development or during the production
life cycle. Before reservoir development, geostatistical deter-
ministic and stochastic prediction of facies and reservoir prop-
erty distributions (McLennan and Deutsch, 2005; Card et al.,
2005), sedimentological analysis of cores (e.g. Ranger and
Pemberton, 1997; Crerar and Arnott, 2007), and evaluation of
wireline log data including dipmeters (e.g. Strobl et al., 1997;
Cody et al., 2001; Brekke and Evoy, 2004; Fustic, 2007) are
used to detect the presence and extent of siltstone beds. In some
instances, large-scale depositional elements, including IHS-
dominated units, are identified in high-quality three-dimen-
sional seismic data (e.g. Druesne et al., 2007; Hubbard et al.,
2011; Labrecque et al., 2011). However, individual siltstone
beds in IHS units are not identifiable in these data because they
are too thin (Byerley et al., 2009).
During reservoir production, methodologies for assessing
reservoir heterogeneities and their impact on steam chamber
growth include time lapse (4D) seismic and successive temper-
ature measurements in observational wells. Although an indi-
rect qualitative measurement method, four dimensional (4D)
seismic analysis during the life of a SAGD project permits
visualization of steam chamber growth in space and time,
therefore barriers to steam flow can be inferred from irregular-
ities in steam chamber growth patterns (Byerley et al., 2009).
Direct monitoring of steam chamber growth is achieved
through the use of thermocouples, placed within selected well
bores (e.g. Strobl et al., 1997; Birrell, 2001; Strobl, in press).
Measurements are continuous at specific points and numerous
wells must be equipped with thermocouples to establish corre-
lations between drilled wells, which is costly. Information
obtained from 4D seismic and temperature recorders within
observational wells are used for well operating optimization,
which includes improving steam conformance and oil recovery
from “underperforming” parts of a field (Byerley et al., 2009),
as well as steam split planning and positioning scab liners
(Fustic et al., in press b).
GEOCHEMISTRY AS A TOOL FOR DEFINING
RESERVOIR COMPARTMENTS
Reservoir geochemistry has traditionally been utilized as a
powerful and inexpensive technique in the exploration and
development of conventional hydrocarbon plays. There is a
long history of using variations in petroleum composition for
the identification and evaluation of reservoir compartments
(e.g. Kaufman et al., 1990, 1997; Smalley and England, 1992,
1994; Hwang and Baskin, 1994; Nederlof et al., 1994, 1995;
Larter and Aplin, 1995; Smalley and Hale, 1996; Noyau et al.,
1997; Larter et al., 1997; Beeunas et al., 1999; Edman and
Burk, 1999; Westrich et al., 1999; Murty et al., 2005; Smalley
and Muggeridge, 2010), as well as for monitoring performance
GEOCHEMISTRY FOR DISTINGUISHING BARRIERS FROM BAFFLES 301

of conventional, compartmentalized oil reservoirs (McKinney
and Bland, 2003; Weissenburger and Borbas, 2004; Milkov et
al., 2007).
In-reservoir fluid mixing processes are driven by gravity,
temperature and buoyancy, and guided by capillary pressure dif-
ferences in host rocks (England, 1989; Smalley and
Muggeridge, 2010). These processes cause molecular diffusion
and convection that, given sufficient time, produce continuous
and thus predictive vertical and lateral compositional differ-
ences in non-compartmentalized reservoirs (England et al.,
1987; England, 1989, 1994; Larter and Aplin, 1995; Stainforth,
2004; Smalley and Muggeridge, 2010). The utilization of bitu-
men composition for identifying reservoir compartments in
McMurray Formation reservoirs is thoroughly addressed by
Adams (2008) and Fustic et al. (in press a).
In biodegraded reservoirs, such as those of the Athabasca Oil
Sands, the systematic removal of more biodegradation-suscep-
tible compounds at the oil-water contact creates downward
decreasing concentration gradients in an oil column. The shape
of the concentration gradients for a given compound or com-
pound class is controlled by its diffusivity towards the oil-water
contact (Larter et al., 2003; Head et al., 2003; Larter et al., 2008).
Numerous studies demonstrate that concentration profiles of
aromatic hydrocarbon compounds are superior for characteriz-
ing petroleum heterogeneity in heavily biodegraded oil reser-
voirs (e.g. Volkman et al., 1984; Rowland et al., 1986, Fisher et
al., 1998). Fisher et al. (1998) demonstrated that the relative
rates of depletion of individual alkylnaphthalene isomers
increases with increasing extent of biodegradation. The suscep-
tibility of alkylnaphthalenes to biodegradation decreased in the
order: methylnaphthalenes (C1N) >dimethylnaphthalenes (C2N)
>trimethylnaphthalenes (C3N) >tetramethylnaphthalenes (C4N),
leading to the conclusion that comparison of their concentra-
tions can be used for relative biodegradation assessment (Note:
number shown in subscript indicates the number of attached
methyl [CH3] groups to naphthalene [C10H8]). The utility of
individual aromatic hydrocarbon molecular markers includes
methylphenanthrenes (MP) (Connan, 1984; Head et al., 2003;
Huang et al., 2004). In addition to systematic changes in bulk
concentrations of all the methylphenanthrene isomers, the pref-
erential removal of 1-methylphenanthrene (1-MP) over 9-
methylphenanthrene (9-MP) is typically considered diagnostic
of high biodegradation levels (Volkman et al., 1984; Rowland et
al., 1986). In some instances, however, faster depletion of 9-MP
may occur in the Athabasca oil sand deposits, associated with
different biodegradation pathways (Adams, 2008; Bennett and
Larter, 2008). The utility of methylnaphthalene, di-, tri-, and
tetramethylnaphthalene, methylphenanthrenes, dimethylphenan-
threnes and ethylphenanthrene molecular markers is of particu-
lar value in this study.
Fustic et al. (in press a) used molecular concentration gradi-
ents, including methylphenanthrenes, to demonstrate the impact
of laterally continuous mudstone layers (interpreted as flood-
plain deposits) on vertical compartmentalization and bitumen
heterogeneity of a reservoir, as well as the impact of large-scale
abandoned channel mudstone plug deposits on lateral compart-
mentalization and lateral bitumen heterogeneity of a reservoir.
Adams (2008) used 1-D advection-diffusion models to quantify
the impact of the permeability of mudstone layers on composi-
tional gradients in biodegraded oil fields. In reservoirs with rel-
atively uniform vertical permeability, continuous gradients
develop with monotonically decreasing concentrations of
hydrocarbon compounds down towards the oil-water contact or
to where the oil-water contacts would have been in cases
where the reservoir is filled to an underseal (Fig. 4a). Models
with lower permeability baffles are associated with deflected

Fig. 4. Schematic compositional bitumen gradients modified after subsurface studies (Fustic et al., in press a) and from one dimensional
advection/diffusion models (Adams, 2008). a) Vertically connected transmissive reservoirs are characterized by a gradual downward decrease in
molecular concentrations of biodegradation-susceptible light hydrocarbons due to removal of hydrocarbons via biodegradation at the oil-water
contact. b) Reservoirs with baffles contain a bend in the downwards-decreasing profile. c) Reservoirs with internal barriers are characterized by
two separate downwards-decreasing light hydrocarbon concentration profiles.
302 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER

compositional profiles (Fig. 4b). Barriers typically separate two

venture between Nexen Inc. and OPTI Canada (Fig. 1). Detailed
compartments, which fill with petroleum separately, such that sedimentological and stratigraphic architecture analysis of por-
distinct compositional gradients develop and steps in bitumen tions of the area has recently been completed by Hubbard et al.
composition and viscosity are observed (Fig. 4c). (2011) and Labrecque et al. (2011). Sedimentological analysis
of drill cores, geophysical log interpretation, petrophysical
STUDY AREA AND GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND analysis, laboratory measurements of bitumen saturation and
investigation of high-quality 3D seismic data were included in
In this case study, the data analyzed are from northeastern this study (Fig. 5 and Fig. 6). The reservoir zone of interest is
Alberta, south of Fort McMurray, at a property held by a joint within the McMurray Formation and consists of three stacked

Fig. 5. Composite logs of data from the two wells included in this study. Columns include GR (gamma ray log track), El. (depositional elements
such as lower and upper point bars [latter sub-divided into sandy and muddy IHS]), V. (location of viscosity samples), G. (location of GCMS
samples), Bit. (bitumen weight percent measurements displayed as a histogram), Dip. (dipmeter log). Red wavy lines represent interpreted base
of meandering belts (channels), inclined dashed lines indicate fining upwards sequences in each channel, and numbered double headed arrows
indicate thickness of each stacked meandering channel belt deposit. Only the bitumen-saturated interval is shown. Boxes highlight locations of
core intervals shown in Fig. 7. a) Well 1 and b) Well 2; Note that sandy versus heterolithic upper point bar deposits are subdivided based upon a
60 API gamma-radiation cut-off.

Fig. 6 (following page). Geological interpretation of upper part of studied area based on a seismic slice map from 10 metres below the top of
the McMurray Formation. The location of studied wells is indicated. a) Abandoned channel mudstone plugs (green) and point bar deposits (brown)
of an ancient meandering river system are interpreted. Note that at this elevation a mudstone plug separates the reservoir into two lateral
compartments, “A” and “B”. b) Schematic geological cross-section between the two studied wells with approximate locations of other wells used
in making the correlation. Interpretation shows the preservation of several stacked meandering river channel deposits underlined by flood plain
deposits and Devonian carbonates and shales. Wavy red lines indicate the interpreted bases of each of the three stacked channel deposits,
blue areas are water-saturated intervals, and yellow areas are reservoir sands saturated with bitumen. Note that the top of each channel is
characterized by variably preserved IHS packages of various thickness.
GEOCHEMISTRY FOR DISTINGUISHING BARRIERS FROM BAFFLES 303
304 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER

meandering channel belt deposits that overlie remnants of later-
ally extensive flood plain deposits and Devonian carbonates and
shales (Fig. 6b). Only the architecture of the youngest meander
belt is resolved in seismic data (Fig. 6), thus the two lower chan-
nel deposits are interpreted from core and log data only.
The youngest meander belt is comprised of several point bar
and abandoned channel mudstone plug deposits that separate
the upper part of the reservoir into lateral compartments, A and
B (Fig. 6a). The youngest meander belt (channel 3 in Figs. 5
and 6b) has eroded the upper parts of meander belt 2; likewise,
meander belt 2 has also eroded the upper parts of meander belt
1 (Figs. 5 and 6b). Each meandering channel package is char-
acterized by clean cross-bedded sand in the lower parts (lower
point bar deposits) with fining upwards sequences character-
ized by inclined heterolithic strata (IHS) in the upper parts of
the deposit. In a stacked channel environment, such as the one
in this case study (Figs. 5 and 6b), emplacement of successive
channel deposits is associated with removal of IHS at the top of
the underlying (older) channel deposit. In the study area,
interbedded sand and siltstone strata associated with at least the
lower portion of IHS are still preserved (Figs. 5, 6b and 7).
Interpreted processes and present day reservoir architecture are
similar to Strobl et al. (2004; Fig. 3).
Visual core investigation and log analysis interpretation can-
not accurately predict the lateral extent and permeability to
fluid migration and molecular diffusion through the reservoir
siltstones. Furthermore, the lower two meander belt layers
(1 and 2) are below seismic resolution and thus none of these
data can be utilized for interpretation of the lateral extent and
continuity of the siltstone-dominated units between drilled
locations. Furthermore, the data from wells drilled between
two studied wells (Fig. 6b) show no evidence of preserved

Fig. 7. Core images from selected intervals in the two studied wells (see Fig. 5 for locations). Numbers posted
on cores indicate locations of selected samples analyzed by GC-MS as shown in Fig. 5. a) Depth interval between
254.75 and 270.30 m in well 1. b) Depth interval between 295.00 and 305.30 m in well 2.
GEOCHEMISTRY FOR DISTINGUISHING BARRIERS FROM BAFFLES 305

abandoned channel mudstone plugs in meander belts 1 and 2, ethylphenanthrenes (C2P) are posted on corresponding eleva-
but consistently show preservation of IHS in upper parts of tion intervals to create geochemical logs (Fig. 8), and mass
each channel deposit (Fig. 6b). chromatograms of methylphenanthrene isomers are qualita-
tively compared to illustrate the applicability and simplicity of
this geochemical tool (Fig. 9).
METHODOLOGY Dead oil viscosity was measured at temperatures of 20, 38,
54 and 80ºC (Table 1, Fig. 10) using a Brookfield viscometer.
Potential barriers associated with IHS intervals are assessed
API gravity was measured using a DMA 4500 Anton Paar
through bitumen molecular compositional analysis of samples
Density meter at multiple temperatures and measurements are
taken above and below each major siltstone dominated IHS
projected to 15.56ºC (60º Fahrenheit; Table 1, Fig. 10). Results
interval. Recently drilled cores were analyzed to minimize the
from both wells were interpreted in the context of the previ-
negative effects of evaporation of volatile compounds during
ously defined depositional reservoir architecture.
storage on bitumen composition and viscosity (Adams et al.,
2008). Fourteen geochemical and eight viscosity and API grav-
ity samples were taken from cores through two stacked vertical RESULTS
reservoir sections to construct high-resolution bitumen compo-
sition “logs” (Fig. 5). Bitumen from oil sand samples selected A general trend of decreasing total methylphenanthrene (MP)
for geochemical molecular composition analysis was extracted and dimethylphenanthrene and ethylphenanthrene (C2P) con-
using dichloromethane (DCM). The saturated and aromatic centrations in the oil towards the base of the oil column in wells
hydrocarbons were separated from bitumen extracts using the 1 and 2 is shown in Figure 8. In particular, the MP concentra-
procedure described by Bennett and Larter (2000). These frac- tions range over no more than 60 µg/g of oil within the mapped
tions were analyzed using gas chromatography – mass spec- channel 2 in wells 1 and 2 (Fig. 8, Table 2). This is not the case
trometry (GC-MS) on a Hewlett-Packard 5890 GC (using within the mapped channel 3, where the MP concentrations in
splitless injection) interfaced to a HP 5970B quadrupole mass well 1 are much lower (in all but one sample less than 30 µg/g
selective detector. Geochemical data from each sample were of oil) than in well 2 where it exceeds 300 µg/g of oil; (Fig. 8;
quantified and the results of selected aromatic compounds are Table 2). A similar trend can be seen in concentration gradients
summarized in Table 2. In addition, concentrations of methyl- of other aromatic compounds including naphthalene, methyl-,
phenanthrenes (MP) and the sum of dimethylphenanthrene and di-, tri-, and tetramethylnaphthalenes (C0-4 N), benzo and

Fig. 8. Concentration profiles of total methylphenanthrene (1-MP + 2-MP + 3-MP + 9-MP) and total dimethylphenanthrene and ethylphenan-
threne (C2P) isomers in well 1 (a) and well 2 (b). Concentrations are in micrograms per gram (µg/g) of oil; GR = gamma ray log. Wavy red lines
indicate the bases of interpreted meandering channel belts in each well. Upwards oriented arrows indicate fining upwards sequences. Downward
oriented dashed lines show average concentration gradients of methylphenanthrene isomers and downward oriented solid lines show trends of
dimethylphenanthrenes and ethylphenanthrenes (C2P).
306 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER

Fig. 9. Chromatogram traces of the m/z 192 ion showing abundance of four different methylphenan-
threne isomers in well 1 (a) and well 2 (b). The traces are stacked from the bottom to the top of the
reservoir (i.e. the deepest chromatogram is from sample 1 and the shallowest from sample 14). Peaks
in chromatogram traces from left to right show methylphenanthrene isomers 3, 2, 9 and 1. Arrows show
the direction of depletion (downwards) of each isomer. c) Schematic presentation of molecular struc-
tures of methylphenanthrene isomers 1, 2, 3 and 9 from left to right. 7R and 11R are duplicate samples
run for quality control.
GEOCHEMISTRY FOR DISTINGUISHING BARRIERS FROM BAFFLES
dibenzothiophenes (C0-1 DBT) and dimethylphenanthrenes and
ethylphenanthrenes (C2P) (Table 2). This suggests that, in gen-
eral, the oil within channel 3 in well 2 is less biodegraded than
well 1 oil within the same channel unit.
For each sample location, comparison of aromatic com-
pound classes of increasing biodegradation resistance shows an
increase in the concentrations with increasing resistance. In
particular, in sample 14 of well 2, the summed concentrations
of naphthalene and methylnaphthalenes (C0-1N) is only 3.8
µg/g of oil, but overall there is a systematic increase in more
biodegradation resistant compounds, reaching 211.7 µg/g of
C4N in oil and as high as 508.9 µg/g of dimethylphenanthrene
and ethylphenanthrenes (C2P) in oil (Table 2).
Within each well, concentrations of selected aromatic com-
pounds in the bitumen samples analyzed show distinctly differ-
ent patterns in relation to their common reservoir architecture.
For instance, the concentration profile or geochemical log of
total MP and C2P isomers in well 1 is characterized by two
stacked downward decreasing concentration trends, separated
at the contact between channels 2 and 3 (Fig. 8a; Table 2).
Conversely, well 2 is characterized by a single downwards-
decreasing concentration profiles of both MP and C2P isomers
(Fig. 8b) and other aromatic compounds (Table 2).
Mass chromatogram (m/z 192) profiles along the wells show
removal of more biodegradation susceptible (3-MP and 1-MP)
isomers with increasing depth, associated with preferential
biodegradation (Fig. 9). In well 1, 1-MP and 3-MP isomers are
not detected in the lowermost portions of each stacked pay zone,
Table 1. Dead oil viscosity (in cP at 20, 54, 80, 149, and 185 degrees C) and
API gravity (at 15.9ºC) from 8 sample points in two studied wells.
307
while the 2-MP isomer is detected throughout the bitumen col-
umn and the 9-MP in all but the deepest sample (Fig. 9a). Mass
chromatograms from well 2 (Fig. 9b) indicate removal of 3-MP
and 1-MP in only the bottom four samples of channel 2, and 9-
MP in the bottom two samples, whereas again 2-MP is present
throughout, including the lowermost sample (Fig. 9b). These
relationships confirm a higher level of biodegradation in both
reservoir sections of well 1 relative to well 2.
Molecular composition break in well 1 is also evident from
analysis of other aromatic hydrocarbon compounds (Table 2).
Additionally, the viscosity and API gravity data (Table 1 and
Fig. 10) show a discontinuity in the fluid properties in well 1,
coincident with the stratigraphic contact between channels 2
and 3, as seen in the concentration trends of methyl-
phenanthrenes, dimethylphenanthrene and ethylphenan-
threnes (Fig. 8).
INTERPRETATION
Gradual monotonic changes of methylphenanthrene and
dimethylphenanthrene and ethylphenanthrene molecular iso-
mer concentrations in well 2 (Figs. 8 and 9), and other selected
aromatic compounds (Table 2), coupled with a continuous vis-
cosity profile (Fig. 10), suggest that bitumen at the bottom of
the pay zone is more degraded than the bitumen at the top.
Therefore the whole oil column was in fluid communication
with a fresher oil charge most likely delivered to the top of the
reservoir with active biodegradation at the base of pay.
308 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER

Fig. 10. Viscosity measurements at 20ºC and API gravity at 15.56ºC

(60º Fahrenheit) in well 1 (a) and well 2 (b) plotted versus depth of the
sample. Downward oriented dashed arrows show average viscosity and
API gravity gradients. Wavy red lines indicate the bases of interpreted
meandering channel belts in each well.
GEOCHEMISTRY FOR DISTINGUISHING BARRIERS FROM BAFFLES 309

This conclusion could not be made based on classical well
log suite interpretation alone (Fig. 5b). In contrast, well 1 has
two separate, stacked molecular compositional and viscosity
gradients marked by a break in concentration between samples
6 and 7 (Figs. 8, 9 and 10; Table 2) indicating compartmental-
ization across the whole bitumen column in that area. The com-
parison with interpreted geology shows that the step change in
bitumen composition found in well 1 coincides with the contact
between channel 2 and 3, where heterolithic strata character-
izes the top of channel 2 (Figs. 5a, 6b and 7). Based on the
bitumen molecular compositional and viscosity gradients, the
IHS siltstone at the top of channel 2 in well 2 evidently did not
limit vertical fluid communication in the reservoir, as was the
case in well 1. The data from well 1 indicates that a significant
break in oil molecular composition can be interpreted confi-
dently to coincide with an effective and laterally extensive bar-
rier to petroleum mixing through geological time.
Biodegradation is also a dominant process that controlled
bitumen composition and properties. Systematically higher
concentrations of more biodegradation-resistant compounds

Table 2. Molecular concentration (ug/g) of selected aromatic molecular markers in two studied wells.
Note breaks in concentration between samples 6 and 7 in well 1 and consistent,
un-interrupted downward decreasing concentration gradient in well 2.
C0-1N – sum of naphthalene and methylnaphthalene concentrations; C2N – sum of dimethyl- and ethylnaphthalene
concentrations; C3N – sum of tetramethylnaphthalene concentrations; C4N – sum of tetramethylnaphthalene concentrations;
C0-1DBT – sum of dibenzothiophene and methyldibenzothiophene concentrations; P – concentration of phenanthrene; MP –
sum of methylphenanthrene concentrations; and C2P – sum of dimethylphenanthrene and ethylphenanthrene concentrations.
310 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER

are notable, compared to the concentrations of more
biodegradation-susceptible compounds within each sample
(i.e. virtually at every sampled location, the concentration of
C2P >MP >P and concentrations of C4N >C3N >C2N >C0-1N;
Table 2). Furthermore, preferential removal of the more
biodegradation-susceptible isomers 1-MP and 3-MP is appar-
ent (Fig. 9). The strong correlation between oil viscosity (Fig.
10) and the selected molecular composition concentration
profiles (Fig. 8; Table 2) in both studied wells is consistent
with the conclusion that present day viscosity gradients in the
Alberta oil sands deposits are primarily a function of the dif-
fering levels of biodegradation (Adams, 2008; Gates et al.,
2008; Larter et al., 2008; Fustic et al., in press a). However,
these viscosity variations, caused by biodegradation, can
highlight the effectiveness of geological barriers and baffles
in the oil sands also (Fig. 10).
The geochemical profiles can also point to reservoir charg-
ing and in-reservoir petroleum mixing processes (England et
al., 1987; England, 1989, 1994; Stainforth, 2004), as well as
biodegradation processes and products (Bennett and Larter,
2008; Larter et al., 2008; Fustic et al., in press a) over geolog-
ical time (Fig. 11). In the early stages of petroleum charging in
the McMurray Formation, oil filled the upper portions of the
reservoirs first due to charged oil buoyancy (Fig. 11a). In the
area of well 1, due to the vertical partitioning of the reservoir
by low permeability siltstone-dominated strata, deposits of the
upper meander belt (channel 3) were filled separately from
deposits in the underlying meander belt (channel 2). As a result,
two independent oil-water contacts were established in each of
the stacked reservoir sections (Fig. 11a) and biodegradation of
the oil by microorganisms residing in oil sands formation
waters commenced (Oldenburg et al., 2009; Hubert et al., 2011;
Fig. 11a).
Later (Fig. 11b), as a new, fresh petroleum charge contin-
ued into the McMurray Formation, earlier entrapped petro-
leum was pushed or spilled further to the east. Because the
new, fresh petroleum was lighter than the previously arrived
and already partially biodegraded petroleum, it occupied the
upper parts of the reservoir (Fig. 11b), again forcing the oil-
water contact to move downwards (Fig. 11b). At the later
stages (Fig. 11c), when petroleum charge had stopped or
slowed due to the cessation of burial of the oil source kitchen
in the west, petroleum mixing in the oil column and extensive
biodegradation along the oil-water contact continued until
present day (Oldenburg et al., 2009; Hubert et al., 2011).
Vertical diffusion driven by concentration gradients (England
et al., 1987; England, 1989, 1994; Smalley and Muggeridge,
2010) dominated in-reservoir mixing processes, which pro-
duced bitumen molecular composition and viscosity gradients
(Figs. 8, 9, and 10).
The geological cross-section shows that meander belt 3 has
incised several meters more deeply in areas defined by lateral
compartment “B” (Fig. 6b). Therefore, emplacement of
meander belt 3 was associated with more complete erosion of
the siltstone beds within IHS of the underlying meander belt
2 in the vicinity of compartment “B” (Fig. 6b or Fig. 11).
Smoothly downward decreasing molecular concentration gra-
dients of methylphenanthrene (MP) and dimethylphenan-
threne and ethylphenanthrene (C2P) (Fig. 8) show that the
removal of more of the siltstone-dominated strata in the com-
partment “B” area (penetrated by well 2) must have removed
the lowest permeability, or most widespread siltstone strata,
providing migration pathways for by-passed fluid communi-
cation and mixing. This means that the reservoir was charged
with oil as a single unit via continuous, uninterrupted in-
reservoir filling and mixing processes. Less erosion associ-
ated with emplacement of meanderbelt 3 in the area of
compartment “A” lead to preservation of a thicker portion of
lower permeability siltstone beds (high gamma ray signal) at
the top of meander belt 2 (Figs. 6b and 11) and thus a signif-
icant lateral extent of low permeability units was preserved.
This unit has effectively separated the compartment “A”
reservoir into two stacked compartments, as suggested by the
discontinuous bitumen molecular composition and oil viscos-
ity gradients (Figs. 8–10; Tables 1 and 2).
Furthermore, the large abandoned channel mudstone plug
that separates compartments “A” and “B” has acted as a lateral
seal in meander belt 3 (Figs. 6b and 11) and compartmentalized
the upper part of the reservoir penetrated in well 1 from that in
well 2. This mudstone plug acted as a seal, impeding further
eastward-southeastward migration of petroleum and inhibiting
petroleum mixing between compartments “A” and “B”
(Fig. 11). In addition, based on the much higher level of
biodegradation observed in compartment “A” as compared to
compartment “B” oil, it would appear that compartment “A”
oil was most likely isolated from and/or by-passed by new oil
charge prior to filling of compartment “B”. In summary, the
channel 3 deposit area northwest of the mudstone plug (yellow
striped area in Fig. 12) is an isolated compartment from the rest
of the reservoir. The majority of the reservoir (east and below
mudstone plug) is potentially laterally continuous (solid yellow
in Fig. 12). This is also supported by the similar molecular con-
centrations in the two studied wells within the channel 2 unit
(Fig. 8 and Table 2).

Fig. 11 (following page). Summary diagram of interpreted reservoir charging, in reservoir mixing and biodegradation processes, including their
effects on bitumen viscosity and molecular compositional gradients. Black arrows show arrival of fresh petroleum, red arrows downward migra-
tion of previously arrived petroleum, and two-headed arrows in-reservoir mixing processes. a) Early stages of reservoir charging when oil, driven
by buoyancy, filled the upper portions of the reservoir first. Oil is attacked by microorganisms along the oil-water contact. b) Later stages of reser-
voir charging; as new, fresh oil (black arrows) arrived, it forced earlier entrapped oil (red arrows) further to the east (right) and since the new, fresh
oil was lighter than the previously arrived and already partially biodegraded petroleum, it occupied the upper parts of the reservoir forcing the
oil–water contact to move downwards. c) Reservoir after petroleum charging stopped when, in absence of new charge fluxes, the dominant
processes in the reservoir are restricted to biodegradation and vertical mixing by buoyancy and diffusion.
GEOCHEMISTRY FOR DISTINGUISHING BARRIERS FROM BAFFLES 311
312 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER

Core, gamma ray and dipmeter data analysis indicates that
the heterolithic package at the top of meanderbelt 2 in well 1 is
approximately 11 meters thick, of which the top 4–5 metres are
siltstone-dominated (Figs. 5a and 7a). The equivalent IHS pack-
age thickness in well 2 is 17 metres (base picked from a combi-
nation of core and dipmeter data; Fig. 5b), of which the top
12–13 metres contain multiple metre-scale siltstone beds (Fig.
5b), including a 1.5 m thick siltstone at the top of the sequence
(Figs. 5b and 7b). Despite the greater thickness of the IHS unit
and the higher abundance of mudstone within that IHS unit in
well 2, our data indicate that siltstone-dominated strata in well
1 is an effective barrier and the equivalent facies in well 2 is
only a baffle to fluid flow. This suggests that the use of specific
cut-off values for thickness of siltstone beds, IHS packages, or
shale volume to define barriers to fluid flow should be used with
caution. Siltstone properties, including the lateral extent, are
perhaps more important. The 3D extent of low permeable silt-
stone beds is critical to the characterization of intra-reservoir
barriers or baffles to fluid flow, but is extremely difficult to
ascertain through traditional analysis of core data alone.
Downward decreasing concentration gradients through the
entire oil column in well 2 are interpreted to result from unim-
peded fluid communication that by-passed siltstone-dominated
IHS of limited lateral extent. Theoretically then, injected steam
will heat and drain bitumen above low permeability IHS-domi-
nated layers in this instance. On the contrary, the identification
of barriers (well 1) that have impeded bitumen C12+ compound
diffusion over geological time are also likely to be impermeable
to steam under the dilatational conditions of a SAGD operation.
IMPLICATIONS FOR OILS SANDS SAGD
DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS
This analysis shows that there is significant variability in the
bitumen fluid properties vertically and laterally in McMurray
Formation reservoirs and that the bitumen composition, as con-
trolled by biodegradation, is strongly impacted by reservoir con-
nectivity (i.e. the distribution of geological barriers and baffles to
fluid flow). The interpretation of oil column connectivity drawn
from the variability of bitumen composition in this study may
give an indication of the location of barriers to steam and could
be used to assess reservoir quality, including net continuous bitu-
men pay, and to determine optimal horizontal well locations and
their orientation. In addition, the variability of the fluid proper-
ties mapped in these reservoirs might also provide field manage-
ment insight, needed to maintain targeted production rates and
predict bitumen quality (Bennett and Larter, 2008).
Barriers to steam located within a bitumen column can sig-
nificantly reduce the total recoverable bitumen in a SAGD
operation because of the typical placement of SAGD wells
pairs 2–3 m above base of pay (position A, Fig. 12). In the case
of well 1, the net continuous bitumen producible by SAGD
may be reduced from 50 m to approximately 22 m by the bar-
rier identified between channels 2 and 3. To maximize recov-
ery, alternative well-pair placement options different from the
typical base of pay SAGD placement should be considered
(Fig. 12). In well 1, because both the lower and upper com-
partments contain more than 20-metre thick reservoir columns,
they could be developed independently of each other using two

Fig. 12. Geochemical analyses suggests alternative solutions for reservoir development are necessary, illustrated with various sets of SAGD
well-pair configurations. Configuration A shows the typical approach of placing wells as close as possible to the base of the pay zone.
Configuration B shows an alternative approach, consisting of placement of two well pairs at the base of separate pay zones, as suggested may
be optimal as a result of integrated geochemistry and sedimentology analyses, as presented in this study.
313 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER
separate sets of horizontal well-pairs (positions labeled B,
Fig. 12). It is conceivable that the typical SAGD well place-
ment would be viable given a pre-steam high pressure method
to penetrate the barrier to allow steam flow but this may be
very environmentally risky in shallow settings. In the case of a
mid-reservoir baffle, well placement could remain as usual but
the operating strategy would have to take into account the pos-
sibility of non-uniform steam chamber growth (Fig. 2a). In
general, McMurray Formation reservoirs contain abundant
high quality bitumen, however placement of SAGD pairs at the
base of the reservoir, as is currently common practice, will not
facilitate optimal recovery in all or even many situations.
Integrated geochemical and sedimentological studies have the
potential to provide a means to determine optimal well place-
ment in the future.
In the area characterized by well 2, continuous bitumen-
stacked pay 60 m thick shows no indication of intraformational
fluid flow barriers and thus the reservoir could be developed by
locating well-pairs at the base of the oil column (position A,
Fig. 12). This well-pair placement will maximize ultimate
recovery, but may lead to low initial production rates due to
high viscosities (>6E6 cP at 20ºC; Table 1, Fig. 10) at the base
of pay (cf., Gates et al., 2008; Larter et al., 2008). Given the
very high viscosity along the base of the column, as well as the
extreme thickness (>50 m) and lateral extent (>2 km; Fig. 12)
of the pay zone, the reservoir might best be developed in
stages, with well-pairs placed higher up in the reservoir in the
early stages of development and then subsequently re-drilled
into the highest viscosity zones at the base of the reservoir
(Gates et al., 2008). Economics will be of utmost importance
for evaluation of such a development strategy.
Currently, the richest, thickest and most accessible oil sand
reservoirs are under development in the Fort McMurray area. As
production continues and new oil sands areas are developed, the
quality of the bitumen reservoirs in general will tend to deterio-
rate. Pay zones will commonly include IHS, be thinner, and
internally contain barriers and baffles to flow. An ability to map
and predict the integrity and continuity of low permeability
intervals as barriers or baffles to steam will have a significant
impact not only on the ultimate recoverable bitumen, but also on
cumulative steam-oil ratio and production rates.
CONCLUSIONS
High-resolution geochemical logs of bitumen hydrocarbon con-
centrations and qualitative comparison of selected mass chro-
matograms, when correlated to geological reservoir
architecture, are a powerful tool for identifying barriers and baf-
fles to oil mixing under reservoir conditions on geological time
scales. Barriers create step changes in key hydrocarbon concen-
trations of the bitumen through a pay zone whereas more con-
tinuous geochemical log profiles may indicate that petroleum
mixing occurred through and/or around siltstone layers and
the like, meaning that such a siltstone interval can be classified
as a baffle to flow. Geochemical analysis can identify lateral
continuation of barriers between drilled wells below seismic
resolution. Geochemical log data indicate that thickness of a
heterogeneous low permeability interval is not necessarily the
critical attribute to identify a barrier to fluid flow. Thinner inter-
vals may be more effective barriers than thicker intervals,
depending on their permeability, continuity and lateral extent.
Siltstone beds or siltstone-dominated IHS packages that
have acted as barriers over geologic time scales, may also act
as barriers to steam chamber expansion in a SAGD operation.
The impact of siltstone barriers on bitumen recovery has sig-
nificant implications for a vast amount of Alberta’s oil sands
resources, especially over the next few decades as thinner and
poorer quality pay zones are targeted for development.
Optimization of SAGD developments will rely heavily on opti-
mal well placement, conditioned by reservoir characterization.
In comparison to most other reservoir characterization tools,
geochemical sampling of oil sands cores is straightforward and
detailed molecular compositional analysis of bitumen and dead
oil viscosity measurements are inexpensive. These geochemi-
cal data integrated with traditional core, log, and seismic analy-
sis can provide insight into delineation of significant, yet subtle
reservoir heterogeneities. Simple reservoir architecture map-
ping using both geological and geochemical methods may sig-
nificantly improve optimization of bitumen recovery, by
directing optimal well-placement, SAGD field management
and operating strategies. Complex McMurray Formation reser-
voirs contain abundant high quality bitumen, but routine and
uniform placement of SAGD pairs at the base of the reservoir,
as is currently practiced, may not facilitate optimal recovery in
many situations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank Nexen Inc. and OPTI Canada for allow-
ing us to present data in this case study. We appreciate the help
of Matthew Smith and Shin Ma with drafting of the figures
included in this paper. We thank R. Strobl, R. Kerr and N.
Wallat for useful comments and suggestions. Finally, we thank
F. Hein, Martin Fowler and Steve Hubbard for thorough and
critical reviews and suggestions which have significantly
improved the final version of this manuscript. The geochemical
profiling data were provided for Nexen by Gushor Inc.
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Manuscript received: March 14, 2011
Date accepted: December 21, 2011
Associate Editor: Stephen Grasby