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Bitumen and heavy oil geochemistry: A tool for distinguishing barriers from
baffles in oil sands reservoirs

Article  in  Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology · October 2012


DOI: 10.2113/gscpgbull.59.4.295

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BULLETIN OF CANADIAN PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
VOL. 59, NO. 4 (DECEMBER, 2011), P. 295–316

Bitumen and heavy oil geochemistry: a tool for distinguishing barriers


from baffles in oil sands reservoirs

MILOVAN FUSTIC1 BARRY BENNETT JENNIFER ADAMS2


Nexen Inc. Gushor Inc. Department of Geoscience
801 – 7th Avenue SW Bay #2, 925 – 30th Street NE University of Calgary
Calgary, AB T2P 3P7 Calgary, AB T2A 5L7 2500 University Drive NW
Calgary, AB T2N 1N4

HAIPING HUANG BILL MACFARLANE


Department of Geoscience Nexen Inc.
University of Calgary 801 – 7th Avenue SW
2500 University Drive NW Calgary, AB T2P 3P7
Calgary, AB T2N 1N4

DALE A. LECKIE STEVE LARTER


Nexen Inc. Department of Geoscience
801 – 7th Avenue SW University of Calgary
Calgary, AB T2P 3P7 2500 University Drive NW
Calgary, AB T2N 1N4

ABSTRACT

To optimize SAGD well-pair placement and improve thermal recovery operations, geochemical bitumen composition
logs are used to identify barriers and baffles to fluid flow, which may compartmentalize McMurray Formation reservoirs
in the Athabasca Oil Sands. SAGD steam chamber growth and cumulative steam oil ratios are sensitive to both vertical
permeability and bitumen viscosity variations, which are commonly encountered in the oil sands reservoirs. In the
McMurray Formation, tidally influenced meandering channel deposits are commonly vertically stacked, forming reservoir
columns up to 80 m thick. In many instances, inclined heterolithic strata (IHS), consisting of interbedded sand and silt
deposited on point bars, comprise barriers to vertical steam chamber growth at multiple horizons of a reservoir. Thus, the
identification, characterization, and delineation of IHS intervals is a critical step for evaluating the reservoir development
potential, and designing an optimal reservoir development strategy. While siltstone beds are routinely identified in cores
and geophysical logs, thin siltstone beds that can act as a barrier to fluid flow are not discernible in seismic reflection data
and have proven difficult to correlate between adjacent delineation wells.
In this study, geochemical bitumen analysis is used to determine the integrity and continuity of siltstone beds within
IHS in order to assess their potential impact on SAGD steam chamber growth. First, high-resolution molecular
composition profiles are obtained from gas chromatography – mass spectrometry analyses of bitumen extracted from cores.
The continuity of biodegradation-susceptible aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations measured through vertical profiles of a
reservoir were used to determine if siltstone-prone intervals observed in log and core data acted as barriers or baffles to
fluid flow over geological time. Integration of the bitumen molecular composition data with geological cross-sections
fosters predictions of the lateral extent of the identified barriers. Furthermore, inferences about reservoir charging and
in-reservoir fluid mixing histories are also made. Geochemical log data indicate that thickness of a heterogeneous low
permeability interval is not necessarily the critical attribute of a barrier to fluid flow. Integration of both sedimentological
information and bitumen geochemical data is useful for the identification of barriers and baffles to fluid flow in oil sand
reservoirs. The method can be applied prior to positioning of SAGD well-pairs and thus could represent an important step
for development planning of heterogeneous reservoirs.

1 Currently at Statoil Canada Ltd., 3600 – 308 4th Avenue SW, Calgary, AB T2P 0H7
2
Currently at ConocoPhillips, 600 North Dairy Ashford, Houston, TX 77079-2197, USA

295
296 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER

RÉSUMÉ

Pour optimiser la mise en place de puits doubles dans le cadre du DGMV et améliorer les activités de récupération
thermique, des diagrammes sur la composition géochimique du bitume sont utilisés pour identifier les barrières et
déviations face à l’écoulement des fluides, lesquelles pourraient cloisonner les gisements de la Formation de McMurray
dans les sables pétrolifères de l’Athabasca. L’extension de chambre de vapeur au cours du procédé DGMV et les rapports
vapeur / pétrole cumulatifs sont sensibles à la perméabilité verticale et aux variations de la viscosité du bitume, ce qui est
courant dans les gisements de sables bitumineux. Dans la Formation de McMurray, les gisements en forme de traînées
sinueuses d’origine maréale sont généralement empilés verticalement en forme de colonnes de 80 m d’épaisseur. Dans
nombre de cas, les strates hétérolithiques inclinées (S.H.I.), constituées de sable et de silt interstratifiés, déposés sur des
bancs de rive convexe, incluent des barrières affectant l’extension des chambres de vapeur verticales en de multiples
horizons d’un gisement donné. Par conséquent, l’identification, la caractérisation et la délimitation des intervalles des
S.H.I. représentent des étapes essentielles pour évaluer le potentiel de mise en valeur du gisement et en concevoir une
stratégie optimale. Bien que l’on identifie couramment les lits de siltites dans les carottes et les diagraphies géophysiques,
les minces lits de siltites, lesquels peuvent barrer l’écoulement des fluides, se révèlent indiscernables dans les données de
sismique réflexion et il s’avère difficile de voir leur corrélation entre les puits de délimitation adjacents.
Dans la présente étude, l’analyse géochimique du bitume nous permet de déterminer l’intégrité et la continuité des lits
de siltites à même les S.H.I., afin d’évaluer leur effet potentiel sur l’extension des chambres de vapeur au cours du DGMV.
En premier lieu, au moyen de la chromatographie et de la spectométrie de bitume tiré de carottes de forage, on obtient des
profils à haute résolution sur la composition moléculaire de cette matière. Puis, nous portons notre attention sur la
concentration d’hydrocarbure aromatique susceptible de biodégradation continue, laquelle nous mesurons à travers le
profil vertical d’un gisement donné. En effet, il s’agit de déterminer si les intervalles qui tendaient à contenir le silt observé
dans les diagraphies et carottes agissaient comme barrières ou déviations face à l’écoulement des fluides au cours des
temps géologiques. Intégrer la composition moléculaire du bitume aux coupes géologiques favorise les prévisions de
l’étendue latérale des barrières identifiées. De plus, des inférences sont mises de l’avant en rapport avec l’alimentation du
gisement et le mélange des fluides en réservoir. Les données géochimiques indiquent que l’épaisseur d’un intervalle
hétérogène à faible perméabilité n’est pas nécessairement l’attribut essentiel d’une barrière face à l’écoulement des fluides.
Intégrer l’information sédimentologique et les données géochimiques sur le bitume se révèle utile pour identifier les
barrières et déviations face à l’écoulement des fluides dans les gisements de sables bitumineux. La méthode peut être
appliquée avant de positionner les puits en double dans le cadre du DGMV et pourrait représenter une étape importante
pour planifier la mise en valeur des gisements hétérogènes.
Michel Ory

INTRODUCTION vertically separated by 4–5 m placed at the base of a reservoir.


Steam injected into the upper well moves upwards, driven by
The Athabasca Oil Sands deposit, one of the world’s largest buoyancy, through the permeable sands to heat the reservoir
petroleum accumulations, contains an estimated 1.7 trillion and thus mobilize the bitumen, forming a steam chamber over
barrels of heavily to severely biodegraded, largely immobile time. The steam chamber expands as bitumen is heated and
petroleum at reservoir conditions (Fig. 1; Alberta Energy and then flows via gravity drainage down the outside of the cham-
Utilities Board, 2007). This super heavy oil (API gravity 6 to ber into perforations in the lower well (Butler, 1987; Butler,
11º) is trapped in highly permeable, unconsolidated sand sec- 1994). The velocity of steam chamber rise is proportional to the
tions of highly heterogeneous reservoirs varying in thickness vertical reservoir permeability and bitumen viscosity at reser-
from 10 to 70 m or more, with the bulk of the resource buried voir conditions (Butler, 1987; Strobl et al., 1997; Cody
too deeply to be economically exploited by surface mining et al., 2001).
methods (Kaminsky, 1974). The resource, buried to at least The economic success of a SAGD operation is contingent
approximately 200 m depth, is exploited using in-situ extrac- on vertically connected, fully bitumen-saturated (75% to 85%
tion methods involving subsurface stimulation to significantly oil saturation by volume) reservoirs at least 10 m in thickness
increase the mobility (i.e. ratio of effective permeability to (e.g. Strobl et al., 2011). For instance, injected steam will stop
fluid viscosity) of the highly viscous oil. This is done by low- rising when it encounters lower permeability strata that it
ering bitumen viscosity via heating, solvent dilution, in-situ cannot penetrate or bypass (Butler, 1994), as in the case of a
upgrading, gasification or combustion. laterally continuous permeability barrier. While SAGD has
Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD) is currently the been widely deployed, ubiquitous bitumen viscosity gradients
most widely applied method for producing bitumen from non- and reservoir heterogeneities have severely impacted actual
surface-mineable Athabasca oil sands reservoirs (Butler, 1994). reservoir performance and thus will limit the applicability and
The SAGD technology involves pairs of horizontal wells effectiveness of this technology in poorer quality reservoirs
GEOCHEMISTRY FOR DISTINGUISHING BARRIERS FROM BAFFLES 297

Fig. 1. Location map of the Athabasca oil sands and other major oil sands deposits in Alberta, Canada, modified after Hein and Marsh
(2008). Approximate location of study area is indicated with a star.

(Larter et al., 2008). Hence, to ensure maximum recovery, opti- units to characterize the effectiveness of low permeability silt-
mal well placement and efficient (most economic) SAGD stone beds within the inclined heterolithic strata (IHS) as
recovery, identification and mapping of barriers and baffles to potential barriers or baffles to diffusion fluid flow over geolog-
fluid flow are critical. ical time. Here we discuss the integration of bitumen molecu-
The identification of inclined heterolithic strata (IHS) silt- lar chemistry gradients and sedimentological studies to identify
stone and assessment of their lateral continuity is very chal- and map the barriers and baffles in the context of reservoir
lenging, because they are too thin for detection on seismic stratigraphic architecture for the purpose of optimally position-
imaging and are difficult to correlate between adjacent delin- ing SAGD well-pairs and managing the SAGD recovery oper-
eation wells. The compositional gradients observed in the bitu- ation. The presented principles are applicable for distinguishing
men of the oil sands deposits document the diffusive flux of barriers from baffles in other stratigraphic settings in the
light hydrocarbons towards the oil-water contact during the McMurray Formation where low permeability layers may
process of biodegradation (Larter et al., 2003), and thus may be compartmentalize the reservoir, such as floodplain and/or tidal
an avenue to evaluate the effective permeability of mudstone flat deposits.
layers in the oil sands. Here we hypothesize that geological lay-
ers identified as potential barriers to diffusion of light hydrocar- BARRIERS AND BAFFLES TO THE
bon compounds (C16 and lighter) over geological time may also SAGD RECOVERY PROCESS
inhibit steam chamber growth and prematurely curtail or Effects of vertical permeability variations on steam chamber
adversely impact SAGD operations. Conversely, recognition of growth have been the subject of many simulation studies
petroleum mixing through a potentially low permeability mud- (Pooladi-Darvish and Mattar, 2002; Chen et al., 2008; Ipek, et
stone layer or IHS deposit using geochemical bitumen profiling al., 2008; Li et al., 2008; Shin and Choe, 2009; Le Ravalec et
may be an indication that the mudstone interval is in fact ade- al., 2009; Heidari et al., 2009), a limited number of laboratory
quately permeable and/or of limited lateral extent to allow trans- studies (Yang and Butler, 1992), and field case examples
mission of light hydrocarbons, and thus is considered a baffle. (Strobl et al., 1997; Ito et al., 2001; Strobl, in press). In these
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the utility of bitu- studies, low permeability layers within reservoirs are com-
men geochemical logs through stacked meandering channel monly referred to as barriers or baffles to steam chamber
298 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER

growth. Baffles are commonly considered low permeability Shin and Choe (2009) have suggested that barriers are imper-
layers that inhibit or impede, but do not completely stop steam meable layers with lateral extent greater than 50 metres.
chamber growth. Examples include mudstone clast breccias
(Yeung, 2009; Strobl, in press), or a low permeability mudstone BITUMEN QUALITY CHARACTERIZATION
layer of limited extent that steam can bypass laterally at its The Athabasca oil sands bitumen has low API gravity (6 to 11º)
outer limits (Ito et al., 2001; Li et al., 2008; Fig. 2a). Unlike and high viscosity, ranging from 1E5cP to >1E7cP at reservoir
baffles, barriers are considered impermeable layers, inhibiting temperatures (Seyer and Gyte, 1989; Erno et al., 1991; Strausz
steam transfer over the multi-year time scales of typical SAGD and Lown, 2003). Over an order of magnitude viscosity varia-
operations. Steam cannot penetrate through or laterally bypass tion within a single petroleum column is commonly seen and
a barrier over the time period of thermal recovery (Fig. 2b); has been attributed to anaerobic oil biodegradation driven from
however, conductive heating may reduce the bitumen viscosity a basal water saturated reservoir zone (Head et al., 2003;
above the barrier. Some simulation studies report the possibil- Aitken et al., 2004; Larter et al., 2006; Larter et al., 2008;
ity of steam-induced dehydration and fracturing of overlying Adams, 2008). Anaerobic biodegradation occurs within the oil-
impermeable barriers over extended periods of time (i.e. after water transition zone where diffusion of biodegradable hydro-
several years of injection; Li et al., 2008), but no subsurface carbon components through the oil column to the active
studies have confirmed these hypotheses. biodegradation zone is responsible for observed vertical com-
The integrity of impermeable barriers under various reser- positional gradients. Larter et al. (2006, 2008), Adams (2008),
voir conditions is the focus of ongoing research by industry and and Fustic et al. (in press a) document the strong relationship
academia (e.g. Ito et al., 2001). In SAGD operations, the lateral between vertical molecular compositional variations and oil
extent of a low permeability mudstone dictates whether it viscosity gradients in the Alberta oil sands.
behaves as a barrier or baffle (e.g. Li et al., 2008). Generally,
reported studies do not define the minimum lateral extent of an RESERVOIR ARCHITECTURE
impermeable layer such that it behaves like a barrier, although
Tidally influenced meandering river channel deposits com-
monly consist of large-scale point bars up to 40 m thick (e.g.
Mossop and Flach, 1983; Flach, 1984; Wightman and
Pemberton, 1997; Strobl et al., 1997; Labrecque et al., 2011),
or a series of stacked, smaller channel architectural elements
(Wightman and Pemberton, 1997; Strobl et al., 2004) (Fig. 3a).
The meandering channel deposits may be subdivided into
large-scale depositional elements such as abandoned channel,
lower point bar, and upper point bar deposits (Fig. 3a). Upper
point bar deposits commonly comprise IHS, which contain
interbedded sand and low permeability siltstone beds in vari-
able proportions that are inclined (commonly 4 to 12 degrees)
and commonly bioturbated (cf. Pemberton et al., 1982; Thomas
et al., 1987; Smith et al. 2009; Hubbard et al., 2011).
In the McMurray Formation, IHS packages are up to 40
metres thick, as mapped in outcrop (Mossop and Flach, 1983;
Flach, 1984; Wightman and Pemberton, 1997; Strobl et al.,
1997), high-resolution seismic data (Druesne et al., 2007;
Hubbard et al., 2011, Fustic et al., 2012) and interpreted dip-
meter data (Muwais and Smith, 1990; Strobl et al., 1997;
Brekke and Evoy, 2004; Fustic, 2007; Brekke and Couch,
2011). IHS units associated with upper point bar deposits typi-
cally overlie genetically related cross-bedded sands attributed
to lower point bar deposition (Fig. 3a); however, in some
instances IHS down-laps onto the channel base (Wightman and
Fig. 2. Impact of baffles and barriers (extensive low-permeability
layers) on steam rise in SAGD operations (modified after Li et al., 2008). Pemberton, 1997).
a) A baffle temporarily impedes steam rise due to its discontinuous Although IHS deposits host significant bitumen resources in
extent such that, over time, the steam may detour around the baffle into the McMurray Formation, their reservoir development poten-
the overlying reservoirs. Decreasing viscosity of produced bitumen over
time is a function of the steam chamber accessing and producing the tial is controversial. Previous work has indicated that when ris-
less viscous bitumen commonly found in the upper portions of the ing steam encounters low permeability siltstone strata and/or
reservoir. b) A barrier impedes steam and does not allow it to go through laminae (centimeter to decimeter thick) within the IHS units,
the impermeable layer for certain periods of time. So stands for the pore
saturation of oil, Sg for the pore saturation of gas, and Sw for the pore chamber growth is reduced and steam is forced to migrate lat-
saturation of water. erally, following the natural paths of least resistance (Strobl et
GEOCHEMISTRY FOR DISTINGUISHING BARRIERS FROM BAFFLES 299

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of three stacked meandering channel deposits and the impact of reservoir architecture on steam chamber growth
(modified after Strobl et al., 2004). a) Emplacement of channel 2 has completely eroded the upper IHS layers of channel 1, while channel 3 has
partially removed IHS layers at the top of channel 2. b) In areas where siltstone-dominated IHS are removed, a thick clean reservoir allows steam
to rise with no obstacles (steam chamber on left). In areas where clean sand is separated by siltstone-dominated IHS layers (above the well-pair at
right), steam may (i.e. baffle) or may not (i.e. barrier) be able to rise through siltstone beds to heat and mobilize bitumen from clean reservoirs at
the base of channel 3. Aligned filled black and open circles indicate injection and production SAGD wells, respectively. UPB - upper point bar deposit.

al., 1997; Ito et al., 2001; Strobl, 2007; Strobl, in press). In the more extensive IHS). The geomechanical properties also
worst-case scenario, this leaves bitumen entrapped in overlying depend on the thickness of the siltstone strata, the level of
sandy sections of the IHS inaccessible to steam, and thus bioturbation (Cody et al., 2001; Lettley and Pemberton, 2003),
potentially stranded (Strobl et al., 1997; Ito et al., 2001; Strobl, and the content and the mineralogical composition of clay
2007; Strobl, in press). within siltstone layers (e.g. smectite expands and fractures
The lateral extent of the low permeability siltstone beds more easily than other clay minerals; pers. comm. Yang
depends on many factors including the presence and/or absence Yanguang).
of erosional surfaces (Thomas et al., 1987; Strobl et al., 1997), SAGD pay or net continuous bitumen criteria vary among
and the size of the channels (i.e. large channels tend to have oil sands operators. In general, economically viable SAGD
300 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER

reservoirs must have a minimum uninterrupted, highly bitumen PREVIOUS WORKS


saturated pay thickness of at least 10 m (Strobl et al., 2011).
Most operators also define the top of pay based on the operator TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR IDENTIFYING
specific economic cut-off thickness of individual low perme- SILTSTONE BEDS WITHIN IHS
ability layers, or shale volume (Vsh) over a certain thickness The presence and extent of low permeability siltstone beds
interval, which can vary from 1 to more than 4 m. Although the within IHS in oil sands reservoirs are assessed with a range of
economic cut-off thickness of low permeability layers varies methodologies prior to development or during the production
from operator to operator (Strobl, 2007), a major effort is given life cycle. Before reservoir development, geostatistical deter-
to characterizing the lateral and vertical dimensions of silt- ministic and stochastic prediction of facies and reservoir prop-
stone-dominated intervals for the purposes of assessing the erty distributions (McLennan and Deutsch, 2005; Card et al.,
effectiveness of these layers as baffles or barriers to steam 2005), sedimentological analysis of cores (e.g. Ranger and
chamber growth (Cody et al., 2001). Pemberton, 1997; Crerar and Arnott, 2007), and evaluation of
Assessment of the lateral extent of IHS by correlation and wireline log data including dipmeters (e.g. Strobl et al., 1997;
mapping of siltstone beds between delineation wells has proven Cody et al., 2001; Brekke and Evoy, 2004; Fustic, 2007) are
difficult (Fustic, 2007). Individual IHS beds are not likely to be used to detect the presence and extent of siltstone beds. In some
penetrated in adjacent wells, since an 8° dip of beds in a verti- instances, large-scale depositional elements, including IHS-
cal section that is 40 m thick would only be present across a lat- dominated units, are identified in high-quality three-dimen-
eral distance of approximately 285 m, which is less than typical sional seismic data (e.g. Druesne et al., 2007; Hubbard et al.,
delineation well spacing. Therefore, evaluation of the effec- 2011; Labrecque et al., 2011). However, individual siltstone
tiveness of IHS siltstone beds as barriers or baffles to steam rise beds in IHS units are not identifiable in these data because they
across reservoirs is a difficult challenge. It is probable that in are too thin (Byerley et al., 2009).
some instances more laterally persistent low permeability beds, During reservoir production, methodologies for assessing
or intervals, are not inclined, perhaps deposited as floodplain or reservoir heterogeneities and their impact on steam chamber
intertidal deposits on the tops of point bars. Regardless, the growth include time lapse (4D) seismic and successive temper-
impact of low permeability units on fluid flow is crucial for the ature measurements in observational wells. Although an indi-
optimal placement of SAGD well-pairs (Cody et al., 2001; rect qualitative measurement method, four dimensional (4D)
Strobl, 2007) and subsequent production optimization (Byerley seismic analysis during the life of a SAGD project permits
et al., 2009). A method capable of assessing fluid compartmen- visualization of steam chamber growth in space and time,
talization from individual well data is desirable. therefore barriers to steam flow can be inferred from irregular-
ities in steam chamber growth patterns (Byerley et al., 2009).
RESERVOIR PERMEABILITY PROPERTIES Direct monitoring of steam chamber growth is achieved
Generally, cross-bedded sands of lower point bar deposits are through the use of thermocouples, placed within selected well
characterized by vertical permeability ranges of 2 to 6 darcies bores (e.g. Strobl et al., 1997; Birrell, 2001; Strobl, in press).
(D), while siltstone in abandoned channel deposits and upper Measurements are continuous at specific points and numerous
point bar units are characterized by a 2 to 3 order of magnitude wells must be equipped with thermocouples to establish corre-
decrease in permeability (Strobl et al., 1997; Strobl, 2007, lations between drilled wells, which is costly. Information
Strobl, in press). Intra-reservoir siltstone permeability in oil obtained from 4D seismic and temperature recorders within
sands reservoirs is generally in the micro- to nano- darcy range observational wells are used for well operating optimization,
(Jokanola, 2007), effectively making the fine-grained units which includes improving steam conformance and oil recovery
barriers to SAGD performance if laterally continuous. The dis- from “underperforming” parts of a field (Byerley et al., 2009),
tribution of these barriers and baffles, in terms of lateral as well as steam split planning and positioning scab liners
extent, gross thickness and vertical position within the reser- (Fustic et al., in press b).
voir column, determines the economic viability of a SAGD
recovery operation. GEOCHEMISTRY AS A TOOL FOR DEFINING
In cases where channel units are stacked vertically, each suc- RESERVOIR COMPARTMENTS
cessive channel commonly erodes the uppermost parts of the Reservoir geochemistry has traditionally been utilized as a
underlying channel package, often resulting in removal of unde- powerful and inexpensive technique in the exploration and
sirable low permeability siltstone beds. The complete erosion of development of conventional hydrocarbon plays. There is a
laterally continuous upper point bar deposits may result in very long history of using variations in petroleum composition for
thick sand reservoirs (Strobl et al., 2004; Fig. 3a). Frequently, the identification and evaluation of reservoir compartments
only portions of IHS packages are removed, resulting in com- (e.g. Kaufman et al., 1990, 1997; Smalley and England, 1992,
plex reservoir architecture (Fig. 3a). In cases where the reservoir 1994; Hwang and Baskin, 1994; Nederlof et al., 1994, 1995;
comprises two or more isolated, vertically stacked channel Larter and Aplin, 1995; Smalley and Hale, 1996; Noyau et al.,
packages, the characterization and distribution of multiple dis- 1997; Larter et al., 1997; Beeunas et al., 1999; Edman and
tinctive IHS units is critical for devising a development strategy Burk, 1999; Westrich et al., 1999; Murty et al., 2005; Smalley
aimed at production of bitumen from each horizon (Fig. 3). and Muggeridge, 2010), as well as for monitoring performance
GEOCHEMISTRY FOR DISTINGUISHING BARRIERS FROM BAFFLES 301

of conventional, compartmentalized oil reservoirs (McKinney tions can be used for relative biodegradation assessment (Note:
and Bland, 2003; Weissenburger and Borbas, 2004; Milkov et number shown in subscript indicates the number of attached
al., 2007). methyl [CH3] groups to naphthalene [C10H8]). The utility of
In-reservoir fluid mixing processes are driven by gravity, individual aromatic hydrocarbon molecular markers includes
temperature and buoyancy, and guided by capillary pressure dif- methylphenanthrenes (MP) (Connan, 1984; Head et al., 2003;
ferences in host rocks (England, 1989; Smalley and Huang et al., 2004). In addition to systematic changes in bulk
Muggeridge, 2010). These processes cause molecular diffusion concentrations of all the methylphenanthrene isomers, the pref-
and convection that, given sufficient time, produce continuous erential removal of 1-methylphenanthrene (1-MP) over 9-
and thus predictive vertical and lateral compositional differ- methylphenanthrene (9-MP) is typically considered diagnostic
ences in non-compartmentalized reservoirs (England et al., of high biodegradation levels (Volkman et al., 1984; Rowland et
1987; England, 1989, 1994; Larter and Aplin, 1995; Stainforth, al., 1986). In some instances, however, faster depletion of 9-MP
2004; Smalley and Muggeridge, 2010). The utilization of bitu- may occur in the Athabasca oil sand deposits, associated with
men composition for identifying reservoir compartments in different biodegradation pathways (Adams, 2008; Bennett and
McMurray Formation reservoirs is thoroughly addressed by Larter, 2008). The utility of methylnaphthalene, di-, tri-, and
Adams (2008) and Fustic et al. (in press a). tetramethylnaphthalene, methylphenanthrenes, dimethylphenan-
In biodegraded reservoirs, such as those of the Athabasca Oil threnes and ethylphenanthrene molecular markers is of particu-
Sands, the systematic removal of more biodegradation-suscep- lar value in this study.
tible compounds at the oil-water contact creates downward Fustic et al. (in press a) used molecular concentration gradi-
decreasing concentration gradients in an oil column. The shape ents, including methylphenanthrenes, to demonstrate the impact
of the concentration gradients for a given compound or com- of laterally continuous mudstone layers (interpreted as flood-
pound class is controlled by its diffusivity towards the oil-water plain deposits) on vertical compartmentalization and bitumen
contact (Larter et al., 2003; Head et al., 2003; Larter et al., 2008). heterogeneity of a reservoir, as well as the impact of large-scale
Numerous studies demonstrate that concentration profiles of abandoned channel mudstone plug deposits on lateral compart-
aromatic hydrocarbon compounds are superior for characteriz- mentalization and lateral bitumen heterogeneity of a reservoir.
ing petroleum heterogeneity in heavily biodegraded oil reser- Adams (2008) used 1-D advection-diffusion models to quantify
voirs (e.g. Volkman et al., 1984; Rowland et al., 1986, Fisher et the impact of the permeability of mudstone layers on composi-
al., 1998). Fisher et al. (1998) demonstrated that the relative tional gradients in biodegraded oil fields. In reservoirs with rel-
rates of depletion of individual alkylnaphthalene isomers atively uniform vertical permeability, continuous gradients
increases with increasing extent of biodegradation. The suscep- develop with monotonically decreasing concentrations of
tibility of alkylnaphthalenes to biodegradation decreased in the hydrocarbon compounds down towards the oil-water contact or
order: methylnaphthalenes (C1N) >dimethylnaphthalenes (C2N) to where the oil-water contacts would have been in cases
>trimethylnaphthalenes (C3N) >tetramethylnaphthalenes (C4N), where the reservoir is filled to an underseal (Fig. 4a). Models
leading to the conclusion that comparison of their concentra- with lower permeability baffles are associated with deflected

Fig. 4. Schematic compositional bitumen gradients modified after subsurface studies (Fustic et al., in press a) and from one dimensional
advection/diffusion models (Adams, 2008). a) Vertically connected transmissive reservoirs are characterized by a gradual downward decrease in
molecular concentrations of biodegradation-susceptible light hydrocarbons due to removal of hydrocarbons via biodegradation at the oil-water
contact. b) Reservoirs with baffles contain a bend in the downwards-decreasing profile. c) Reservoirs with internal barriers are characterized by
two separate downwards-decreasing light hydrocarbon concentration profiles.
302 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER

compositional profiles (Fig. 4b). Barriers typically separate two


venture between Nexen Inc. and OPTI Canada (Fig. 1). Detailed
compartments, which fill with petroleum separately, such that sedimentological and stratigraphic architecture analysis of por-
distinct compositional gradients develop and steps in bitumen tions of the area has recently been completed by Hubbard et al.
composition and viscosity are observed (Fig. 4c). (2011) and Labrecque et al. (2011). Sedimentological analysis
of drill cores, geophysical log interpretation, petrophysical
STUDY AREA AND GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND analysis, laboratory measurements of bitumen saturation and
investigation of high-quality 3D seismic data were included in
In this case study, the data analyzed are from northeastern this study (Fig. 5 and Fig. 6). The reservoir zone of interest is
Alberta, south of Fort McMurray, at a property held by a joint within the McMurray Formation and consists of three stacked

Fig. 5. Composite logs of data from the two wells included in this study. Columns include GR (gamma ray log track), El. (depositional elements
such as lower and upper point bars [latter sub-divided into sandy and muddy IHS]), V. (location of viscosity samples), G. (location of GCMS
samples), Bit. (bitumen weight percent measurements displayed as a histogram), Dip. (dipmeter log). Red wavy lines represent interpreted base
of meandering belts (channels), inclined dashed lines indicate fining upwards sequences in each channel, and numbered double headed arrows
indicate thickness of each stacked meandering channel belt deposit. Only the bitumen-saturated interval is shown. Boxes highlight locations of
core intervals shown in Fig. 7. a) Well 1 and b) Well 2; Note that sandy versus heterolithic upper point bar deposits are subdivided based upon a
60 API gamma-radiation cut-off.

Fig. 6 (following page). Geological interpretation of upper part of studied area based on a seismic slice map from 10 metres below the top of
the McMurray Formation. The location of studied wells is indicated. a) Abandoned channel mudstone plugs (green) and point bar deposits (brown)
of an ancient meandering river system are interpreted. Note that at this elevation a mudstone plug separates the reservoir into two lateral
compartments, “A” and “B”. b) Schematic geological cross-section between the two studied wells with approximate locations of other wells used
in making the correlation. Interpretation shows the preservation of several stacked meandering river channel deposits underlined by flood plain
deposits and Devonian carbonates and shales. Wavy red lines indicate the interpreted bases of each of the three stacked channel deposits,
blue areas are water-saturated intervals, and yellow areas are reservoir sands saturated with bitumen. Note that the top of each channel is
characterized by variably preserved IHS packages of various thickness.
GEOCHEMISTRY FOR DISTINGUISHING BARRIERS FROM BAFFLES 303
304 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER

meandering channel belt deposits that overlie remnants of later- in this case study (Figs. 5 and 6b), emplacement of successive
ally extensive flood plain deposits and Devonian carbonates and channel deposits is associated with removal of IHS at the top of
shales (Fig. 6b). Only the architecture of the youngest meander the underlying (older) channel deposit. In the study area,
belt is resolved in seismic data (Fig. 6), thus the two lower chan- interbedded sand and siltstone strata associated with at least the
nel deposits are interpreted from core and log data only. lower portion of IHS are still preserved (Figs. 5, 6b and 7).
The youngest meander belt is comprised of several point bar Interpreted processes and present day reservoir architecture are
and abandoned channel mudstone plug deposits that separate similar to Strobl et al. (2004; Fig. 3).
the upper part of the reservoir into lateral compartments, A and Visual core investigation and log analysis interpretation can-
B (Fig. 6a). The youngest meander belt (channel 3 in Figs. 5 not accurately predict the lateral extent and permeability to
and 6b) has eroded the upper parts of meander belt 2; likewise, fluid migration and molecular diffusion through the reservoir
meander belt 2 has also eroded the upper parts of meander belt siltstones. Furthermore, the lower two meander belt layers
1 (Figs. 5 and 6b). Each meandering channel package is char- (1 and 2) are below seismic resolution and thus none of these
acterized by clean cross-bedded sand in the lower parts (lower data can be utilized for interpretation of the lateral extent and
point bar deposits) with fining upwards sequences character- continuity of the siltstone-dominated units between drilled
ized by inclined heterolithic strata (IHS) in the upper parts of locations. Furthermore, the data from wells drilled between
the deposit. In a stacked channel environment, such as the one two studied wells (Fig. 6b) show no evidence of preserved

Fig. 7. Core images from selected intervals in the two studied wells (see Fig. 5 for locations). Numbers posted
on cores indicate locations of selected samples analyzed by GC-MS as shown in Fig. 5. a) Depth interval between
254.75 and 270.30 m in well 1. b) Depth interval between 295.00 and 305.30 m in well 2.
GEOCHEMISTRY FOR DISTINGUISHING BARRIERS FROM BAFFLES 305

abandoned channel mudstone plugs in meander belts 1 and 2, ethylphenanthrenes (C2P) are posted on corresponding eleva-
but consistently show preservation of IHS in upper parts of tion intervals to create geochemical logs (Fig. 8), and mass
each channel deposit (Fig. 6b). chromatograms of methylphenanthrene isomers are qualita-
tively compared to illustrate the applicability and simplicity of
this geochemical tool (Fig. 9).
METHODOLOGY Dead oil viscosity was measured at temperatures of 20, 38,
54 and 80ºC (Table 1, Fig. 10) using a Brookfield viscometer.
Potential barriers associated with IHS intervals are assessed
API gravity was measured using a DMA 4500 Anton Paar
through bitumen molecular compositional analysis of samples
Density meter at multiple temperatures and measurements are
taken above and below each major siltstone dominated IHS
projected to 15.56ºC (60º Fahrenheit; Table 1, Fig. 10). Results
interval. Recently drilled cores were analyzed to minimize the
from both wells were interpreted in the context of the previ-
negative effects of evaporation of volatile compounds during
ously defined depositional reservoir architecture.
storage on bitumen composition and viscosity (Adams et al.,
2008). Fourteen geochemical and eight viscosity and API grav-
ity samples were taken from cores through two stacked vertical RESULTS
reservoir sections to construct high-resolution bitumen compo-
sition “logs” (Fig. 5). Bitumen from oil sand samples selected A general trend of decreasing total methylphenanthrene (MP)
for geochemical molecular composition analysis was extracted and dimethylphenanthrene and ethylphenanthrene (C2P) con-
using dichloromethane (DCM). The saturated and aromatic centrations in the oil towards the base of the oil column in wells
hydrocarbons were separated from bitumen extracts using the 1 and 2 is shown in Figure 8. In particular, the MP concentra-
procedure described by Bennett and Larter (2000). These frac- tions range over no more than 60 µg/g of oil within the mapped
tions were analyzed using gas chromatography – mass spec- channel 2 in wells 1 and 2 (Fig. 8, Table 2). This is not the case
trometry (GC-MS) on a Hewlett-Packard 5890 GC (using within the mapped channel 3, where the MP concentrations in
splitless injection) interfaced to a HP 5970B quadrupole mass well 1 are much lower (in all but one sample less than 30 µg/g
selective detector. Geochemical data from each sample were of oil) than in well 2 where it exceeds 300 µg/g of oil; (Fig. 8;
quantified and the results of selected aromatic compounds are Table 2). A similar trend can be seen in concentration gradients
summarized in Table 2. In addition, concentrations of methyl- of other aromatic compounds including naphthalene, methyl-,
phenanthrenes (MP) and the sum of dimethylphenanthrene and di-, tri-, and tetramethylnaphthalenes (C0-4 N), benzo and

Fig. 8. Concentration profiles of total methylphenanthrene (1-MP + 2-MP + 3-MP + 9-MP) and total dimethylphenanthrene and ethylphenan-
threne (C2P) isomers in well 1 (a) and well 2 (b). Concentrations are in micrograms per gram (µg/g) of oil; GR = gamma ray log. Wavy red lines
indicate the bases of interpreted meandering channel belts in each well. Upwards oriented arrows indicate fining upwards sequences. Downward
oriented dashed lines show average concentration gradients of methylphenanthrene isomers and downward oriented solid lines show trends of
dimethylphenanthrenes and ethylphenanthrenes (C2P).
306 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER

Fig. 9. Chromatogram traces of the m/z 192 ion showing abundance of four different methylphenan-
threne isomers in well 1 (a) and well 2 (b). The traces are stacked from the bottom to the top of the
reservoir (i.e. the deepest chromatogram is from sample 1 and the shallowest from sample 14). Peaks
in chromatogram traces from left to right show methylphenanthrene isomers 3, 2, 9 and 1. Arrows show
the direction of depletion (downwards) of each isomer. c) Schematic presentation of molecular struc-
tures of methylphenanthrene isomers 1, 2, 3 and 9 from left to right. 7R and 11R are duplicate samples
run for quality control.
GEOCHEMISTRY FOR DISTINGUISHING BARRIERS FROM BAFFLES 307

dibenzothiophenes (C0-1 DBT) and dimethylphenanthrenes and while the 2-MP isomer is detected throughout the bitumen col-
ethylphenanthrenes (C2P) (Table 2). This suggests that, in gen- umn and the 9-MP in all but the deepest sample (Fig. 9a). Mass
eral, the oil within channel 3 in well 2 is less biodegraded than chromatograms from well 2 (Fig. 9b) indicate removal of 3-MP
well 1 oil within the same channel unit. and 1-MP in only the bottom four samples of channel 2, and 9-
For each sample location, comparison of aromatic com- MP in the bottom two samples, whereas again 2-MP is present
pound classes of increasing biodegradation resistance shows an throughout, including the lowermost sample (Fig. 9b). These
increase in the concentrations with increasing resistance. In relationships confirm a higher level of biodegradation in both
particular, in sample 14 of well 2, the summed concentrations reservoir sections of well 1 relative to well 2.
of naphthalene and methylnaphthalenes (C0-1N) is only 3.8 Molecular composition break in well 1 is also evident from
µg/g of oil, but overall there is a systematic increase in more analysis of other aromatic hydrocarbon compounds (Table 2).
biodegradation resistant compounds, reaching 211.7 µg/g of Additionally, the viscosity and API gravity data (Table 1 and
C4N in oil and as high as 508.9 µg/g of dimethylphenanthrene Fig. 10) show a discontinuity in the fluid properties in well 1,
and ethylphenanthrenes (C2P) in oil (Table 2). coincident with the stratigraphic contact between channels 2
Within each well, concentrations of selected aromatic com- and 3, as seen in the concentration trends of methyl-
pounds in the bitumen samples analyzed show distinctly differ- phenanthrenes, dimethylphenanthrene and ethylphenan-
ent patterns in relation to their common reservoir architecture. threnes (Fig. 8).
For instance, the concentration profile or geochemical log of
total MP and C2P isomers in well 1 is characterized by two INTERPRETATION
stacked downward decreasing concentration trends, separated
at the contact between channels 2 and 3 (Fig. 8a; Table 2). Gradual monotonic changes of methylphenanthrene and
Conversely, well 2 is characterized by a single downwards- dimethylphenanthrene and ethylphenanthrene molecular iso-
decreasing concentration profiles of both MP and C2P isomers mer concentrations in well 2 (Figs. 8 and 9), and other selected
(Fig. 8b) and other aromatic compounds (Table 2). aromatic compounds (Table 2), coupled with a continuous vis-
Mass chromatogram (m/z 192) profiles along the wells show cosity profile (Fig. 10), suggest that bitumen at the bottom of
removal of more biodegradation susceptible (3-MP and 1-MP) the pay zone is more degraded than the bitumen at the top.
isomers with increasing depth, associated with preferential Therefore the whole oil column was in fluid communication
biodegradation (Fig. 9). In well 1, 1-MP and 3-MP isomers are with a fresher oil charge most likely delivered to the top of the
not detected in the lowermost portions of each stacked pay zone, reservoir with active biodegradation at the base of pay.

Table 1. Dead oil viscosity (in cP at 20, 54, 80, 149, and 185 degrees C) and
API gravity (at 15.9ºC) from 8 sample points in two studied wells.
308 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER

Fig. 10. Viscosity measurements at 20ºC and API gravity at 15.56ºC


(60º Fahrenheit) in well 1 (a) and well 2 (b) plotted versus depth of the
sample. Downward oriented dashed arrows show average viscosity and
API gravity gradients. Wavy red lines indicate the bases of interpreted
meandering channel belts in each well.
GEOCHEMISTRY FOR DISTINGUISHING BARRIERS FROM BAFFLES 309

This conclusion could not be made based on classical well bitumen molecular compositional and viscosity gradients, the
log suite interpretation alone (Fig. 5b). In contrast, well 1 has IHS siltstone at the top of channel 2 in well 2 evidently did not
two separate, stacked molecular compositional and viscosity limit vertical fluid communication in the reservoir, as was the
gradients marked by a break in concentration between samples case in well 1. The data from well 1 indicates that a significant
6 and 7 (Figs. 8, 9 and 10; Table 2) indicating compartmental- break in oil molecular composition can be interpreted confi-
ization across the whole bitumen column in that area. The com- dently to coincide with an effective and laterally extensive bar-
parison with interpreted geology shows that the step change in rier to petroleum mixing through geological time.
bitumen composition found in well 1 coincides with the contact Biodegradation is also a dominant process that controlled
between channel 2 and 3, where heterolithic strata character- bitumen composition and properties. Systematically higher
izes the top of channel 2 (Figs. 5a, 6b and 7). Based on the concentrations of more biodegradation-resistant compounds

Table 2. Molecular concentration (ug/g) of selected aromatic molecular markers in two studied wells.
Note breaks in concentration between samples 6 and 7 in well 1 and consistent,
un-interrupted downward decreasing concentration gradient in well 2.
C0-1N – sum of naphthalene and methylnaphthalene concentrations; C2N – sum of dimethyl- and ethylnaphthalene
concentrations; C3N – sum of tetramethylnaphthalene concentrations; C4N – sum of tetramethylnaphthalene concentrations;
C0-1DBT – sum of dibenzothiophene and methyldibenzothiophene concentrations; P – concentration of phenanthrene; MP –
sum of methylphenanthrene concentrations; and C2P – sum of dimethylphenanthrene and ethylphenanthrene concentrations.
310 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER

are notable, compared to the concentrations of more 2010) dominated in-reservoir mixing processes, which pro-
biodegradation-susceptible compounds within each sample duced bitumen molecular composition and viscosity gradients
(i.e. virtually at every sampled location, the concentration of (Figs. 8, 9, and 10).
C2P >MP >P and concentrations of C4N >C3N >C2N >C0-1N; The geological cross-section shows that meander belt 3 has
Table 2). Furthermore, preferential removal of the more incised several meters more deeply in areas defined by lateral
biodegradation-susceptible isomers 1-MP and 3-MP is appar- compartment “B” (Fig. 6b). Therefore, emplacement of
ent (Fig. 9). The strong correlation between oil viscosity (Fig. meander belt 3 was associated with more complete erosion of
10) and the selected molecular composition concentration the siltstone beds within IHS of the underlying meander belt
profiles (Fig. 8; Table 2) in both studied wells is consistent 2 in the vicinity of compartment “B” (Fig. 6b or Fig. 11).
with the conclusion that present day viscosity gradients in the Smoothly downward decreasing molecular concentration gra-
Alberta oil sands deposits are primarily a function of the dif- dients of methylphenanthrene (MP) and dimethylphenan-
fering levels of biodegradation (Adams, 2008; Gates et al., threne and ethylphenanthrene (C2P) (Fig. 8) show that the
2008; Larter et al., 2008; Fustic et al., in press a). However, removal of more of the siltstone-dominated strata in the com-
these viscosity variations, caused by biodegradation, can partment “B” area (penetrated by well 2) must have removed
highlight the effectiveness of geological barriers and baffles the lowest permeability, or most widespread siltstone strata,
in the oil sands also (Fig. 10). providing migration pathways for by-passed fluid communi-
The geochemical profiles can also point to reservoir charg- cation and mixing. This means that the reservoir was charged
ing and in-reservoir petroleum mixing processes (England et with oil as a single unit via continuous, uninterrupted in-
al., 1987; England, 1989, 1994; Stainforth, 2004), as well as reservoir filling and mixing processes. Less erosion associ-
biodegradation processes and products (Bennett and Larter, ated with emplacement of meanderbelt 3 in the area of
2008; Larter et al., 2008; Fustic et al., in press a) over geolog- compartment “A” lead to preservation of a thicker portion of
ical time (Fig. 11). In the early stages of petroleum charging in lower permeability siltstone beds (high gamma ray signal) at
the McMurray Formation, oil filled the upper portions of the the top of meander belt 2 (Figs. 6b and 11) and thus a signif-
reservoirs first due to charged oil buoyancy (Fig. 11a). In the icant lateral extent of low permeability units was preserved.
area of well 1, due to the vertical partitioning of the reservoir This unit has effectively separated the compartment “A”
by low permeability siltstone-dominated strata, deposits of the reservoir into two stacked compartments, as suggested by the
upper meander belt (channel 3) were filled separately from discontinuous bitumen molecular composition and oil viscos-
deposits in the underlying meander belt (channel 2). As a result, ity gradients (Figs. 8–10; Tables 1 and 2).
two independent oil-water contacts were established in each of Furthermore, the large abandoned channel mudstone plug
the stacked reservoir sections (Fig. 11a) and biodegradation of that separates compartments “A” and “B” has acted as a lateral
the oil by microorganisms residing in oil sands formation seal in meander belt 3 (Figs. 6b and 11) and compartmentalized
waters commenced (Oldenburg et al., 2009; Hubert et al., 2011; the upper part of the reservoir penetrated in well 1 from that in
Fig. 11a). well 2. This mudstone plug acted as a seal, impeding further
Later (Fig. 11b), as a new, fresh petroleum charge contin- eastward-southeastward migration of petroleum and inhibiting
ued into the McMurray Formation, earlier entrapped petro- petroleum mixing between compartments “A” and “B”
leum was pushed or spilled further to the east. Because the (Fig. 11). In addition, based on the much higher level of
new, fresh petroleum was lighter than the previously arrived biodegradation observed in compartment “A” as compared to
and already partially biodegraded petroleum, it occupied the compartment “B” oil, it would appear that compartment “A”
upper parts of the reservoir (Fig. 11b), again forcing the oil- oil was most likely isolated from and/or by-passed by new oil
water contact to move downwards (Fig. 11b). At the later charge prior to filling of compartment “B”. In summary, the
stages (Fig. 11c), when petroleum charge had stopped or channel 3 deposit area northwest of the mudstone plug (yellow
slowed due to the cessation of burial of the oil source kitchen striped area in Fig. 12) is an isolated compartment from the rest
in the west, petroleum mixing in the oil column and extensive of the reservoir. The majority of the reservoir (east and below
biodegradation along the oil-water contact continued until mudstone plug) is potentially laterally continuous (solid yellow
present day (Oldenburg et al., 2009; Hubert et al., 2011). in Fig. 12). This is also supported by the similar molecular con-
Vertical diffusion driven by concentration gradients (England centrations in the two studied wells within the channel 2 unit
et al., 1987; England, 1989, 1994; Smalley and Muggeridge, (Fig. 8 and Table 2).

Fig. 11 (following page). Summary diagram of interpreted reservoir charging, in reservoir mixing and biodegradation processes, including their
effects on bitumen viscosity and molecular compositional gradients. Black arrows show arrival of fresh petroleum, red arrows downward migra-
tion of previously arrived petroleum, and two-headed arrows in-reservoir mixing processes. a) Early stages of reservoir charging when oil, driven
by buoyancy, filled the upper portions of the reservoir first. Oil is attacked by microorganisms along the oil-water contact. b) Later stages of reser-
voir charging; as new, fresh oil (black arrows) arrived, it forced earlier entrapped oil (red arrows) further to the east (right) and since the new, fresh
oil was lighter than the previously arrived and already partially biodegraded petroleum, it occupied the upper parts of the reservoir forcing the
oil–water contact to move downwards. c) Reservoir after petroleum charging stopped when, in absence of new charge fluxes, the dominant
processes in the reservoir are restricted to biodegradation and vertical mixing by buoyancy and diffusion.
GEOCHEMISTRY FOR DISTINGUISHING BARRIERS FROM BAFFLES 311
312 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER

Core, gamma ray and dipmeter data analysis indicates that IMPLICATIONS FOR OILS SANDS SAGD
the heterolithic package at the top of meanderbelt 2 in well 1 is DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS
approximately 11 meters thick, of which the top 4–5 metres are
siltstone-dominated (Figs. 5a and 7a). The equivalent IHS pack- This analysis shows that there is significant variability in the
age thickness in well 2 is 17 metres (base picked from a combi- bitumen fluid properties vertically and laterally in McMurray
nation of core and dipmeter data; Fig. 5b), of which the top Formation reservoirs and that the bitumen composition, as con-
12–13 metres contain multiple metre-scale siltstone beds (Fig. trolled by biodegradation, is strongly impacted by reservoir con-
5b), including a 1.5 m thick siltstone at the top of the sequence nectivity (i.e. the distribution of geological barriers and baffles to
(Figs. 5b and 7b). Despite the greater thickness of the IHS unit fluid flow). The interpretation of oil column connectivity drawn
and the higher abundance of mudstone within that IHS unit in from the variability of bitumen composition in this study may
well 2, our data indicate that siltstone-dominated strata in well give an indication of the location of barriers to steam and could
1 is an effective barrier and the equivalent facies in well 2 is be used to assess reservoir quality, including net continuous bitu-
only a baffle to fluid flow. This suggests that the use of specific men pay, and to determine optimal horizontal well locations and
cut-off values for thickness of siltstone beds, IHS packages, or their orientation. In addition, the variability of the fluid proper-
shale volume to define barriers to fluid flow should be used with ties mapped in these reservoirs might also provide field manage-
caution. Siltstone properties, including the lateral extent, are ment insight, needed to maintain targeted production rates and
perhaps more important. The 3D extent of low permeable silt- predict bitumen quality (Bennett and Larter, 2008).
stone beds is critical to the characterization of intra-reservoir Barriers to steam located within a bitumen column can sig-
barriers or baffles to fluid flow, but is extremely difficult to nificantly reduce the total recoverable bitumen in a SAGD
ascertain through traditional analysis of core data alone. operation because of the typical placement of SAGD wells
Downward decreasing concentration gradients through the pairs 2–3 m above base of pay (position A, Fig. 12). In the case
entire oil column in well 2 are interpreted to result from unim- of well 1, the net continuous bitumen producible by SAGD
peded fluid communication that by-passed siltstone-dominated may be reduced from 50 m to approximately 22 m by the bar-
IHS of limited lateral extent. Theoretically then, injected steam rier identified between channels 2 and 3. To maximize recov-
will heat and drain bitumen above low permeability IHS-domi- ery, alternative well-pair placement options different from the
nated layers in this instance. On the contrary, the identification typical base of pay SAGD placement should be considered
of barriers (well 1) that have impeded bitumen C12+ compound (Fig. 12). In well 1, because both the lower and upper com-
diffusion over geological time are also likely to be impermeable partments contain more than 20-metre thick reservoir columns,
to steam under the dilatational conditions of a SAGD operation. they could be developed independently of each other using two

Fig. 12. Geochemical analyses suggests alternative solutions for reservoir development are necessary, illustrated with various sets of SAGD
well-pair configurations. Configuration A shows the typical approach of placing wells as close as possible to the base of the pay zone.
Configuration B shows an alternative approach, consisting of placement of two well pairs at the base of separate pay zones, as suggested may
be optimal as a result of integrated geochemistry and sedimentology analyses, as presented in this study.
313 M. FUSTIC, B. BENNETT, J. ADAMS, H. HUANG, B. MACFARLANE, D. LECKIE and S. LARTER

separate sets of horizontal well-pairs (positions labeled B, continuation of barriers between drilled wells below seismic
Fig. 12). It is conceivable that the typical SAGD well place- resolution. Geochemical log data indicate that thickness of a
ment would be viable given a pre-steam high pressure method heterogeneous low permeability interval is not necessarily the
to penetrate the barrier to allow steam flow but this may be critical attribute to identify a barrier to fluid flow. Thinner inter-
very environmentally risky in shallow settings. In the case of a vals may be more effective barriers than thicker intervals,
mid-reservoir baffle, well placement could remain as usual but depending on their permeability, continuity and lateral extent.
the operating strategy would have to take into account the pos- Siltstone beds or siltstone-dominated IHS packages that
sibility of non-uniform steam chamber growth (Fig. 2a). In have acted as barriers over geologic time scales, may also act
general, McMurray Formation reservoirs contain abundant as barriers to steam chamber expansion in a SAGD operation.
high quality bitumen, however placement of SAGD pairs at the The impact of siltstone barriers on bitumen recovery has sig-
base of the reservoir, as is currently common practice, will not nificant implications for a vast amount of Alberta’s oil sands
facilitate optimal recovery in all or even many situations. resources, especially over the next few decades as thinner and
Integrated geochemical and sedimentological studies have the poorer quality pay zones are targeted for development.
potential to provide a means to determine optimal well place- Optimization of SAGD developments will rely heavily on opti-
ment in the future. mal well placement, conditioned by reservoir characterization.
In the area characterized by well 2, continuous bitumen- In comparison to most other reservoir characterization tools,
stacked pay 60 m thick shows no indication of intraformational geochemical sampling of oil sands cores is straightforward and
fluid flow barriers and thus the reservoir could be developed by detailed molecular compositional analysis of bitumen and dead
locating well-pairs at the base of the oil column (position A, oil viscosity measurements are inexpensive. These geochemi-
Fig. 12). This well-pair placement will maximize ultimate cal data integrated with traditional core, log, and seismic analy-
recovery, but may lead to low initial production rates due to sis can provide insight into delineation of significant, yet subtle
high viscosities (>6E6 cP at 20ºC; Table 1, Fig. 10) at the base reservoir heterogeneities. Simple reservoir architecture map-
of pay (cf., Gates et al., 2008; Larter et al., 2008). Given the ping using both geological and geochemical methods may sig-
very high viscosity along the base of the column, as well as the nificantly improve optimization of bitumen recovery, by
extreme thickness (>50 m) and lateral extent (>2 km; Fig. 12) directing optimal well-placement, SAGD field management
of the pay zone, the reservoir might best be developed in and operating strategies. Complex McMurray Formation reser-
stages, with well-pairs placed higher up in the reservoir in the voirs contain abundant high quality bitumen, but routine and
early stages of development and then subsequently re-drilled uniform placement of SAGD pairs at the base of the reservoir,
into the highest viscosity zones at the base of the reservoir as is currently practiced, may not facilitate optimal recovery in
(Gates et al., 2008). Economics will be of utmost importance many situations.
for evaluation of such a development strategy.
Currently, the richest, thickest and most accessible oil sand
reservoirs are under development in the Fort McMurray area. As ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
production continues and new oil sands areas are developed, the We would like to thank Nexen Inc. and OPTI Canada for allow-
quality of the bitumen reservoirs in general will tend to deterio- ing us to present data in this case study. We appreciate the help
rate. Pay zones will commonly include IHS, be thinner, and of Matthew Smith and Shin Ma with drafting of the figures
internally contain barriers and baffles to flow. An ability to map included in this paper. We thank R. Strobl, R. Kerr and N.
and predict the integrity and continuity of low permeability Wallat for useful comments and suggestions. Finally, we thank
intervals as barriers or baffles to steam will have a significant F. Hein, Martin Fowler and Steve Hubbard for thorough and
impact not only on the ultimate recoverable bitumen, but also on critical reviews and suggestions which have significantly
cumulative steam-oil ratio and production rates. improved the final version of this manuscript. The geochemical
profiling data were provided for Nexen by Gushor Inc.
CONCLUSIONS

High-resolution geochemical logs of bitumen hydrocarbon con- REFERENCES


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