2000s-33

The Measurement
and Antecedents of
Turnover Intentions
among IT Professionals
Guy Par, Michel Tremblay
Srie Scientifique
Scientific Series
Montral
Septembre 2000
CIA!"
Le CIRANO est un organisme sans but lucratif constitu en vertu de la Loi des compagnies du ubec! Le
financement de son infrastructure et de ses activits de rec"erc"e provient des cotisations de ses organisations#
membres$ d%une subvention d%infrastructure du minist&re de la Rec"erc"e$ de la Science et de la 'ec"nologie$ de
m(me )ue des subventions et mandats obtenus par ses )uipes de rec"erc"e!
CIRANO is a private non-proit or!ani"ation incorporate# un#er the $ubec Companies Act% Its inrastructure an#
research activities are un#e# throu!h ees pai# by member or!ani"ations, an inrastructure !rant rom the
Minist&re #e la Recherche, #e la 'cience et #e la Technolo!ie, an# !rants an# research man#ates obtaine# by its
research teams%
#es organisations-$artenaires % The Partner "rgani&ations
*+cole des ,autes +tudes Commerciales
*+cole -ol.tec"ni)ue
*/niversit Concordia
*/niversit de Montral
*/niversit du ubec 0 Montral
*/niversit Laval
*/niversit Mc1ill
*M2
*MRS'
*Alcan Aluminium Lte
*A3A Canada
*4an)ue Nationale du Canada
*4an)ue Ro.ale du Canada
*4ell ubec
*4ombardier
*4ourse de Montral
*5veloppement des ressources "umaines Canada 65R,C7
*8dration des caisses populaires 5es9ardins de Montral et de l%Ouest#du#ubec
*,.dro#ubec
*Imasco
*Industrie Canada
*-ratt : ;"itne. Canada Inc!
*Ra.mond C"abot 1rant '"ornton
*<ille de Montral
= 2000 1u. -ar et Mic"el 'rembla.! 'ous droits rservs! All rig"ts reserved!
Reproduction partielle permise avec citation du document source$ incluant la notice =!
S"ort sections ma. be )uoted >it"out e?plicit permission$ provided t"at full credit$ including = notice$ is given to
t"e source!
Ce document est publi dans l%intention de rendre accessibles les rsultats prliminaires
de la rec"erc"e effectue au CIRANO$ afin de susciter des c"anges et des suggestions!
Les ides et les opinions mises sont sous l%uni)ue responsabilit des auteurs$ et ne
reprsentent pas ncessairement les positions du CIRANO ou de ses partenaires! This
paper presents preliminary research carrie# out at CIRANO an# aims at encoura!in!
#iscussion an# comment% The observations an# vie(points e)presse# are the sole
responsibility o the authors% They #o not necessarily represent positions o CIRANO or
its partners%
ISS! ''()-)'**
The Measurement and Antecedents of Turnover Intentions
among IT Professionals+
Guy Par
*
, Michel Tremblay
sum % A,stract
5ans cette tude$ nous prsentons et testons un mod&le de rec"erc"e
portant sur la rtention des spcialistes en 'I! Ce mod&le e?amine les relations
entre diverses prati)ues de 1R,$ les comportements discrtionnaires$
l%engagement organisationnel et les intentions de )uitter des spcialistes en 'I! /n
)uestionnaire f@t dvelopp et envo. au? membres de la 8dration de
l%Informati)ue du ubec 68I7! Les donnes de ABC )uestionnaires ont servi au?
fins d%anal.ses statisti)ues! Nous prsentons et discutons les rsultats obtenus et
faisons une srie de recommandations au? "auts dirigeants en 'I et en R,!
The purpose o this stu#y is to present an# test an inte!rate# mo#el o
turnover intentions that a##resses the uni+ue nature o the IT proession% ,e
i#entiie# a multi#imensional set o -R practices li.ely to increase retention
amon! IT employees an# consi#ere# citi"enship behaviors as (ell as t(o #istinct
types o or!ani"ational commitment as .ey antece#ents o turnover intentions% A
+uestionnaire (as #evelope# an# sent to the $uebec members o the Cana#ian
Inormation Processin! 'ociety% /ata rom 012 respon#ents (ere use# to vali#ate
the measures an# test our research mo#el% ,e present an# #iscuss the results an#
ma.e a series o recommen#ations or IT an# -R e)ecutives%
Mots Cls - 1estion du personnel en 'I$ roulement du personnel en 'I$ attitudes
.e/0ords- IS staffing issues$ IS turnover$ attitudes
D
Corresponding Aut"orE 1u. -ar$ CIRANO$ 2020 /niversit. Street$ 2F
t"
floor$ Montral$ c$ Canada ,AA 2AF
'el!E 6FGC7 BHF#C000 8a?E 6FGC7 BHF#C0AB emailE paregIcirano!umontreal!ca
J
,2C and CIRANO
K
,2C and CIRANO
'1 I!T"23CTI"!
'"e past fe> .ears "ave been t"e most t"reatening period for enterprises t"at use$ manage
or deal in information tec"nolog. 6I'7 or I' services! '"e source of t"e tumult "as been
people L i!e! t"e demand$ suppl.$ selection$ recruitment and especiall. retention of I'
professionals >orld>ide 62rmel and 4o"l GBBMN Morello GBBHN 1uptill et al% GBBB7! Since
late GBBO$ t"e labor marPet for I' professionals "as reac"ed a fever pitc"E I' professional
compensation "as soared$ turnover "as rocPeted to GFQ to 20Q annuall.$ 9ob#"opping
"as become t"e norm and onl. eig"t out of ten I' positions get filled >it" )ualified
candidates 6McNee et al% GBBH7! '"ese trends place bot" I' e?ecutives and ,uman
Resources 6,R7 managers under intense pressure! '"e risPs are effectivel. "ig"$ not onl.
for t"e I' department$ but for t"e business as a >"ole! At staPe is not"ing less t"an
gro>t"$ competitive positioning and t"e strengt" of t"e global econom.!
'"e problems in t"e I' labor marPet >ill not go a>a. for man. .ears! '"roug" 200C$
marPet demand for relevant I' sPills and Pno>#"o> >ill continue to outstrip suppl.
6Morello and Claps 20007! 5uring t"at difficult period$ senior ,R e?ecutives and I'
e?ecutives must >orP toget"er to correct or refine corporate policies t"at in"ibit retention
and recruitment! Recent literature reveals t"at a "eav. investment in t"e "uman capital
and t"e implementation of ,R practices ma. contribute to organiRational success 6-feffer
and <eiga GBBB7$ specificall. b. reducing t"e turnover of t"e I' staff 6Agar>al and
8erratt GBBBN RoepPe et al% 20007! As t"e demand for I' professionals increases$ so does
t"e pressure on I' and ,R managers to design innovative strategies for retaining talent
6Sing and Callo>a. GBBF7! '"e purpose of t"e present stud. is to present and test an
integrated model of turnover intentions t"at addresses t"e uni)ue nature of t"e I'
profession! ;e identified a multidimensional set of ,R practices liPel. to increase
retention among I' emplo.ees and considered citiRens"ip be"aviors as >ell as t>o
distinct t.pes of organiRational commitment as Pe. antecedents of turnover intentions!
-recisel.$ t"is stud. addresses four researc" )uestionsE G7 ;"at are t"e essential ,R
practices necessar. to create an effective plan for retaining I' professionalsT 27 ;"at is
t"e impact of compensation and negotiation conditions on t"e turnover intentions of I'
personnelT A7 ;"at is t"e effect of emplo.ee demograp"ic c"aracteristics on t"e turnover
intentions of I' personnelT and C7 5o organiRational commitment and citiRens"ip
be"aviors mediate t"e effects of ,R practices$ compensation and negotiation conditions
as >ell as demograp"ic c"aracteristics on t"e turnover intentions of I' personnelT
21 4S4AC5 M"24#
Conceptual and empirical models of turnover intentions provide strong support for t"e
proposition t"at be"avioral intentions constitute t"e most immediate determinant of actual
be"avior 68is"bein and A9Ren GBMFN 'riandis GBH07$ in t"e present case turnover 6e!g!$
Lee and Mo>da. GBHMN O%Reille. and Cald>ell GBHG7! -revious I' empirical studies on
turnover "ave used intent to leave rat"er t"an actual turnover be"avior as a criterion
variable 64aroudi GBHFN Igbaria and 1reen"aus GBB2N 1uimaraes and Igbaria GBB2N
Igbaria and 1uimaraes GBBB7! '"ese researc"ers evoPed$ among ot"er factors$ t"e modest
costs associated >it" collecting turnover intention statements! Additionall.$ turnover
G
intentions >"ic" are under more individual control can provide results muc" more
)uicPl.$ and are less difficult to predict t"an actual turnover 6-rice and 4luedorn GBMM7!
8or t"ese reasons$ turnover intentions "ave been used in t"e present stud.!
8igure G presents t"e integrated model of turnover intentions tested in t"is stud.! '"e
model comprises si? sets of variablesE G7 ,R management practices including
recognition$ empo>erment$ procedural and distributive 9ustice$ competence development$
>orP#famil. policies$ and information s"aringN 27 compensation conditions including
salar.$ annual bonus$ recruitment bonus$ and U2S retention bonus as >ell as one
negotiation condition$ namel.$ t"e number of formal 9ob offersN A7 demograp"ic
c"aracteristics including age$ education$ and organiRational tenureN C7 organiRational
commitmentN F7 organiRational citiRens"ip be"aviors 6OC47N and O7 turnover intentions!
Our model predicts direct effects of ,R practices$ demograp"ic c"aracteristics and
compensation and negotiation conditions on organiRational commitment and turnover
intentions! ,R practices are also e?pected to "ave direct effects on OC4! ;e furt"er
predict direct effects of organiRational commitment on OC4 and turnover intentions as
>ell as direct effects of OC4 on turnover intentions! Last$ in addition to t"e direct effects$
our model posits indirect effects of ,R practices$ demograp"ics as >ell as compensation
and negotiation conditions on turnover intentions t"roug" OC4 andVor organiRational
commitment! Since indirect effects are composites of direct effects$ onl. direct effects are
presented as ".pot"eses! '"e rationale for eac" ".pot"esis in t"e model is presented
belo>!
Insert 6igure ' a,out here
"rgani&ational Commitment
A number of empirical studies confirm t"e important role of organiRational commitment
in t"e turnover process for I' personnel 6Igbaria : 1reen"aus GBB2N Igbaria and
1uimaraes GBBB7! '"e. posit t"at I' emplo.ees >"o are "ig"l. committed to t"eir
organiRation are less liPel. to leave t"an t"ose >"o are relativel. uncommitted! In t"e O4
literature$ organiRational commitment >as found to comprise t"ree distinct dimensionsE
affective$ continuance and normative commitment 6Me.er and Allen GBBM7! 8irst$
affective commitment corresponds to an emplo.ee%s personal attac"ment and
identification to t"e organiRation resulting in a strong belief in an acceptance of t"e
organiRation%s goals and values! 2mplo.ees >it" a strong affective commitment continue
emplo.ment >it" t"e organiRation because t"e. (ant to do so! Second$ continuance
commitment is conceived as a tendenc. to engage in consistent lines of activit. based on
t"e individual%s recognition of t"e WcostsX associated >it" discontinuing t"e activit.!
2mplo.ees >"ose primar. linP to t"e organiRation is based on continuance commitment
remain because t"e. nee# to do so! '"ird$ normative commitment suggests t"at
emplo.ees e?"ibit be"aviors solel. because t"e. believe it is t"e rig"t and moral t"ing to
do! 2mplo.ees >it" a "ig" level of normative commitment feel t"at t"e. ou!ht to remain
>it" t"e organiRation! -rior studies of turnover intentions among I' personnel "ave onl.
considered t"e first and most studied component of t"e construct$ namel.$ affective
commitment 6e!g!$ Igbaria and 1reen"aus GBB2N Igbaria and 1uimaraes GBBB7! In t"e
2
present stud.$ >e decided to pus" furt"er our understanding of t"e mediating role of
organiRational commitment and "ence$ >e considered bot" affective and continuance
commitment! ;e omitted to include normative commitment for t"ree primar. reasonsE G7
affective and normative commitment are significantl. correlated >it" eac" ot"er 6e!g!
Me.er et al% GBBA$ Sommers GBBF7N 27 past researc" s"o>ed a strong overlapping in t"e
determinants and conse)uences of bot" constructs 6Me.er et al% GBBA7N and A7 in general$
prior findings in t"e O4 literature are muc" more conclusive for t"e affective dimension
t"an for t"e normative one 6e!g!$ 4olon GBBM7!
-ast researc" s"o>ed a negative relations"ip bet>een affective commitment and turnover
intentions 6Me.er et al% GBBA7! In t"is lig"t$ t"e more emplo.ees identif. t"emselves >it"
t"e organiRation$ t"e greater is t"eir intention to sta.! '"ese aut"ors also found a negative
correlation bet>een continuance commitment and t"e criterion variable! One e?planation
for t"e latter result is t"at some individuals ma. not >ant to )uit t"eir organiRation even if
t"e. are not emotionall. attac"ed to it because >orPing conditions are simpl. too good!
Sommers 6GBBF7 and C"en et al! 6GBBH7 also found negative relations"ips bet>een bot"
t.pes of commitment and turnover intentions! Interestingl.$ bot" empirical studies found
a stronger relations"ip bet>een affective commitment and turnover intentions t"an
bet>een continuance commitment and turnover intentions! '"ese results suggest t"at
emplo.ees are more >illing to remain in an organiRation >"en t"e. "ave an emotional
attac"ment to t"e organiRation t"an >"en t"e. perceive a cost of leaving it!
'o summariRe$ ,.pot"esis G predicts t"at organiRational commitment "as a direct effect
on turnover intentions of I' personnel! Specificall.$ affective commitment 6,Ga7 and
continuance 6,Gb7 commitment are e?pected to be negativel. related to turnover
intentions! ;e also posit t"at t"e linP bet>een affective commitment and turnover
intentions is stronger t"an t"e relations"ip bet>een continuance commitment and
turnover intentions 6,Gc7!
"rgani&ational Citi&enshi$ 7ehavior
OC4 is considered a Pe. element of organiRational effectiveness! It is defined as an
emplo.ee%s >illingness to go above and be.ond t"e prescribed roles >"ic" t"e. "ave
been assigned 6Organ GBB07! '"ese e?tra#role be"aviors are considered as a contribution
to t"e maintenance and en"ancement of t"e social and ps.c"ological conte?t t"at supports
tasP performance in t"e organiRation 6Organ GBBM7! At t"e same time$ suc" discretionar.
be"aviors are not e?plicitl. recogniRed b. a formal re>ards s.stem$ and t"eir contribution
to organiRational success is based on resource transformations$ innovativeness and
adaptabilit. 6Organ GBHH7!
'o date$ t"e linP bet>een OC4 and turnover "as not received t"e attention it deserves! 'o
our Pno>ledge$ onl. C"en et al% 6GBBH7 empiricall. tested t"is relations"ip! '"e results of
t"eir stud. revealed a negative relations"ip bet>een OC4 and turnover intentions and an
even stronger association bet>een OC4 and actual turnover! C"en et al% 6GBBH7 argue t"at
a "ig" level of OC4 Wreflect emplo.ees% true >illingness regarding "o> muc" t"e. >ant
to be involved in$ or "o> muc" t"e. liPe to be distant from$ t"e organiRationX 6p!B2C7!
A
'"is form of emplo.ee be"avioral >it"dra>al could t"us be considered as an antecedent
of turnover intention!
According to ;illiams : Anderson 6GBBG7$ citiRens"ip be"aviors can be directed at t"e
organiRation 6OC4O7 6e!g!$ carr.ing out role re)uirements >ell be.ond minimum
re)uired levels7 andVor t"e. ma. benefit specific individuals 6OC4I7 6e!g!$ "elping a
specific ot"er person >it" a relevant tasP7 and contribute onl. indirectl. to t"e
organiRation! ,o>ever$ OC4 "as fre)uentl. been treated as a unidimensional construct
6e!g!$ 4ateman : Organ$ GBHAN 1eorge GBBG7$ >"ic" ma. "ave led to results t"at are
difficult to interpret! '"e present stud. is t"e first to investigate t"e mediating influence
of OC4 on turnover intentions of I' specialists! In lig"t of t"e preliminar. findings$
,.pot"esis 2 posits t"at citiRens"ip be"aviors "ave a direct effect on turnover intentions!
-recisel.$ >e predict t"at bot" OC4I 6,2a7 and OC4O 6,2b7 are negativel. related to
turnover intentions of I' personnel!
;"ile fe> researc"ers "ave e?amined t"e nature of t"e association bet>een OC4 and
turnover$ several empirical studies "ave tested t"e linP bet>een organiRational
commitment and OC4! Allen and Smit" 6GBHM7 and Me.er and Allen 6GBBG7 found t"at
self#report measures of OC4 correlated positivel. >it" affective commitment and
negativel. >it" continuance commitment! Me.er et al% 6GBBA7 tested t"e influence of
commitment on OC4 among a population of registered nurses! '"e. found a significant
positive correlation bet>een affective commitment and OC4! More recentl.$ Organ and
R.an 6GBBF7 and C"en et al% 6GBBH7 also identified a positive linP bet>een OC4 and
organiRational commitment! ,o>ever$ a meta#anal.sis conducted b. Organ and R.an
6GBBF7 asserted t"at onl. affective commitment >as related to OC4! A plausible
e?planation for t"is result is t"at emplo.ees are >illing to invest t"eir time and energ. in
OC4 activities if and onl. if t"e. are emotionall. attac"ed to t"e organiRation! In lig"t of
t"ese empirical results$ ,.pot"esis A predicts t"at organiRational commitment is
associated >it" OC4! Specificall.$ >e posit t"at affective commitment >ill be positivel.
related to OC4I 6,Aa7 and OC4O 6,Ab7! Moreover$ >e e?pect no significant relations"ip
bet>een continuance commitment and OC4I 6,Ac7 and OC4O 6,Ad7!
5 $ractices
Alt"oug" sets of innovative ,R practices >ere recentl. proposed to en"ance
effectiveness in organiRations and to retain talented emplo.ees 6Arnett and Obert GBBFN
-feffer and <eiga GBBBN 5essler GBBB7$ t"e configurations of suc" practices are narro>l.
focused and t"ese suggestions are often not t"eoreticall. grounded! 8or e?ample$ StoPes
6GBBF7 identified team#based re>ard and recognition practices as a ma9or factorN and
1illiam 6GBBC7 recommended t"at I' managers focus on moving computer people out
into t"e user communit.$ offering non cas" inducements$ and stressing team>orP! In our
vie>$ t"e conceptual model of La>ler 6GBHO7 ma. be a good starting point! McMa"an$
4ell and <iricP 6GBBH7 argue t"at t"is model is t"e primar. contributor to t"e evolution of
contemporar. strategic ,R management! -recisel.$ La>ler 6GBHO7 suggests t"at four
organiRational processes ma. influence >orP#related attitudes and be"aviors$ namel.$
information#s"aring$ empo>erment$ competence development and re>ard! ,o>ever$
C
recent studies "ave s"o>n t"at re(ar# is a comple? process t"at ma. not be full.
understood >it"out taPing into account some of its underl.ing dimensions$ namel. t"e
distributive$ procedural and recognition aspects 6S"eppard et al% GBB2N MilPovic" and
Ne>man GBBH7! In addition$ recent literature suggests t"at >orP#famil. conflict is a
critical c"allenge for an organiRation o>ing to its conse)uences on individual attitudes
and be"aviors 6C"iu and Ng GBBB7! 1reater individual and organiRational effectiveness is
e?pected >"en all t"ese processes are spread t"roug"out t"e organiRation! '"e present
stud. e?amines seven ,R practices t"at an organiRation can emplo. to increase
commitment$ favor e?tra#role be"aviors and decrease turnover intentions among I'
emplo.ees! ;e >ill define and illustrate eac" of t"ese practices in turn!
8irst$ for most I' professionals$ a significant part of t"eir motivation comes from t"e
recognition t"e. get from managers for a >ell 9ob done and t"e feeling t"at t"e. are an
important part of t"e organiRation 6Agar>al and 8erratt GBBBN 1omolsPi 20007! In t"is
stud.$ reco!nition practices refer to non#monetar. means 6e!g!$ e?tended vacations$
ticPets to a baseball game$ organiRational recognition events7 and monetar. >a.s 6e!g!$
spot cas" a>ards7 b. >"ic" an organiRation tangibl. signals its appreciation of
outstanding performances and accomplis"ments! Second$ Agar>al and 8erratt 6GBBB7
found t"at successful I' organiRations are devoting resources to>ard empo(erin! I'
professionals to taPe increasing responsibilit. for t"eir >orP and for decision maPing!
'"ird$ >e posit it is easier to recruit and retain people in an organiRation >"ere I'
professionals "ave a sense of e)uit.! In t"is stud.$ >e distinguis" bet>een distributive
and procedural 9ustice! /istributive 3ustice refers to t"e perceived fairness >it" regard to
issues suc" as mandates$ compensation conditions$ performance evaluations and
promotions >"ile proce#ural 3ustice relates to t"e perceived e)uit. of t"e means used to
determine mandates assignments$ compensation conditions as >ell as evaluation and
promotion criteria 68olger GBMM7! 8ourt"$ competence #evelopment practices 6e!g! 9ob
rotation programs$ mentoring$ training7 conve. to t"e emplo.ees t"at t"e organiRation
considers "uman resources to be a competitive advantage 6Sc">oc"au et al% GBBM7$ and
t"at it is seePing to establis" a long#term relations"ip >it" emplo.ees 6'sui et al% GBBF7!
'"at signal is liPel. to be an important factor in retaining productive I' professionals
61uptill GBBHN Agar>al and 8erratt GBBB7! 8ift"$ >it" t"e s"ortfall of I' staff not e?pected
to disappear in t"e near term$ it is sensible business practice to accommodate t"ose
emplo.ees >"o ma. not 9oin t"e >orPforce for a t.pical B#to#F >orPda. because of ot"er
constraints in t"eir personal life 6Agar>al and 8erratt GBBB7! ,ere$ (or.-lie policies
correspond to >orP conditions provided b. organiRations to taPe into account t"e needs
of t"e I' >orPforce and to minimiRe t"e conse)uences of conflict bet>een t"e >orP and
famil. issues 66,one.cutt and Rosen GBBMN Sopelman et al% GBHA7! Last$ I' professionals
need to be made a>are of t"e larger conte?t >it"in >"ic" t"eir >orP fits and to develop a
sense of communit. 6Agar>al and 8erratt GBBB7! One pat" to accomplis" t"is is t"roug"
inormation sharin! practices 6e!g!$ group meetings to discuss timel. issues7 >"ic" aim at
clarif.ing t"e e?pectations of t"e organiRation along >it" efforts made b. t"e
organiRation to listen to preoccupations and emplo.ee suggestions!
All seven practices "ave been found to be positivel. related to affective commitment
61rover and CrooPer GBBFN Rod>ell et al% GBBHN Smit" GBBFN 8iorito et al% GBBMN C"en et
F
al% GBBH7! 8urt"er$ researc"ers found a positive relations"ip bet>een continuance
commitment and distributive 9ustice 6Me.er and Allen GBB0N ;ard and 5avis GBBF7! As
in t"e case of affective commitment$ all ,R practices$ e?cept >orP#famil. policies$ "ave
been determined to "ave a direct and positive impact on OC4 6Morrisson GBBON Cappelli
and RogovsP. GBBHN Allen and Rus" GBBHN Sc"naPe et al% GBBFN SonovsP. and -ug"
GBBCN 'rembla. et al% GBBH7! ;"ile findings support t"e direct effects of ,R practices on
turnover 6,uselid GBBF$ Art"ur GBBC7$ t"e influence on turnover intentions over and
above t"eir effects on organiRational commitment and OC4 "ave$ "o>ever$ not been
full. tested to date! 8or instance$ C"en et al% 6GBBH7 found t"at turnover intentions >as
more strongl. correlated >it" organiRational commitment t"an OC4 and 9ob re>ards$ and
t"at OC4 and turnover intentions "ad a significant effect on actual turnover! ,o>ever$
t"e. did not test t"e influence of 9ob re>ards$ organiRational commitment and OC4 on
t"e >illingness to )uit!
1iven t"ese recent empirical results$ >e posit t"at ,R practices "ave direct effects on
organiRational commitment$ bot" forms of OC4$ and turnover intentions! Specificall.$ it
is predicted t"at all seven practices are positivel. related to OC4I and OC4O 6,Ca to
,Cn7 and affective commitment 6,Fa to ,Fg7$ and are negativel. related to turnover
intentions 6,Oa to ,Og7! ;e also posit t"at not onl. re>ards related to distributive 9ustice
perceptions but also >orP#life policies 6>orP conditions7 and affective commitment >ill
be positivel. related to continuance commitment 6,Ma to ,Mc7!
Com$ensation and negotiation conditions
Conventional >isdom suggests t"at in order to retain productive I' emplo.ees$
companies must pa. t"em >ell! 8our compensation variables and one negotiation
condition >ere e?amined in t"is stud.! Compensation variables include salar.$ annual
bonus$ recruitment bonus and U2S retention bonus! '"ese variables are differentiated
from distributive 9ustice practices because t"e. represent ob3ective variables and t"e. are
not founded on 9udgments or comparisons of emplo.ees! In t"is stud.$ t"e negotiation
conditions correspond to t"e number of formal 9ob offers! It is e?pected t"at
compensation and negotiation conditions "ave a direct impact on organiRational
commitment and turnover intentions! Salar. "as been found to be positivel. related to
organiRational commitment and negativel. to turnover intentions among I' personnel
6e!g!$ Igbaria and 1reen"aus GBB27! Similar results are anticipated for annual bonus$
recruitment bonus and U2S retention bonus! Me.er and Allen 6GBB07 found continuance
commitment and lacP of alternative 9ob offers to be positivel. associated! In
conse)uence$ ,.pot"esis F predicts t"at compensation and negotiation conditions "ave
direct effects on organiRational commitment and turnover intentions! Specificall.$ salar.$
annual bonus$ recruitment bonus$ and retention bonus are ".pot"esiRed to all be
positivel. related to continuance commitment and negativel. related to turnover
intentions 6,Ha to ,H"7$ >"ereas t"e number of formal 9ob offers is negativel. related to
continuance commitment 6,Hi7 and positivel. related to turnover intentions 6,H97!
O
2emogra$hic varia,les
-rior researc" reveals t"at age and organiRational tenure are positivel. related to affective
commitment 6Me.er and Allen GBBG7$ >"ile education "as been found to be negativel.
related to continuance commitment 6Me.er and Allen GBB07! Regarding OC4$ t"ere is
little evidence t"at demograp"ic variables "ave a direct influence on t"is t.pe of be"avior
6Organ and R.an GBBFN C"en et al% GBBH7! Lastl.$ prior researc" suggests t"at
demograp"ic variables ma. "ave direct effects on turnover intentions over and above
t"eir effects on OC4 and organiRational commitment 6C"en et al% GBBH7! '"erefore$
,.pot"esis O predicts t"at demograp"ic c"aracteristics "ave direct effects on
organiRational commitment and turnover intentions! Specificall.$ it is predicted t"at age
and organiRational tenure are positivel. related to affective commitment 6,Ba and ,Bb7
and continuance commitment 6,Bc and ,Bd7$ and are negativel. related to turnover
intentions 6,Be and ,Bf7! In contrast$ education is predicted to be positivel. related to
turnover intentions 6,Bg7$ and is negativel. related to continuance commitment 6,B"7!
3. METHODOLOGY
In order to test our researc" ".pot"eses$ a )uestionnaire >as developed and sent to t"e
uebec members of t"e Canadian Information -rocessing Societ. 6CI-S7! '"e sample
>as c"osen because CI-S members represent a >ide variet. of I' 9obs and organiRational
settings! '"e researc" instrument contained ten sections and included empiricall.
establis"ed measurement scales! A pretest of t"e )uestionnaire >as conducted >it" a
convenient sample of G0 I' practitioners and academics! 2ac" of t"e respondents
completed a preliminar. version of t"e )uestionnaire and provided feedbacP about t"e
process 6e!g! administration time$ clarit. of directions7 and t"e measures! In general$
respondents indicated t"at t"e )uestionnaire >as relativel. clear and eas. to complete!
8ollo>ing t"e pretest$ a number of modifications to t"e instrument >ere made in order to
improve t"e measures$ along >it" t"e overall structure and clarit. of t"e )uestionnaire!
'"e revised version of t"e )uestionnaire$ >it" a cover letter indicating t"e purpose and
t"e importance of t"e stud.$ >as sent to all uebec members 6n Y 2$ABH7 of CI-S!
2?cluded from t"e sample >ere t>o CI-S members >"o "ad been surve.ed in t"e pretest
of t"e instrument! It s"ould be noted t"at participation >as voluntar.$ and respondents
>ere assured t"at t"eir individual responses >ould be treated as confidential! '>o >eePs
follo>ing t"e initial mailing$ a follo>#up letter >as sent to t"e uebec members of CI-S!
'"is letter stressed t"e importance of t"eir responses and provided a number to call if
t"e. "ad an. )uestions or re)uired a ne> cop. of t"e surve.!
A total of ABC )uestionnaires >ere returned to t"e researc"ers >it"in an H#>eeP periodN
GAC )uestionnaires >ere returned because of unspecified address c"anges 6response rate
of GM!CQ7! '"e some>"at lo> response rate >as to be e?pected for several reasons! 8irst$
t"e )uestionnaire >as distributed to>ard t"e end of November GBBB! Several members of
CI-S telep"oned us upon reception of t"e reminder letter to let us Pno> t"e. could not
complete t"e )uestionnaire simpl. because of t"e Wred tapeX associated >it" t"e U2S
problem andVor t"e end of t"e fiscal .ear! Anot"er reason is related to t"e c"aracteristics
of t"e sample itselfE a small portion of CI-S members in uebec are believed to be self#
M
emplo.ed$ and "ence not directl. concerned b. t"e current stud.! Not>it"standing$ it is
>ort" noting t"at several of t"ese >orPers "ave s"o>n a great interest in receiving a cop.
of t"e results of t"is researc"! In s"ort$ >e believe t"ese reasons to be more plausible
causes for non#response t"an t"e nature of t"e )uestion under stud.!
Sevent.#seven )uestionnaires >ere received after t"e mailing of t"e follo>#up letter!
'"e. >ere used in order to assess t"e possibilit. of a non#response bias! In fact$ a
comparison of t"e responses returned earl. 6first >aveE n Y AGM7 >it" t"ose returned late
6second >aveE n Y MM7 >as conducted 6LinsP. GBMF7! Crosstabs anal.ses$ Mann#;"itne.
tests and t#tests >ere conducted to determine >"et"er differences in response time 6earl.
vs! late7 >ere associated >it" differing responses! Results indicated no significant
differences in an. of t"e variables of interestN "ence$ no significant bias >as detected!
Measures
'"e dependant variable >as adapted from t"e measurement instrument developed b.
Me.er et al% 6GBBA7! '"is measure used in t"e present stud. consists of t>o itemsE W,o>
often do .ou feel liPe )uitting .our 9ob in t"is organiRationTX$ and W,o> liPel. is it t"at
.ou >ill actuall. leave .our organiRation >it"in t"e ne?t .earTX '"e response options to
t"e first item ranged from G7 almost never to M7 almost ever. da.$ >"ile t"e options to t"e
second item ranged from G7 ver. unliPel. to M7 ver. liPel.! '"e responses to t"e items
>ere coded suc" t"at "ig" scores reflected stronger intentions to leave t"e organiRation!
'"e ten items used to construct t"e commitment scale >ere derived from t>o of t"e t"ree
dimensions of t"e instrument developed b. Me.er and Allen 6GBB07$ namel. affective 6F
items7 and continuance 6F items7! Sample items of affective commitment areE WI reall.
feel as if m. organiRation%s problems are m. o>nX and WM. organiRation "as a great deal
of personal meaning for me!X '"e items measuring continuance commitment includeE WIt
>ould be ver. "ard for me to leave m. organiRation rig"t no>$ even if I >anted toX and
WIt >ould be too costl. for me to leave m. organiRation no>!X '"e response options to all
ten items ranged from G7 strongl. disagree to M7 strongl. agree! '"e responses to t"e
items >ere coded suc" t"at "ig" scores reflected greater commitment to t"e organiRation!
'"e items measuring bot" t.pes of commitment are presented in Appendi?!
OC4I and OC4O >ere measured using a F#item scale and a M#item scale$ respectivel.!
'"ese scales >ere adopted from -odsaPoff et al% 6GBB07 and ;illiams and Anderson
6GBBG7! Respondents >ere asPed to t"inP "o> t"eir supervisor >ould evaluate t"eir o>n
citiRens"ip be"aviors on M#point LiPert#t.pe scales! Sample items of OC4I includeE WI
"elp colleagues >"o "ave been absent from >orP$X and WI am mindful of "o> m.
be"avior affects ot"er people%s 9ob!X '"e items measuring OC4O includeE WI attend
meetings t"at are not mandator. but are considered importantX and WI ad"ere to informal
rules devised to maintain order!X '"e response options to all items ranged from G7
strongl. disagree to M7 strongl. agree! '"e responses to t"e items >ere coded suc" t"at
"ig" scores s"o>ed "ig"er levels of OC4! '"e items used to measure OC4I and OC4O
are presented in Appendi?!
H
Recognition practices >ere measured using a GC#item scale adapted from 'rembla. et al%
6GBBM7 and 'rembla. : 1ua. 6GBBH7! 2mpo>erment >as measured b. a B#item scale
developed b. 'rembla. et al% 6GBBM7$ and adapted b. 'rembla. and 1ua. 6GBBH7! '>o
scales >ere designed to measure t"e different t.pes of organiRational 9usticeE distributive
and procedural! '"e first scale comprises GG items >"ile t"e second scale includes G2
items! Competence development practices >ere measured using a B#item scale mainl.
based on t"e >orP of 'rembla. et al% 6GBBM7! ;orP#famil. policies >ere measured using
a O#item scale based on 4ee"r et al%%s 6GBMO7 stud. of >orP overload and Sopelman et
al%%s 6GBHA7 >orP on >orP#famil. conflict! Last$ information s"aring >as measured b. a
nine#item scale developed b. 'rembla. et al% 6GBBM7 and adapted b. 'rembla. and 1ua.
6GBBH7! '"e response options to all items ranged from 6G7 strongl. disagree to 6M7 strongl.
agree! '"e items used to measure t"e ,R practices included in our researc" model are
presented in Appendi?!
All compensation and negotiation variables >ere eac" measured b. one item! '"e salar.
measure >as based on annual salar. in current position! Categories ranged from G7 belo>
ZC0$000 to F7 ZG00$000 or above! Annual bonus >as measured using categories t"at
ranged from G7 0Q of annual salar. to O7 G00Q or above of annual salar.! ;e also asPed
respondents if t"e. "ad received a recruitment bonus >"en t"e. >ere "ired$ and if t"e.
"ad signed a U2S retention bonus 6noY0$ .esYG7! In addition$ t"e number of formal 9ob
offers received b. t"e respondent >as measured using a LiPert#t.pe scale ranging from G7
no 9ob offers to M7 several 9ob offers!
Age >as measured in .ears! OrganiRational tenure >as measured b. t"e number of .ears
an individual "as been emplo.ed in "is or "er current organiRation! 2ducation consisted
of si? levels from G7 some "ig" sc"ool to O7 doctorate! Respondents >ere also instructed
to indicate t"eir 9ob title and t"e sector of activit. of t"eir current organiRation in open#
ended scales!
81 A!A#9TICA# T4C5!I:34S
In order to perform t"e various statistical anal.ses$ our sample >as divided into t"ree sub#
samples! One "undred respondents >ere randoml. assigned to t"e initial sample 6SG7
>"ile anot"er G00 respondents >ere randoml. grouped in a "oldout sample 6S27! SG >as
utiliRed for instrument validation purposes onl. >"ile S2 served for furt"er validation
purposes and preliminar. ".pot"esis testing! '"e remaining GBC )uestionnaires >ere used
to test t"e revised researc" model 6SA7! '"e reason for selecting G00 cases in bot" t"e
initial and t"e "oldout samples >as to provide us >it" enoug" cases to ade)uatel.
perform a factor anal.sis 6Serlinger GBHO7! Crosstab$ SrusPal#;allis and One>a. tests
>ere conducted to confirm t"e similarit. of t"e t"ree groups!
Anal.sis begins >it" an e?amination of t"e measurement model in terms of its reliabilit.
and construct validit.! 'able G presents t"e results associated >it" t"e assessment of t"e
internal consistenc. of eac" scale using SG! '"e composite reliabilit. coefficients of all
t"e scales$ but one$ satisfied Nunall.%s 6GBMH7 guidelines! Indeed$ onl. OC4O obtained
an alp"a inferior to t"e cutoff point of !M0! 4ased on t"e results of t"e reliabilit. anal.sis$
B
t"e inter#item correlation coefficients matri? 6not s"o>n "ere7$ and t"e results of a
principal components factor anal.sis 6not s"o>n "ere7$ GH of t"e M0 items measuring t"e
various ,R practices >ere removed from t"e instrument! '"e inormation sharin!, (or.-
lie policies and competence #evelopment scales remained unc"anged follo>ing t"ese
anal.ses!
Insert Ta,le ' a,out here
'"e first five items to be removed pertains to t"e construct proce#ural 3ustice! -RO[/SH
loaded more "ig"l. on t"e inormation sharin! scale >"ile t"e factor loadings for
-RO[/SG$ -RO[/S2$ -RO[/SH and -RO[/SGM >ere not above t"e cutoff point! Ne?t$
si? items from t"e distributive 9ustice scale "ad to removed based on t"e results of t"e
reliabilit. and factor anal.sis! 4ot" 5IS[/SGC and 5IS[/SGB loaded more "ig"l. on t"e
competence #evelopment scale >"ile 5IS[/SGF$ 5IS[/SGO$ 5IS[/SGH and 5IS[/S22
>ere removed because of t"eir >eaPness regarding t"e convergent validit. criterion!
'"ree items also "ad to be removed from t"e empo(erment scale$ t>o of >"ic" 62M-G
and 2M-C7 did not satisf. t"e 0!F0 cut off point! '"e t"ird item to be eliminated$ 2M-B$
loaded more "ig"l. on anot"er scale! '"e last four items to be removed pertained to t"e
reco!nition scale 6R2CH$ R2CG0$ R2CGA$ R2CGC7! All four items >ere removed based
on t"e results of t"e factor anal.sis! As for t"e ot"er constructs included in our researc"
model$ namel.$ aective commitment$ continuous commitment, turnover intentions, OC4I
and OC4O$ onl. t"e latter "ad to be modified! -recisel.$ item OC4M did not satisf. t"e
convergent validit. criterion and "ence >as removed from t"e scale!
Once t"e appropriate modifications to t"e measurement instruments >ere made$ t"e same
statistical anal.ses >ere conducted using t"e "oldout sample 6S27! 'able 2 reports t"e
reliabilit. coefficients associated >it" t"e revised scales! '"e reliabilit. coefficients
s"o>ed an improvement in comparison >it" SGN t"e composite reliabilit. coefficients of
t"e revised scales ranged from 0!M0 to 0!BA! Convergent and discriminant validit. >ere
also tested using S2! As mentioned earlier$ to demonstrate convergent validit.$ items t"at
measure t"e same trait or construct s"ould correlate "ig"l. >it" one anot"er! Results
s"o> t"at inter#item correlations >ere all significant at t"e !00G level for all scales but
t>o! 8irst$ t"e correlation coefficients bet>een items G and A as >ell as bet>een items G
and C pertaining to t"e affective commitment scale >ere significant at t"e 0!0F level! Item
G >as t"en removed from t"e scale! Second$ t"e correlation coefficients bet>een item F
and all t"e ot"er items of t"e continuance commitment scale >ere not significant at t"e
0!0F level! 8or t"is reason$ item F >as removed from t"e measurement scale! In general$
t"oug"$ our data supports t"e convergent validit. of t"e ten scales comprised in t"e
researc" model!
Insert Ta,le 2 a,out here
8inall.$ a principal components factor anal.sis for ,R practices >as also performed
using S2! As s"o>n in 'able A$ results provided strong support for discriminant validit.!
Onl. four additional items "ad to be removed$ leaving a total of CH items for t"e seven
measurement scales! 8irst$ IN8OS,AM$ IN8OS,AB and COM-G all loaded more "ig"l.
G0
on t"e recognition scale$ and "ence$ >ere all removed! Second$ R2CG2 >as removed
from t"e recognition scale since it loaded more "ig"l. on t"e information s"aring scale!
Accordingl.$ t"e removed items >ere not considered in furt"er statistical anal.ses! In
summar.$ t"e reliabilit. and construct validit. of our measures using S2 are "ig"l.
satisfactor.!
Insert Ta,le 3 a,out here
;1 4S3#TS
,.pot"eses >ere initiall. tested t"roug" -earson correlation coefficients and Mann#
;"itne. tests 6S27! It ma. be seen from 'ables C and F t"at CA of t"e FH sub#".pot"eses
>ere statisticall. significant 6p\!0F or inferior7! ,.pot"eses G$ 2 and A >ere supported!
8irst$ bot" t.pes of organiRational commitment are significantl. and negativel. related to
turnover intentions and$ as e?pected$ t"e association bet>een affective commitment and
turnover intentions is stronger t"an t"e relations"ip bet>een continuance commitment
and turnover intentions! Second$ bot" forms of citiRens"ip be"aviors 6OC4I and OC4O7
>ere found to be significantl. and negativel. related to t"e criterion variable! '"ird$ >e
found strong support for t"e linP bet>een affective commitment and OC4 and for t"e
lacP of a significant relations"ip bet>een continuance commitment and OC4! Most
".pot"eses linPing ,R practices to OC4$ affective commitment and turnover intentions
>ere supported$ providing strong support for ,C$ ,F and ,O! Indeed$ onl. four sub#
".pot"eses >ere not supported$ namel.$ t"e association bet>een >orP#life policies and
affective commitment as >ell as t"ose bet>een bot" forms of OC4 and t>o ,R practices
6distributive 9ustice and >orP#life policies7! Ne?t$ t"e e?pected linP bet>een distributive
9ustice and continuance commitment >as not supported 6,Mb7 providing partial support
for ,M! In regard to t"e compensation and negotiation variables$ >e found t"at annual
bonus and number of 9ob offers >ere positivel. related to bot" continuance commitment
and turnover intentions >"ile salar.$ recruitment bonus and retention bonus >ere not
found to "ave an. influence on t"ese variables! '"erefore$ onl. partial support >as found
for ,H! '"is result suggests t"at >"ile salar. mig"t be crucial for getting good I' staff$ it
"as muc" less to do >it" Peeping good I' >orPers! Last$ t"e relations"ips bet>een
demograp"ic variables and commitment and turnover intentions >ere all significant but
one! Indeed$ onl. education >as not found to be significant! '"ese results provide strong
support for ,B!
Insert Ta,les 8 and ; a,out here
A revised model containing onl. t"ose ".pot"eses found to be significant at t"e !00G or
inferior level 6see last column of 'ables C and F7 >as tested using a different data set
6SA7! As s"o>n in 'able O$ a linear regression of predictors on turnover intentions >as
conducted! '"e independent variables account for CHQ of t"e variance in t"e criterion
variable! Si? of t"e predictors >ere statisticall. different from Rero! '"e standardiRed
regression coefficients s"o> t"at affective commitment$ number of 9ob offers$ OC4I$
organiRational tenure and t>o ,R practices$ namel.$ distributive 9ustice and competence
development "ad significant and #irect effects on turnover intentions! On t"e ot"er "and$
GG
continuance commitment$ age$ OC4O$ and five ,R practices 6information s"aring$
procedural 9ustice$ recognition$ >orP#life policies and empo>erment7 "ad no significant
direct effect on turnover intentions!
Insert Ta,le < a,out here
'able M presents t"e results pertaining to t"e relations"ips of t"e predictors of affective
commitment! '"ree ,R practices >ere found to "ave significant positive effects on
affective commitment$ namel.$ recognition$ empo>erment and competence development!
As e?pected$ tenure >it"in t"e organiRation >as found to "ave a significant effect on
affective commitment! On t"e ot"er "and$ t"e data s"o> t"at e)uit. practices 6distributive
and procedural7 and information s"aring practices >ere not found to "ave a significant
and direct effect on affective commitment! '"e stud. variables e?plained AOQ of t"e
variance in affective commitment!
Insert Ta,le * a,out here
Last$ 'able H reports t"e results pertaining to t"e determinants of OC4I! 2ig"teen percent
of t"e variance in OC4I is e?plained b. t"e independent variables! Among t"e seven
".pot"esiRed predictors$ onl. recognition >as found to "ave a significant positive
influence on citiRens"ip be"aviors among I' personnel! Affective commitment$
continuous commitment$ information s"aring$ distributive 9ustice$ empo>erment and
competence development >ere all found to be nonsignificant! Summar. of t"e significant
findings are s"o>n in 8igure 2!
Insert Ta,le ) and 6igure 2 a,out here
<1 2ISC3SSI"!
In t"is section$ >e >ill present and discuss t"e Pe. conclusions derived from our results
and >e >ill maPe consistentl. a series of recommendations for I' and ,R e?ecutives!
As illustrated in 8igure 2$ several ,R practices "ave bot" direct and indirect effects on
turnover intentions! -recisel.$ t"e results demonstrate clearl. t"at I' specialists$ >"et"er
t"e. are s.stems anal.sts$ programmers$ s.stems engineers$ consultants$ directors or data
base administrators$ are particularl. sensitive to t>o t.pes of practices$ namel.$
distributive 9ustice and competence development! 8irst$ results s"o> t"at distributive
9ustice practices "ave a negative and significant effect on turnover intentions among I'
specialists! Indeed$ t"e more an emplo.ee >ill perceive a "ig" level of internal e)uit. 6in
comparison >it" ot"er emplo.ees of t"e same department andVor t"e same compan.7 and
e?ternal e)uit. 6in comparison >it" individuals occup.ing a similar 9ob in ot"er
organiRations7 in regard to issues suc" as compensation and benefits$ performance
evaluation$ promotions$ and mandates$ t"e less "e >ill intend to leave "is current
emplo.er! 1iven t"at distributive 9ustice practices "ave a direct influence on turnover
intentions$ it seems clear t"at t"e notion of e)uit.$ bot" internal and e?ternal$ must be
considered as a critical component of a corporate I' retention strateg.!
G2
A second significant set of ,R practices is t"e opportunit. to build and appl. ne> sPills!
Indeed$ it is >ell#Pno>n t"at I' professionals "ave a vested interest not onl. in Peeping
in tune >it" t"e industr.$ but also in sta.ing several steps a"ead of t"e e?perience and
sPill curve 6Morello and Claps 20007! 'raining is too often seen as a perP >"en it s"ould
be seen as essential investment in t"e intellectual capital of t"e organiRation! '"is is true
in ever. professional field$ but is per"aps more acute in I' >"ere c"ange is rapid and one
can become t"e ]department%s dinosaur^ in a flas"! '"e implementation of ,R practices
suc" as training$ coac"ing$ 9ob rotation programs$ and opportunities for e?perimentation
send a clear message t"at management is seePing to establis" a long#term relations"ip
>it" emplo.ees! ;"ile suc" investments in "uman capital could bacPfire eventuall. b.
maPing emplo.ees WtooX attractive to outside recruiters$ it is seen as necessar. and
beneficial to t"e organiRation 61uptill$ GBBH7! In t"is regard$ >e argue t"at for suc"
practices to be reall. effective$ managers must also "elp emplo.ees s"ape and direct t"eir
careers$ so t"e. can gain e?perience >it"in t"e enterprise rat"er t"an outside it!
A careful e?amination of 'able O s"o>s t"at affective commitment >as found to be t"e
strongest predictor of turnover intentions in t"is stud.! '"is corroborates previous results
in t"e O4 6e!g!$ -rice and Mueller GBHON 'ett and Me.er GBBA7 and I' 6e!g!$ Igbaria and
1reen"aus GBB27 fields! Managers must t"erefore Peep in mind t"at I' specialists >"o
identif. t"emselves and feel emotionall. attac"ed to t"eir organiRation andVor >orP unit
are t"ose >"o risP least to leave! '"is result leads us to asP t"e follo>ing )uestionE ];"at
are t"e most compelling ,R practices for increasing t"e level of affective commitment of
I' specialistsT^ 8igure 2 s"o>s t"at t"ree particular ,R practices "ave significant and
direct effects on affective commitment! -recisel.$ results s"o> t"at a compan. >"ic" G7
invests t"oug" divers means in its "uman capital 6sPills and Pno>#"o>7 and "elps
emplo.ees s"ape t"eir career$ 27 sets up s.stems allo>ing I' managers and pro9ect team
leaders to recogniRe individual contributions to t"e organiRation and A7 encourages
greater participation in decision maPing and latitude in t"e definition$ organiRation and
conduct of >orP$ sees its >orPforce demonstrating a greater identification to t"e
organiRation and a "ig"er level of affective commitment!
Interestingl.$ citiRens"ip be"aviors t"at benefit specific individuals 6OC4I7 constitute
anot"er Pe. indication of intentions to sta.! Indeed$ be"aviors suc" as "elping a colleague
>"o "as been absent from >orP$ "elping ot"ers >"o "ave "eav. >orPloads$ being
mindful of "o> one%s o>n be"avior affects ot"ers% 9obs$ and providing "elp and support
to ne> emplo.ees represent clear indications of an emplo.ee%s interest for its >orP
environment and$ "ence$ "ave direct effects on turnover intentions! '"is result leads us to
pose t"e follo>ing )uestionE ];"at are t"e most compelling ,R practices for motivating
I' emplo.ees to adopt e?tra#role be"aviorsT^ Our results are clear once again!
Recognition of performance is t"e onl. predictor of OC4I! Indeed$ it seems t"at a
successful emplo.ee >"ose >orP performance is recogniRed b. "is superiors and "is
peers >ill tend to do more t"an >"at is formall. re)uired of "im! '"e most obvious form
or recognition comes in t"e form of salar. increases and bonuses! 4ut in t"e broader
terms of a positive >orP environment$ recognition can taPe man. forms from a formal
a>ard program to a t"anP .ou note for a 9ob >ell done! Importantl.$ as 4olon 6GBBM7$ >e
GA
argue t"at if I' leaders trul. >ant to create a culture t"at encourages emplo.ees to displa.
OC4$ t"e. ma. >ant to e?"ibit suc" citiRens"ip be"aviors t"emselves in order to
communicate to emplo.ees t"at suc" discretionar. be"aviors are valued b. t"e
organiRation!
Agar>al and 8erratt 6GBBB7 recentl. recommended t"at$ considering t"e variet. of ,R
practices available$ I' e?ecutives must c"oose among t"ose practices t"at are liPel. to
address best t"e particular needs of I' specialists! In lig"t of t"e results obtained in t"e
present stud.$ it appears t"at an effective I' retention strateg. >ill focus on four Pe.
categories of ,R practices$ namel.$ G7 distributive 9ustice$ 27 competence development
and career pat"sN A7 recognition of performance$ and C7 empo>erment! Altoget"er$ t"ese
practices attest to t"e compan.%s concern for t"e specific needs of its I' >orPforce 6sense
of e)uit.V9ustice$ recognition and empo>erment7 and t"e. indicate t"e e?tent to >"ic" an
organiRation seePs a long#term relations"ip >it" its I' >orPforce 6development of
competencies and career planning7! '"at is in radical opposition >it" a s"ort#term vie>
of I' retention >"ere additional resources >ill be e?pended on W".gieneX factors suc" as
compensation and benefits! According to our results$ it seems t"at man. I' professionals
>ill >illingl. remain in organiRations >"ere >orP is stimulating and c"allenging$
c"ances for advancement are "ig" and if t"e. feel reasonabl. >ell paid 6enterprise#based
and marPet#based pa.7$ even if t"e. are paid some>"at less t"an >"at t"e. could obtain
else>"ere! '"is confirms t"e estimations of GartnerGroup >"ic" estimates at onl. 20Q
t"e proportion of I' professionals >"o are read. to accept anot"er 9ob on t"e one base of
compensation conditions 6Morello and Clapps 20007! In s"ort$ organiRations adopting a
long#term investment strateg. >"ic" considers t"e specific needs of I' professionals are
liPel. to e?perience t"e "ig"est intentions to sta. and$ most liPel.$ t"e least turnover!
8urt"er$ our results indicate t"at t"ree out of t"e seven t.pes of ,R practices included in
our researc" model seem to "ave a some>"at smaller influence on OC4I$ organiRational
commitment$ and turnover intentions! '"ese practices are associated >it" procedural
9ustice$ information s"aring$ and >orP#life policies! A potential e?planation mig"t be t"at
>"ile suc" practices mig"t not favor commitment$ e?tra#role be"aviors and retention$
t"eir >eaPness mig"t generate some dissatisfaction! In s"ort$ >e believe t"at t"ese
practices must not be perceived b. top I' and ,R e?ecutives as being ineffective but
rat"er as being complementar. to t"e more essential practices of distributive 9ustice$
recognition$ competence development and empo>erment!
Most I' and ,R managers face anot"er c"allenge in implementing a retention strateg.!
'"e. "ave a mi? of I' people$ some of >"om$ for instance$ are in muc" greater demand
or far lo>er suppl. t"an normal! Our results s"o> t"at t"e number of formal 9ob offers
6liPel. t"ose emplo.ees >it" sPills in "ig" demand7 "as a direct and positive influence on
turnover intentions >"ile organiRational tenure "as a direct and negative influence on t"e
criterion variable! S"ould managers adopt different strategies for t"ese groups of I'
emplo.eesT In agreement >it" Agar>al and 8erratt 6GBBB7$ our recommendation to
management is to implement a dominant retention strateg. for t"e overall I' population!
'"is >ill ensure t"at emplo.ees do not receive mi?ed signals or conflicting messages
from diverse groups of I' leaders! Contrar. to Igbaria and 1reen"aus 6GBB27$ age and
GC
education did not correlate significantl. >it" commitment and turnover intentions! '"is
reinforces our contention to articulate and adopt a dominant strateg. for all I' emplo.ees
regardless of t"eir individual c"aracteristics! 4ut if it is necessar. to var. one or t>o
practices 6e!g!$ compensation7 to retain Pe. groups of I' people$ t"ose variations s"ould
be clearl. identified as variations from t"e main practices and communicated full. >it"in
t"e organiRation!
In summar.$ I' professionals looP for a compelling place to >orP and "ence$ an effective
corporate I' retention strateg. >ill consider t"e follo>ing essential building blocPsE
Affective commitment constitutes t"e primar. predictor of turnover intentions! I'
specialists grant a lot of importance for t"e alignment bet>een t"eir o>n values
and t"ose conve.ed b. management and t"e. looP for a >orP environment or
milieu >"ic" >ill allo> t"em to develop a strong feeling of belongingN
CitiRens"ip be"aviors of I' emplo.ees provide furt"er evidence of t"eir interest
for t"eir >orP environment and constitute a reliable indicator of t"eir intention to
remain >it"in t"e organiRation!
In t"e vie> of I' specialists$ internal and e?ternal e)uit. as >ell as competence
development and opportunities for gro>t"$ recognition of individual contribution
and good >orP and e?panded 9ob responsibilities form t"e essence of compelling
places to >orP! I' managers must t"erefore G7 sta. informed on t"e going rates
for various I' positions and maPe sure t"eir staff feel t"e. are ade)uatel. and
fairl. compensated for t"eir >orPN 27 maPe training a centerpiece of staff
development and >orP closel. >it" t"eir staff on goal setting and career
developmentN A7 develop a culture >"ere staff feel appreciated and re>ardedN and
C7 empo>er I' staff and encourage innovation and creativit. in dail. >orPN
-rocedural 9ustice$ information s"aring$ and >orP#life policies practices must be
considered as complementar. means to ac"ieve lo>er I' turnover ratesN
Compensation$ t"oug" important$ becomes a secondar. concern >"en enterprises
demonstrate t"eir investment in long#term relations"ips! A retention strateg. t"at
solel. focuses on compensation conditions and benefits is not liPel. to favor
commitment and lo.alt. of emplo.ees and offer an. guarantee in satisfaction and
retention! 8urt"er$ suc" a strateg. is not liPel. to compensate for t"e lacP of
professional recognition and c"ances of advancement and for a little stimulating
I' 9obN
8inall.$ e?ecutives s"ould articulate and adopt a dominant retention strateg. for
t"e overall I' organiRation! If needed$ variations s"ould be clearl. identified and
communicated full. >it"in t"e organiRation!
'o conclude$ >e s"ould recogniRe t"at ever. organiRation "as its uni)ue contingencies
t"at can impede or favor retention among I' specialists! More often t"an not$ events
be.ond t"e control of I' e?ecutives contribute to creating suc" special circumstances
6e!g!$ corporate do>nsiRing$ gro>t"$ "ig"l. competitive geograp"ic region7! 8or t"is
reason$ >e posit t"at several different manifestations of a global or dominant retention
strateg. >ill emerge! 2ven >it" suc" differences$ "o>ever$ t"e managerial logic and
values embedded in a given strateg. s"ould be similar! '"us$ >e support Agar>al and
GF
8erratt%s 6GBBB7 contention t"at t"ere is a ]best^ set of beliefs and values regarding t"e
nature of I' intellectual capital! In our vie>$ I' specialists s"ould not be managed as
disposable productive resources but considered as "umans >it" specific needs and
interests suc" as e)uit. and 9ustice$ opportunit. to learn and innovate$ recognition of
peers and managers$ attainment of ne> levels of responsibilit.$ and empo>erment!
'"erefore$ managers "ave to bolster I' professionals% sense of self#>ort" b. treating
t"em as intellectual assets$ not operating e?penses$ and b. "elping t"em s"ape and direct
t"eir careers$ so t"e. can gain e?perience >it"in t"e enterprise rat"er t"an outside it!
;it"in t"is set of beliefs I' e?ecutives "ave a ver. large number of degrees of freedom to
implement specific ,R practices!
*1 #IMITATI"!S A!2 2I4CTI"!S 6" 63T34 4S4AC5
Several limitations of t"is stud. must be acPno>ledged! 8irst$ common met"od variance
is a ma9or concern and in an attempt to control for it$ >e used ,arman%s one#factor test
6-odsaPoff and Organ GBHO7! Results of t"e unrotated factor solution suggests t"at no
substantial amount of common met"od variance >as present in our data since several
factors >ere generated and no one general factor accounted for t"e ma9orit. of t"e
covariance in t"e independent and dependent variables! Nevert"eless$ future researc"
s"ould attempt to gat"er data from multiple met"ods suc" as structured intervie>s$
)uestionnaires$ and observation and from multiple sources including peers$ subordinates$
and supervisors! A second issue concerns t"e use of more ob9ective ,R practices
measures! Indeed$ I' professionals% perceptions regarding ,R practices ma. differ from a
more ob9ective assessment of t"ese practices obtained via intervie>s >it" e?ecutives
andVor ,R professionals! 8uture investigations s"all attempt to assess t"e e?tent of
congruit. bet>een management%s vision of "o> I' professionals are managed and t"e I'
professionals% perception of management%s vision! '"ird$ t"e e?clusion of actual turnover
s"ould also be taPen into account in future researc" efforts! Longitudinal studies are
needed in order to validate t"e predictive dimension of t"e model! 8urt"ermore$ it >ould
be interesting to e?amine turnover in anot"er lig"t! Researc"ers could vie> turnover as an
e?treme on one side of a >it"dra>al continuum! Less e?treme manifestations mig"t
include increased sicP da.s$ missed meetings$ and formal 9ob intervie>s! As stressed
earlier$ lacP of citiRens"ip be"aviors s"ould also be considered as one indication of
organiRational >it"dra>al! '"is approac" >ould move turnover from a binar. to a
continuous variable$ at t"e same time increasing insig"ts into >"at causes I' people to
leave! 8ourt"$ ot"er attitudinal variables must be included in future researc" models! 8or
one t"ing$ peer#based commitment >"ere emplo.ment revolves around t"e pressure$
status$ and prestige of >orPing >it" a particular compan. 6A9Ren GBBGN 'riandis GBH07
must be considered! It >ould also be relevant to investigate "o> satisfaction 6or
dissatisfaction7 mediate t"e effect of compelling ,R practices on organiRational
commitment and turnover intentions! Last$ future models could consider t"e inclusion of
personalit. traits suc" as positiveVnegative affect 6;atson et al% GBHH7!
GO
REFERENCES
AR9en$ I!$ '"e t"eor. of planned be"avior$ OrganiRational 4e"avior and ,uman 5ecision
-rocesses$ F0$ GBBG$ GMB#2GG!
Allen N![! and Smit" [!$ 6GBHM7! An Investigation of _2?tra#Role_ 4e"aviours ;it"in
OrganiRations! Procee#in!s o the annual meetin! o the Cana#ian Psycholo!ical
Association$ <ancouver$ 4ritis" Colombia!
Allen '!5!$ Rus" M!C!$ 6GBBH7! '"e 2ffects of OrganiRational CitiRens"ip 4e"avior on
-erformance [udgmentsE A 8ield Stud. and a Laborator. 2?periment! 5ournal o Applie#
Psycholo!y$ HA627$ 2CM#2O0!
Arnett$ S!-!$ and Obert$ '!L! 6GBBF7! ;"at IS 2mplo.ees Reall. ;ant! /atamation$
CG6F7$ HC!
Art"ur$ [!4!$ 6GBBC7! ]2ffects of ,uman Resource S.stems on Manufacturing
-erformance and 'urnover! Aca#emy o Mana!ement 5ournal$ AM$ OM0#OHM!
4aroudi$ [![!$ 6GBHF7! '"e Impact of Role <ariables on IS -ersonnel ;orP Attitudes and
Intentions! MI' $uarterly$ 5ecember$ ACG#AFO!
4ee"r '!A!$ ;als" [!'!$ 'aber '!5!$ 6GBMO7! Relations"ip of Stress to Individuall. and
OrganiRationall. <alued StatesE ,ig"er Order Needs as a Moderator! 5ournal o Applie#
Psycholo!y$ OG6G7$ CG#CM!
4ranc"eau$ [!C!$ [anR$ 4!5!$ ;et"erbe$ [!C!$ 6GBBO7! Se. Issues in Information S.stems
ManagementE GBBC#GBBF SIM 5elp"i Results! MI' $uarterly$ 20627$ 22F#2C2!
4ureau of Labor Statistics$ 6GBBB7! National Industr.#Occupation 2mplo.ment Matri?$
>>>!bls!govVaspVoepVnioemVempior!asp!
Campbell$ 5!'!$ 8isPe$ 5!;! 6GBFB7! Convergent and discriminant validation b. t"e
multitrait#multimet"od matri?! Psycholo!ical 4ulletin$ FO$ HG#G0F!
Capelli -$ RogovsP. N!$ 6GBBH7! 2mplo.ee involvement and organiRational citiRens"ipE
Implication for labor la> reform and ] lean production! In#ustrial 6 7abor Relations
Revie($ FG6C7$ OAA#OFA!
C"en 3!-!$ ,ui C$ Sego 5![!$ 6GBBH7! '"e role of organiRational citiRens"ip be"avior in
turnoverE ConceptualiRation and preliminar. tests of Pe. ".pot"eses! 5ournal o Applie#
Psycholo!y$ HA6O7$ B22#BAG!
C"iu$ ;!$ Ng$ C!$ 6GBBB7! ;omen#8riendl. ,RM and OrganiRational CommitmentE A
Stud. Among ;omen and Men of OrganiRations in ,ong Song! 5ournal o
Occupational an# Or!ani"atinal Psycholo!y= M2$ CHF#F02!
GM
CIP'8 Annual members9 status report$ [anuar. GBBB!
Cronbac"$ L![!$ 6GBFG7! Coefficient alp"a and t"e internal structure of tests!
Psychometri.a$ GO$ 2BM#AAC!
5essler$ 1!$ 6GBBB7! ,o> to 2arn Uour 2mplo.ees%Commitment! Aca#emy o
Mana!ement :)ecutive$ GA627$ FH#OO!
2rmel L!$ 4o"l 5!$ 6GBBM7! Responding to a 'ig"t Labor MarPetE /sing Incentives to
attract and Retain 'alented ;orPers! American Mana!ement Association International$
NovV5ec GBBM$ 2F#2B!
8is"bein M!$ A9Ren I!$ 6GBMF7! 4elie, Attitu#e, Intention an# 4ehavior8 An Intro#uction to
Theory an# Research% Addison#;esle.$ GBMF!
8olger$ R! 6GBMM7! ]5istributive and -rocedural [usticeE Combined Impact of ]<oice^
and Improvement on 2?perienced Ine)uit.^$ 5ournal o Personality an# 'ocial
Psycholo!y$ AF$ G0H#GGB!
8rone$ M!R!$ Uardle.$ [!$ 6GBBO7! ;orP#-lace Supportive -rogrammesE -redictors of
2mplo.ed L-arents% Importance Ratings! 5ournal o Occupational an# Or!ani"ational
Psycholo!y$ OB$ AFG#AOO!
8rone$ M!R!$ Russell$ M!$ Cooper$ M!L!$ 6GBBM7! Relations of ;orP#8amil. Conflict to
,ealt" OutcomesE A 8our#Uear Longitudinal Stud. of 2mplo.ed -arents! 5ournal o
Occupational an# Or!ani"ational Psycholo!y$ M0$ A2F#AAF!
1illiam$ -!$ 6GBBC7! 'ame t"e Restless Computer -rofessional! -R Ma!a"ine$ AB6GG7$ GC2
and GCC!
1reenberg$ [!$ 6GBBO7! The $uest or 5ustice on the 5ob! Sage -ublications Inc!
1renier 2!$ 6GBBH7! 7es carri&res #e l9inormati+ue et #es technolo!ies #e l9inormation!
Les +ditions Ma Carri&re$ GBBH$ GO#2M!
1rover$ S!L!$ CrooPer$ S!$ 6GBBF7! ;"o Appreciates 8amil.#Response ,uman Resource
-oliciesE '"e impact of 8amil.#8riendl. -olicies on t"e OrganiRational Attac"ment of
-arents and Non#-arents^$ Personnel Psycholo!y$ CH$ 2MG#2HH!
1uimaraes$ '!$ Igbaria$ M!$ 6GBB27! 5eterminants of 'urnover IntentionsE Comparing IC
and IS -ersonnel$ Inormation 'ystems Research$ A6A7$ 2MA#A0A!
1uptill$ 4! 6GBBH7! <alue in I'E Staffing Issues for GBBB! Gartner Group Commentary$
5ecember 2G!
GH
1uptill$ 4! 6GBBB7! Savv. CIOs /se 4est -ractices to ,ire and Retain Staff! Gartner
Group Insi#e%
1uptill$ 4! Ste>art$ 4! Maroccio$ L!$ -otter$ S! and C! Claps 6GBBB7! GBBH I' Spending
and Staffing Surve. Results! Gartner Group 'trate!ic Analysis Report$ April G
st
!
,one.cutt$ '!L!$ Rosen$ 4!$ 6GBBM7! 8amil. 8riendl. ,uman Resource -olicies$ Salar.
Level$ and Salient Identit. as -redictors of OrganiRational Attraction! 5ournal o
;ocational 4ehaviour$ F0$ 2MG#2B0!
,uselid$ M!$ 6GBBF7! '"e Impact of ,uman Resource Management -ractices on 'urover$
-roductivit.$ and Corporate 8inancial -erformance! Aca#emy o Mana!ement 5ournal$
AH$ OAF#OM2!
Igbaria M!$ 1reen"aus [!,!$ 6GBB27! 5eterminants of MIS 2mplo.ees% 'urnover
IntentionsE A Structural 2)uation Model! Communication o the ACM$ AF627$ AF#CB!
Igbaria$ M! 1uimaraes$ '!$ 6GBBB7! 2?ploring 5ifferences in 2mplo.ee 'urnover
Intentions and Its 5eterminants Among 'elecommuters and Non#'elecommuters!
5ournal o MI'$ GO6G7$ GCM#GOC!
Serlinger$ 8!N!$ 6GBHO7! <oun#ations o 4ehavioral Research$ '"ird edition$ ,olt$
Rine"art and ;inston$Inc!$ Orlando$ 8lorida!
Sing$ [! and Callo>a.$ 2!$ 6GBBF7! 5emand for IS 'alent Soars! Computer(orl#$ 2B627$
GFF!
SonovsP.$ M!A!$ -ug"$ S!5!$ 6GBBC7! CitiRens"ip 4e"avior and Social 2?c"ange!
Aca#emy o Mana!ement 5ournal$ AM$ OFO#OOB!
Sopelman R!2!$ 1reen"aus [!,!$ Connoll. '!8!$ 6GBHA7! A Model of ;orP$ 8amil.$ and
Interrole ConflictE A Construct <alidation Stud.! Or!ani"ational 4ehavior an# -uman
Perormance$ A2$ GBH#2GF!
SosseP$ 2!2!$ ORePi$ C!$ 6GBBH7! ;orP#8amil. Conflict$ -olicies$ and t"e [ob#Life
Satisfaction Relations"ipE A revie> and 5irections for OrganiRational 4e"aviour#,uman
Resource Researc"! 5ournal o Applie# Psycholo!y$ HA627$ GAB#GCB!
La>ler$ 2!2!$ 6GBHO7! ,ig" LInvolvement Management! San 8ranciscoE [osse. 4ass!
Lee$ '!;!$ Mo>da.$ R!'!$ 6GBHM7! <oluntaril. Leaving an OrganiRationE An 2mpirical
Investigation of Steers and Mo>da.%s Model of 'urnover! Aca#emy o Mana!ement
5ournal$ A0$ M2G#MCA!
LinsP.$ A!S! 6GBMF7! Stimulating response to mail )uestionnaireE A revie>! Public
Opinion $uarterly$ GB$ H2#G00!
GB
McMa"an$ 1!C!$ 4ell$ M!$ : <iricP$ M!$ 6GBBH7! Strategic ,uman Resource
ManagementE 2mplo.ee Involvement$ 5iversit.$ and International Issues! -uman
Resource Mana!ement Revie($ H6A7$ GBA#2GC!
McNee$ 4! Morello '! `idar$ 2! and C! Smit" 6GBBH7! I' Staff Retention and
RecruitmentE Addressing a Critical -roblem for t"e IS OrganiRation! Gartner Group
'trate!ic Analysis Report$ September 2H!
Mead 5!1!$ 6GBBH7! Courage to 1ro>E -reparing for a Ne> commercial Centur.! ;ital
speeches o the #ay$ G#H!
Me.er [!-!$ Allen N![!$ 6GBB07! '"e Measurement and antecedent of affective$
Continuance and Normative commitment to t"e OrganiRation! 5ournal o Occupational
Psycholo!y$ OA6G7$ G#GH!
Me.er [!-!$ Allen N![!$ 6GBBG7! A '"ree Component ConceptualiRation of OrganiRational
Commitment! -uman Resource Mana!ement Revie($ G6G7$ GBBG$ OG#HB!
Me.er$ [!-!$ Allen$ N![! 6GBBM7! Commitment in the ,or.place$ Sage -ublications!
Me.er [!-!$ Allen N![!$ Smit" C!A!$ 6GBBA7! Commitment to OrganiRations and
OccupationsE 2?tension and 'est of a '"ree#Component ConceptualiRation! 5ournal o
Applie# Psycholo!y$ MH6C7$ FAH#FFG!
MilPovic"$ 1!'!$ [!M! Ne>man$ 6GBBH7! Compensation$ 4oston$ Ir>in!
Morello$ 5!'!$ 6GBBH7! ;orP 8orce Snaps"otE ;". Some Recruit -rograms 8ail! Gartner
Group Inside!
Morello$ 5!'!$ 6GBBH7! I' Retention and RecruitmentE ;"at ,as a Uear 4roug"tT$
Gartner Group Monthly Research Revie($ September 0G!
Morrison 2!;!$ 6GBBO7! OrganiRation CitiRens"ip be"avior as a critical linP bet>een
,RM practices and service )ualit.! -uman Resource Mana!ement$ AF6C7$ CBA#FG2!
Nunall.$ [!$ 6GBMH7! Psychometric Metho#s$ 2nd edition! Mc1ra>#,ill$ Ne> UorP$ NU!
O%Reille.$ C!A!III$ Cald>ell$ 5!2!$ 6GBHG7! '"e Commitment and [ob 'enure of Ne>
2mplo.eesE Some 2vidence of -ost 5ecisional [ustification! A#miration 'cience
$uarterly$ 2O$ FBM#OGO!
Organ 5!;!$ 6GBHH7! Or!ani"ational Citi"enship 4ehavior8 The !oo# sol#ier syn#rome!
Le?ington$ MAE Le?ington!
20
Organ 5!;!$ 6GBB07! '"e motivational 4asis of OrganiRational CitiRens"ip 4a"avior ^ In
4!M! Sta> : L!L! Cummings 6eds!7$ Research in Or!ani"ational 4ehavior$ G2$ CA#M2!
Organ 5!;!$ 6GBBM7! OrganiRational CitiRens"ip 4e"aviorE It%s Construct Clean#/p 'ime!
-uman Perormance$ HF#BM!
Organ 5!;! : SonovsP. M!$ 6GBHB7$ _Cognitive versus affective determinants of
organiRational citiRens"ip be"avior_$ 5ournal o Applie# Psycholo!y$ MC$ GFM#GOC
Organ$ 5!;!$ R.an$ S! 6GBBF7! A Meta#Anal.tic Revie> of Attitudinal and 5ispositional
-redictors of OrganiRational CitiRens"ip 4e"avior! Personnel Psycholo!y$ CH$ MMF#H02!
-feffer$ [!$ <eiga$ 8!$ 6GBBB7! -utting -eople 8irst for OrganiRational Success! Aca#emy o
Mana!ement :)ecutive$ GA627$ AM#CH!
-odsaPoff -!M!$ MacSenRie S!4!$ Moorman R!,!$ 8etter R!$ 6GBB07! 'ransformational
Leader 4e"aviors and t"eir effects on follo>ers% trust in leader$ satisfaction$ and
OrganiRational CitiRens"ip 4e"aviors! 7ea#ership $uarterly$ G0M#GC2!
-rice [!L! : A!C! 4luedorn 6GBMM7$ _Intent to leave as a measure of turnover_$
Procee#in!s o the 0=th annual meetin! o the Aca#emy o Mana!ement$ Orlando$ 8L$
/nited States$ August GBMM!
Rod>ell [!$ SienRle R!$ S"adur M!$ 6GBBH7! '"e relations"ip a>a. >orP related
-erceptions$ 2mplo.ee Attitudes$ and 2mplo.ee -erformanceE '"e Integral role of
communication! -uman Resource Mana!ement$ AM$ 2MM#2BA!
Sc"naPe M!$ Coc"ran 5!$ 5umler M!$ 6GBBF7! 2ncouraging OrganiRational CitiRens"ipE
'"e effects of [ob Satisfaction$ -erceived 2)uit. and Leaders"ip! 5ournal o mana!erial
issues$ <II627$ 20B#22G!
Sc">oc"au$ S!$ 5elane.$ [!$ [arle.$ -!$ 8iorito$ [!$ 6GBBM7! 2mplo.ee -articipation and
Assessments of Support for OrganiRational -olic. C"anges! 5ournal o 7abor Research$
GH6A7$ AMB#C0G!
S"eppard$ 4!,!$ Le>icPi$ R![!$ Minton$ [!$ 6GBB27! Or!ani"ational 5ustice$ Le?ington
4ooPs!
Smit" C!A!$ 6GBBF7! -uman Resources Pratices an# Policies as Antece#ents as o
Or!ani"ational commitment! 5octoral t"esis$ ;estern /niversit.!
Sommers M![!$ 6GBBF7! OrganiRational Commitment$ turnover and absenteeismE An
e?amination of direct and interaction effects! 5ournal o Or!ani"ational 4ehavior$ GO6G7$
CB#FH!
2G
Statistics Canada 6GBBH7$ _-rogrammeursE un marc" en plein essor_$ Report aMF#00G#
3-8$ Summer!
StoPes$ S!L![r!$ 6GBBF7! Re>ards and Recognition for 'eams! Inormation 'ystems
Mana!ement$ G26A7$ OG#OF!
'rembla.$ M!$ 1ua. -!$ 6GBBH7! 2n)u(te sur la mobilisation et l%engagement
organisationnel! ,or.in! paper! +cole des ,autes +tudes Commerciales$ Montral$
Canada!
'rembla. M!$ Rondeau A!$ and Lemelin M!$ 6GBBM7! La mise en buvre de prati)ues
innovatrices de gestion des ressources "umaines a#t#elle une influence sur la
mobiliRation! GR- ace > crise8 GR- en crise?$ -resses ,2C$ BM#G0B
'remabla.$ M!$ Rondeau$ A! and Lemelin$ M! 6GBBH7! Influence of ,uman Resource
-ractices on t"e MobiliRation of 4lue#Collar ;orPers 6in frenc"7! Procee#in!s o
Meetin!s o Association Internationale #e Psycholo!ie #e 7an!ue <ran@aise$ BM#GG0!
'riandis$ ,!C!$ 6GBH07! <alues$ attitudes$ and interpersonal be"avior! In Nebras.a
symposium on motivation A1=18 belies, attitu#es an# values! /niversit. of NebrasPa
-ress$ Lincoln$ GBF#2FB!
'sui$ A!S!$ -earce$ [!L!$ -orter$ L!;!$ ,ite$ [!-!$ 6GBBF7! C"oice of 2mplo.ee#
OrganiRation Relations"ipE Influence of 2?ternal and Internal OrganiRational 8actors! In
1!R 8erris 6ed!7 Research In Personnel an# -uman Resource Mana!ement$ 1ree>ic"$
C!'E [AI -ress$ GGM#GFG!
;aPin$ 2!$ 6GBB07! 'urning t"e -age on ,ig" 2mplo.ee 'urnover! To#ay9s Oice$
2C6G27$ FC#FF!
;ard 2!$ 5avis 2!$ 6GBBF7! '"e effect of 4enefits Satisfaction on OrganiRational
Commitment ^$ Compensation and 4enefits Management$ GG6A7! AF#AB!
;atson$ 5!$ ClarP$ L!A!$ 'ellegen$ A!$ 6GBHH7! 5evelopment and <alidation of 4rief
Measures of -ositive and Negative AffectE '"e -ANAS Scales! 5ournal o Personality
an# 'ocial Psycholo!y$ FC6O7$ G0OA#G0M0!
;illiams L![!$ Anderson S!2!$ 6GBBG7! [ob Satisfaction and OrganiRational Commitment
as -redictors of OrganiRational CitiRens"ip and In#Role 4e"aviors! 5ournal o
Mana!ement$ GM6A7$ O0G#OGM!
;rig"t$ -!M!$ S"erman$ ;!C 6GBBB7! 8ailing to 8ind 8it in Strategic ,uman Resource
ManagementE t"eoretical and empirical problems! Research in Personnel an# -uman
Resource Mana!ement$ Supplement C$ FA#MC!
22
Ta,le '- Assessment of t"e internal consistenc. of eac" scale 6SG7
Scale
Recognition 5istributive
9ustice -rocedural 9ustice
Competence development
2mpo>erment ;orP#life
policies Information
s"aring Affective
engagement Continuous
engagement OC4I
OC4O 'urnover
intentions
Cronbac"%s alp"a Number of items
0!MH GC
0!HM GG
0!BG G2
0!B0 B
0!M0 B
0!HF O
0!B0 B
0!MH F
0!MG F
0!HH F
0!FF M
0!BG 2
Ta,le 2- Assessment of t"e internal
Scale
Recognition 5istributive
9ustice -rocedural 9ustice
Competence development
2mpo>erment ;orP#life
policies Information
s"aring Affective
engagement Continuous
engagement OC4I OC4O
'urnover intentions
of eac" scale 6S27
Cronbac"%s alp"a Number of items
0!HH G0
0!B0 O
0!HB O
0!B2 B
0!M0 O
0!BG O
0!BA B
0!MC F
0!M0 F
0!HO F
0!MG O
0!HA 2
2A
Ta,le 31 -rincipal 8actor Anal.sis 6S27
Info s"aring G $GO2 =*2' $A0G $20H $GMO #$00F $GG2
Info s"aring2 #$00O =<;; $2FA $2AA $2A0 #$00C #$GOF
Info s"aringA $GHB =)03 $GBF $GAB $GG2 $00C $G0H
Info s"aringC $F0M =<3< $22M #$000 $GHF $002 $GG0
Info s"aringF $2HB =<(; $GA0 $2CF $2BA #$00F $00A
Info s"aringO $2CB =*0< #$00C $GAF $2M2 #$000 #$00O
Info s"aringM =<0; $COM $2FG $200 $G0B $002 $00F
Info s"aringH $CGF =;33 $AHA $G0F $2AG #$002 $00A
Info s"aringB =<*; $CHC $AGB $00H #$00H $00M #$00C
RecognitionG =82) $A20 $AOH $00B $00H $GM0 $GGA
Recognition2 =<8< $GB0 $GFA $20G $00H $00G #$00B
RecognitionA =<*' $20O $GFB $GM0 $GOH $00F #$00M
RecognitionC =8*' $ACO $00H $A2B $GHC $00G $GCG
RecognitionF =;(* $CAC $2AO $2BC $00M $00B $GOO
RecognitionO =;'( #$000 #$2AC $COH $GCM $G0H 0$0M
RecognitionM =<2) $GCH $2MB $GOC $00O $00C $00G
RecognitionB =;;) $2O2 $FAA $G2C $00O $00F $GBG
RecognitionGG =<<' $002 $00F $222 $002 $00M $GO2
RecognitionG2 $AMO =;80 $GBA $00F $00B #$G0B $2F0
5istributive 9usG0 $GFH $2BM $GOH =*2( $20O $00A #$G0H
5istributive c9us GG $G22 $22C $GF0 =*83 $000 $000 $G22
5istributive c9usG2 $2OO $GCF $GCG =<;8 $GGH $2AB $00F
5istributive c9us20 $AHG $00H $2FC =<;; $GMH $000 $00B
5istributive c9us2G $2BB $GAA $A00 =<2( $G0F #$002 #$00G
5istributive c9us2A $AFM $GG2 $ABH =<*8 $GFO $00O $00M
-roceduralc9usA #$002 $2HB $00C $ACC =<)0 $00H $00B
-roceduralc9usC #$00A $2GF $G2F $00M =)0( $202 $GC2
-roceduralc9usF $00F $GA0 $2BA $G0M =*'' $00C #$00A
-rocedural c9usM $AOA $G2F $GAB #$00C =*80 $00A $GO2
-roceduralc9usB $AFF $GM2 $00H $00B =*<< $00B $G2F
-rocedural c9us GA $GGB $AO0 $GOF $2AB =<0( $G0A $00B
2mpo>erment2 #$00H $GA2 #$00G $00H $00C $00M =)8;
2mpo>ermentA $220 $G0G $AAO $GHG $22C $00M =<*<
2mpo>ermentF $GMG #$00O $2BH #$00M $2BA $00F =<22
2mpo>ermentO #!G0G #!00G !GA0 !00M #!00O !00M 1)0;
2mpo>ermentM !GBG !A20 !G2A !GM2 !2GC !00B 1<(2
2mpo>ermentH !GM0 !2BF #!G0A #!00F !2OF !00M 1<<0
CompetenceG =;83 $GMH $2BH $2HH $A0G $00A $00C
Competence2 $22G $2CM =<3) $2B2 $AHH $002 $00C
CompetenceA $200 $C2A =;28 $ABO $00H $00A $00B
CompetenceC $20C $AO0 =<3; $GA0 $GMO $00B $20O
CompetenceF $AOF $00H =<3( $2F2 $AMB #$00G $AGF
CompetenceO $002 $2F2 =*') $2FM $G2O $GFC $00A
CompetenceM $C2F #$002 =<'' $G2F $00H #$00G $GAC
CompetenceH $A2B $AC0 =<0' $GMC $00O $22O $00H
CompetenceB $2A2 $A0C =<;2 $20H $2FF $G22 $00G
;L-G $GHF $00G $GCA $002 $GF0 =<<( #$00F
;L-2 #$00F $00H #$GCG $00M $00H =*;; #$00O
;L-A $002 #$00C $GGG $00M #$00M =*;' $GOO
;L-C $00F #$00F $GGC #$00F $G0B =(0* $00M
;L-F #$002 $00C $00G #$002 $G0G =(0; $00F
;L-O $GGC #$00C $00B $00M $00A =))8 $00G
j S)uared Loadings
O$CC F$HC F$AF C$CO C$CF C$AF 2$20
Q of variance
GA$G GG$B G0$B B$G B$G H$B F$C
2C
Ta,le 8- ,.pot"esis testing using -earson correlation coefficients 6S27
5/$othesis Pearson
coefficient
$
\!00G
\!00G
####
\!00G
\!00F
\!00G
\!00F
ns
ns
\!0F
\!00G
\!00G
\!00G
\!00G
\!00F
\!0F
ns
ns
ns
ns
ns
\!00G
\!00F
\!00G
\!00G
\!00G
\!00G
\!00G
ns
\!00G
\!00G
\!00G
\!00G
Su$$orted Included in
revised
model
'
,GaE affective commitment to turnover
intentions
#!F0C Ues Ues
,GbE continuance commitment to turnover
intentions
#!2FC Ues Ues
,GcE ,Ga d ,Gb #### Ues ####
,2aE OC4I to turnover intentions #!2CB Ues Ues
,2bE OC4O to turnover intentions #!22G Ues No
,AaE affective commitment to OC4I !2OF Ues Ues
,AbE affective commitment to OC4O !2GF Ues No
,AcE continuance commitment to OC4I !0MM Ues No
,AdE continuance commitment to OC4O !00B Ues No
,CaE information s"aring to OC4I !GM2 Ues No
,CbE information s"aring to OC4O !2BA Ues Ues
,CcE recognition to OC4I !A0M Ues Ues
,CdE recognition to OC4O !2B2 Ues Ues
,CeE empo>erment to OC4I !2OO Ues Ues
,CfE empo>erment to OC4O !GFO Ues No
,CgE distributive 9ustice to OC4I !GOA Ues No
,C"E distributive 9ustice to OC4O !0B0 No No
,CiE procedural 9ustice to OC4I !0M0 No No
,C9E procedural 9ustice to OC4O !0HH No No
,CPE >orP#life policies to OC4I !0H0 No No
,ClE >orP#life policies to OC4O !0G0 No No
,CmE competence development to OC4I !2CG Ues Ues
,CnE competence development to OC4O !2GM Ues No
,FaE information s"aring to affective
commitment
!AOF Ues Ues
,FbE recognition to affective commitment !F0M Ues Ues
,FcE empo>erment to affective commitment !A0G Ues Ues
,FdE distributive 9ustice to affective
commitment
!2O2 Ues Ues
,FeE procedural 9ustice to affective
commitment
!C0G Ues Ues
,FfE >orP#life policies to affective
commitment
!0CA No No
,FgE comp! development to affective
commitment
!CBG Ues Ues
,OaE information s"aring to turnover
intentions
#!AFG Ues Ues
,ObE recognition to turnover intentions #!AAG Ues Ues
,OcE empo>erment to turnover intentions #!AA2 Ues Ues
Onl. t"ose ".pot"eses found to be significant at t"e !00G level >ere included in t"e revised model!
2F
,OdE distributive 9ustice to turnover
intentions
#!ACM \!00G
\!00G
\!0G
\!00G
\!00G
ns
\!00G
ns
ns
\!0F
\!00G
\!0G
\!00G
\!0F
\!00G
\!00G
\!00G
ns ns
Ues Ues
,OeE procedural 9ustice to turnover intentions #!CGA Ues Ues
,OfE >orP#life policies to turnover intentions !GAO Ues No
,OgE competence development to turnover
intentions
#!CCO Ues Ues
,MaE affective commitment to continuance
commitment
!2BB Ues Ues
,MbE distributive 9ustice to continuance
commitment
!0FF No No
,McE >orP#life policies to continuance
commitment
!GHC Ues Ues
,HaE salar. to continuance commitment #!0HC No No
,HbE salar. to turnover intentions #!G2G No No
,HiE 9ob offers and continuance commitment #!G20 Ues No
,H9E 9ob offers and turnover intentions !GH2 Ues Ues
,BaE age to affective commitment !GB0 Ues No
,BbE organiRational tenure to affective
commitment
!2CO Ues Ues
,BcE age to continuance commitment !GGG Ues No
,BdE organiRational tenure to continuance
commitment
!AGA Ues Ues
,BeE age to turnover intentions #!2H0 Ues Ues
,BfE organiRational tenure to turnover
intentions
#!AFG Ues Ues
,BgE education to continuance commitment #!02F No No
,B"E education to turnover intentions #!0FG No No
2O
Ta,le ;- ,.pot"esis testing using Mann#;"itne. tests 6S27
,HcE annual bonus and continuance
commitment
No annual bonus
6nYO27
Annual bonus
6nYG2O7
Mean ranPE HH$MA Mean ranPE G0O$22
Included in
revised model
No
,HdE recruitment bonus and continuance commitment
No recruitment Recruitment bonus
bonus 6nYGOC7 6nY2A7
Mean ranPE BC$AA Mean ranPE BG$OF
Included in
revised model
No
,HeE retention bonus and continuance commitment
No retention bonus
6nYGFH7
Retention bonus
6nYA07
Mean ranPE BF$CB Mean ranPE HB$2M
Included in
revised model
No
,HfE annual bonus and turnover intentions
No annual bonus
6nYOG7
Annual bonus
6nYG2C7
Mean ranPE G0C$OG Mean ranPE HM$2B
Mann#
;"itne.
A0MC$000
Sig!
\!0F
Supported
Ues
Included in
revised
model No
No recruitment
bonus 6nYGOG7
Mean ranPE BG$CF
Recruitment bonus Mann#
6nY2A7 ;"itne.
Mean ranPE BB$HM GOH2$000
Sig! ns Supported
No
Included in
revised
model No
No retention bonus
6nYGFO7
Mean ranPE BA$FO
Retention bonus
6nY2B7
Mean ranPE B0$00
Mann#
;"itne.
2GMF$000
Sig! ns Supported
No
Included in
revised
model No
Mann#
;"itne.
Sig!
\!0F
Supported
AGMB$F00 Ues
Mann#
;"itne.
Sig!
ns
Supported
GHA2$000 No
Mann#
;"itne.
Sig!
ns
Supported
22GA$000 No
,HgE recruitment bonus and turnover intentions
,H"E retention bonus and turnover intentions
2M
Ta,le <- Linear regression of independent variables on turnover intentions 6SA7
<ariable -arameter
2stimate
S2 StandardiRed
Coefficients
t#value p\
Intercept H$FOB $OBO !000 G2$A0F $000
Affective commitment DDD #$ACO $0MA #$2CO #C$MOG $000
Continuous commitment #$G0A $0FH #$0MB #G$MOB $0MH
Information s"aring #$G0H $0M2 #$0HA #G$F0A $GAC
Competence development DD #$2MB $0H2 #$GBA #A$AHF $00G
-rocedural 9ustice $000 $0OO #$0OG #G$GG0 $2OH
5istributive 9ustice DDD #$22F $0OG #$GMB #A$MGC $000
Recognition !000 $GGM $0CC $OFB $FG0
2mpo>erment $G2C $0HF $0BA 2$00G !0OC
OC4I DD #$2HH $0BF #$GF2 #A$0C2 $00A
OC4O !000 $0B2 $0C2 $HOO $AHM
;orP#life policies !000 $0CF $0AM $HH0 $AMB
Age !000 $0G0 $0GG $2CA $H0H
OrganiRational tenure D !000 $0GG #$GA2 #2$HGM $00F
Number of 9ob offers DDD $GHB $0AF $22G F$AF0 $000
DDD p\!00G
DD p\!00F
D p\!0G
Overall model$ 8 Y 2A!2F$ p\!00GN R
2
Y 0!CHN Ad9usted R
2
Y 0!CO
2H
Ta,le *- Linear regression of independent variables on affective commitment 6SA7
<ariables
Intercept
Information s"aring
Competence development H
-rocedural 9ustice
5istributive 9ustice
Recognition DDD
2mpo>erment DD
OrganiRational 'enure DDD
DDD p\!00G DD p\!00F H
p\!0F
2stimated
-arameters
S2 StandardiRed
Coefficients
t#value p\
$MCF $2BM $00G 2$F0F $0GA
$00M $0F2 $0MB G$ABC $GOC
$GAO $0OA $GA2 2$GC0 $0AA
$002 $0CB $0AF $OG2 $FCG
$002 $0CF $02M $FAO $FB2
$A0M $0MB $2FF A$B0O $000
$2GO $0OA $GMB A$CCC $00G
$002 $00M $GFC A$OFB $000
Ta,le )- Linear regression of independent variables on OC4I 6SA7
<ariables 2stimated
-arameters
S2 StandardiRed
Coefficients
t#value p\
Intercept A$O20 $2FO $00G GC$GAB $000
Affective commitment $002 $0CC $0AM $OC0 $F2A
Information s"aring #$00A $0CF #$0F2 #$H0B $CGB
Competence development $00H $0FC $GGG G$FMC $GGO
-rocedural 9ustice #$00F $0CG #$0HB #G$AMA $GM0
5istributive 9ustice #$00F $0AH #$0MH #G$AFO $GMO
Recognition DDD $AFH $0OB $ABF F$22O $000
OrganiRational tenure $000 $00O $0H2 G$OMC $0BF
2mpo>erment $00O $0FC $0OF G$0B0 $2MO
DDD p\!00G
Overall model$ 8YG0!CGB$ p\!00GN R
2
Y0!GHN Ad9usted R
2
Y0!GO
2B
2
Overall model$ 8Y2B!0B$ p\!00GN R
2
Y0!AON Ad9usted R
2
Y0!AF
2
5emograp"ic variablesE
Age
2ducation
OrganiRational tenure
,B
6igure '1 Integrated Model of Turnover Intentions of IT Personnel
A0
Remuneration and
negotiation conditionsE
Salar.
Annual bonus
Recruitment bonus
U2S retention bonus
8ormal 9ob offers
OC4I
DDD DD
5istributive
[ustice
Competence
5evelopment
DDD
DD
D
'urnover
Intentions

2mpo>erment
DD
Recognition
DDD
Affective
Commitment
DDD
OrganiRational
'enure
DDD
D
Number
of [ob
offers
DDD
DDD p\!00GN DD p\!00FN D p\!0GN H p\!0F
6igure 21 evised model
AG
A$$endi>- Surve. items pertaining to organiRational commitment$ OC4 and ,R practices
Aective commitment
G! I reall. feel as if m. organiRation%s problems are m. o>n
2! I do not feel a strong sense of belonging to m. organiRation 6reverse7
A! M. organiRation "as a great deal of personal meaning for me
C! I feel emotionall. attac"ed to t"e strategic c"oices of m. organiRation
F! '"e values advocated b. top management are aligned >it" m. o>n
Continuance commitment
G! It >ould be ver. "ard for me to leave m. organiRation rig"t no> even if I >anted to
2! It >ould be too costl. for me to leave m. organiRation no>
A! 'oo muc" in m. life >ould be disrupted if I decided to leave m. organiRation no>
C! I feel I "ave too fe> options to consider leaving m. organiRation
F! One of t"e fe> serious conse)uences of leaving m. organiRation is t"e scarcit. of current
alternatives
OC4I an# OC4O
G! I "elp colleagues >"o "ave been absent from >orP 6I7
2! I "elp colleagues >"o "ave "eav. >orP loads 6I7
A! I am mindful of "o> m. be"avior affects ot"er people%s 9ob 6I7
C! I go out of >a. to "elp ne> emplo.ees 6I7
F! I taPe a personal interest in m. colleagues% 9ob 6I7
O! M. attendance at >orP is above t"e norm 6O7
M! I taPe undeserved braPes at >orP 6reverse7 6O7
H! I often complain about insignificant t"ings at >orP 6reverse7 6O7
B! I tend to maPe Wmountains out of mole"illsX 6reverse7 6O7
G0! I ad"ere to informal rules devised to maintain order 6O7
GG! I attend meetings t"at are not mandator. but considered important 6O7
G2! I perform duties t"at are not re)uired but >"ic" improve corporate image 6O7
Inormation sharin! practices
G! 2mplo.ees are regularl. informed of ma9or corporate pro9ects 6e!g!$ investment$
rationaliRation$ ac)uisition7
2! 2mplo.ees are regularl. informed of financial results
A! 2mplo.ees are regularl. informed of ne> products andVor services
C! 2mplo.ees are regularl. informed of t"eir respective >orP unit%s performance and
productivit.
F! 2mplo.ees are regularl. informed of t"e tec"nological c"anges a"ead
O! Managers regularl. inform emplo.ees about t"e level of customer satisfaction
M! 2mplo.ees% suggestions are seriousl. taPen into consideration
H! In m. >orP unit$ emplo.ees are regularl. informed of t"e criteria used for t"eir performance
evaluation
B! In m. >orP unit$ follo>#ups are regularl. given to emplo.ees concerning prior suggestions
t"e. "ad made
A2
Reco!nition practices
G! ;"en an emplo.ee does good )ualit. >orP$ "is colleagues regularl. s"o> "im t"eir
appreciation
2! 5isciplinar. actions against emplo.ees are generall. 9ustified
A! 5isciplinar. measures against emplo.ees are done in a respectful and "uman manner
C! I am not scared to denounce practices t"at I t"inP are unfair or un9ustified
F! In m. >orP unit$ supervisors use different >a.s to recogniRe in a tangible >a. t"e emplo.ees%
efforts 6e!g!$ more fle?ibilit. >it" sc"edules$ more interesting pro9ects$ ticPets for cultural or
sports events7
O! In m. >orP unit$ certain emplo.ees receive special treatments from t"eir supervisors t"at t"e.
do not deserve
M! 2mplo.ees Pno> e?actl. >"at to do to get recognition from t"eir supervisors
H! 2mplo.ees >"o do not "and out )ualit. >orP are regularl. reprimanded b. t"eir supervisors
B! In m. >orP unit$ supervisors regularl. congratulate emplo.ees in recognition of t"eir efforts
G0! In m. >orP unit$ emplo.ees% personal efforts are regularl. recogniRed in a monetar. >a. b.
spot cas" a>ards
GG! In m. >orP unit$ onl. a fe> emplo.ees get t"e consideration of t"e supervisors 6reverse7
G2! In m. >orP unit$ e?ceptional performances are regularl. publiciRed 6e!g!$ memos$ reunions$
a>ards ceremonies7
GA! In m. >orP unit$ emplo.ees t"at maPe mistaPes are regularl. reprimanded
GC! In m. >orP unit$ emplo.ees can be retrograded or even fired from t"eir current 9ob if t"eir
productivit. at >orP is not sufficient
Proce#ural BPC an# #istributive B/C 3ustice practices
G! -erformance evaluation criteria appear to me as co"erent >it" t"e corporate values 6e!g!
customer satisfaction$ team spirit$ collaboration7 6-7
2! '"ere e?ists a >ell#Pno>n corporate procedure in regard to performance evaluation 6-7
A! '"e criteria used to grant promotions are clearl. defined 6-7
C! 2mplo.ees do not e?actl. Pno> "o> to obtain a promotion 6reverse7 6-7
F! -romotions are fundamentall. determined b. unfair politic games 6reverse7 6-7
O! 1ood performance fairl. increases t"e c"ances of being promoted 6-7
M! '"e criteria used to grant salar. raises are Pno>n from all emplo.ees 6-7
H! Management provides clear information in regard to an. compensation discrepancies >it" t"e
marPet 6-7
B! Management is transparent in terms of compensation management 6-7
G0! I estimate m. salar. as being fair internall. 657
GG! M. salar. is e)uitable in comparison >it" >"at is offered for a similar 9ob else>"ere 657
G2! Mec"anisms adopted to determine salar. levels are fair to all emplo.ees 6-7
GA! In m. >orP unit$ t"e criteria used to grant salar. raises are clearl. defined 6-7
GC! In m. >orP unit$ our supervisors "and out mandates in a fair manner 657
GF! M. supervisor "as t"e tendenc. to give t"e same performance ratings to all of "is emplo.ees
6reverse7 657
GO! I estimate t"at m. performance evaluations reflect ade)uatel. t"e )ualit. of m. 9ob 657
GM! M. supervisor 9udges m. performance on criteria t"at "ave not"ing to do >it" m. actual
responsibilities 6reverse7 6-7
GH! In m. >orP unit$ mandates are assigned on a fair basis 657
GB! I am satisfied >it" t"e >a. mandates "ave been assigned 657
20! In m. >orP unit$ emplo.ees perceive t"eir compensation as being fair considering t"e
financial performance of t"e enterprise 657
2G! In m. >orP unit$ emplo.ees consider t"at t"eir compensation level reflects ade)uatel. t"eir
level of responsibilit. in t"e organiRation 657
AA
22! In m. >orP unit$ emplo.ees perceive t"e salar. gap bet>een managers and emplo.ees as
being totall. ine)uitable 6reverse7 657
2A! '"e salar. increases andVor bonuses I received in t"e last t>o .ears reflect ade)uatel. m.
recent performance evaluations 657
:mpo(erment practices
G! In m. organiRation$ m. >orP unit pla.s a strategic role
2! A great latitude is given to emplo.ees for t"e organiRation of t"eir >orP 6e!g!$ >orP
sc"edules7
A! 2mplo.ees in m. >orP unit "ave a lot of autonom. in regard to pro9ect management
C! M. supervisor manages our unit%s budgets
F! In m. >orP unit$ emplo.ees "ave a great deal of libert. in t"e conduct of t"eir >orP
O! 2mplo.ees in m. >orP unit are e?tensivel. involved in t"e recruitment process
M! 2mplo.ees in m. >orP unit are regularl. consulted in tec"nological investments decisions
H! 2mplo.ees% empo>erment in m. >orP unit is "ig"l. valued
B! M. >orP unit is considered as a strategic division in m. organiRation
Competence #evelopment an# utili"ation practices
G! Managers usuall. give responsibilities to emplo.ees according to t"eir respective bacPground
and interests
2! 2mplo.ees "ave t"e possibilit. to develop t"eir sPills in order to increase t"eir c"ances of
being promoted
A! 2mplo.ees "ave t"e possibilit. to rotate 9obs to develop t"eir o>n sPills
C! Several professional development activities 6e!g!$ coac"ing$ training7 are offered to emplo.ees
to improve t"eir sPills and Pno>ledge
F! Managers encourage emplo.ees to appl. t"eir ne> abilities and sPills in t"e conte?t of t"eir
dail. >orP
O! -roficienc. courses suc" as specialiRed tec"nical courses and professional certification are
encouraged b. management
M! I am able to appl. m. ne> sPills in m. >orP
H! In m. >orP unit$ it is eas. to get t"e resources 6e!g!$ time$ financial aid$ fle?ible sc"edules7
necessar. to ac)uire ne> competencies
B! In m. >orP unit$ emplo.ees are encouraged to e?periment and s"are Pno>ledge
,or.-lie policies
G! Managers allo> generall. enoug" time for t"e completion of pro9ects so t"at emplo.ees can
do good )ualit. >orP >it" limited stress
2! I often feel liPe t"ere is too muc" >orP to do 6reverse7
A! M. organiRation provides >orP conditions 6e!g!$ fle?ible sc"edules$ c"ild care facilities$
telecommuting programs7 >"ic" taPe into account t"e emergent needs of emplo.ees
C! M. >orP sc"edule in often in conflict >it" m. personal life 6reverse7
F! M. 9ob affects m. role as a spouse andVor a parent 6reverse7
O! M. >orP "as negative effects on m. personal life 6reverse7
AC
#iste des $u,lications au CIA!" D
Cahiers CIA!" % CIRANO Papers 6ISSN GGBH#HGOB7
BBc#G Les 2?pos$ leOSM$ les universits$ les "fpitau? E Le co@t deun dficit de C00 000 emplois
au ubec g 2?pos$ Montral S.mp"on. Orc"estra$ /niversities$ ,ospitalsE '"e
Cost of a C00$000#[ob S"ortfall in ubec V Marcel 4o.er
BOc#G -eut#on crer des emplois en rglementant le temps de travailT V Robert Lacroi?
BFc#2 Anomalies de marc" et slection des titres au Canada V Ric"ard 1ua.$ [ean#8ranhois
Le,er et [ean#Marc Suret BFc#G La
rglementation incitative V Marcel 4o.er
BCc#A Leimportance relative des gouvernements E causes$ cons)uences et organisations
alternative V Claude Montmar)uette BCc#2 Commercial 4anPruptc. and
8inancial ReorganiRation in Canada V [ocel.n Martel BCc#G 8aire ou faire faire E La
perspective de leconomie des organisations V Mic"el -atr.
Srie Scientifique % Scientific Series 6ISSN GGBH#HGMM7
2000s#AA '"e Measurement and Antecedents of 'urnover Intentions among I' -rofessionals V
1u. -ar et Mic"el 'rembla. 2000s#A2 Can t"e '"eor. of Incentives 2?plain
5ecentraliRationT V Mic"el -oitevin 2000s#AG I' Outsourcing RisP Management at 4ritis"
-etroleum V 4enoit A! Aubert$ Mic"el
-atr.$ SuRanne Rivard et ,eat"er Smit" 2000s#A0 A Resource#4ased Anal.sis
of I' Outsourcing V <ital Ro. et 4enoit Aubert 2000s#2B '"e Impact of 1overnment#
Sponsored 'raining -rograms on t"e Labor MarPet
'ransitions of 5isadvantaged Men V Lucie 1ilbert$ '"ierr. SamionPa et 1u. Lacroi?
2000s#2H ,ope against ,opeE -ersistent Canadian /nions in t"e Inter>ar Uears V Mic"ael
,uberman et 5enise Uoung 2000s#2M '"e Impact of ,uman Resources -ractices
on I' -ersonnel Commitment$ CitiRens"ip
4e"aviors and 'urnover Intentions V 1u. -ar et Mic"el 'rembla. 2000s#2O
OrganiRational and Individual 5eterminants of At.pical 2mplo.mentE '"e Case of
Multiple [ob"olding and Self#2mplo.ment V 1illes Simard$ 5enis C"(nevert et
Mic"el 'rembla. 2000s#2F Les dterminants organisationnels et individuels de
l%emploi at.pi)ue E Le cas du
cumul d%emplois et du travail autonome V 1illes Simard$ 5enis C"(nevert et Mic"el
'rembla. 2000s#2C L%engagement organisationnel et les comportements
discrtionnaires E L%influence des
prati)ues de gestion des ressources "umaines V Mic"el 'rembla.$ -"ilippe 1ua. et
1illes Simard 2000s#2A 2nvironmental RisP Managemant and t"e 4usiness 8irm V
4ernard Sinclair#5esgagn
D <ous pouveR consulter la liste compl&te des publications du CIRANO et les publications elles#m(mes sur notre site
Internet 0 leadresse suivante E
htt$-%%0001cirano1umontreal1ca%$u,lication%documents1html