Much of a manufacturing education relates to an Une grande partie d'une formation en fabrication se

understanding of: rapporte à une compréhension de:

(1) the structure of materials
(2) the properties of materials
(3) the processing of materials
(4) the performance of materials
and the interrelations between these four factors
(1) la structure des matériaux
(2) les propriétés des matériaux
(3) le traitement des matériaux
(4) la performance des matériaux
et les interrelations entre ces quatre facteurs

Chapter 1: Properties of Materials

Mechanical properties: describe how a material
responds to applied loads or forces including strength,
rigidity, resistance to fracture, the ability to withstand
vibrations or impacts
Physical properties: distingue one material from another
(density/weight, thermal, electrical, magnetic, optical
characteristics/appearance)
Propriétés mécaniques: décrire comment un matériau
réagit aux charges ou forces appliquées, y compris la
résistance, la rigidité, la résistance à la rupture, la
capacité de résister aux vibrations ou aux chocs
Propriétés physiques: distingue un matériau d'un autre
(densité / poids, caractéristiques / aspect thermique,
électrique, magnétique, optique)

Physical properties : thermal properties Propriétés physiques: propriétés thermiques

- Mechanical properties of materials change with
variations in temperature
- Heat capacity or specific heat of a material is the
amount of energy that must be added to or removed
from a given mass of material to produce a 1° change in
temperature
- Thermal conductivity measures the rate at which heat
can be transported through a material
- Thermal expansion: Most materials expand upon
heating and contract upon cooling, but the amount of
expansion or contraction will vary with the material.
- Les propriétés mécaniques des matériaux changent
avec les variations de température
- La capacité calorifique ou chaleur spécifique d'un
matériau est la quantité d'énergie qui doit être ajoutée
ou retirée d'une masse donnée de matériau pour
produire un changement de température de 1 °
- La conductivité thermique mesure la vitesse à laquelle
la chaleur peut être transportée à travers un matériau
- Dilatation thermique: la plupart des matériaux se
dilatent lors du chauffage et se contractent lors du
refroidissement, mais la quantité d'expansion ou de
contraction varie avec le matériau.

Bonding/liaiso microstruscture advantages disadvantage Example

n s
Metallic Metals metallic Crystal grains Strong/stiffness (‫)صلب‬ Fracture Iron(‫)حديد‬
material & alloys Ductile (‫)قابل للتمدد‬ Fatigue Steel
s High thermal conduct. Aluminium
Luster(‫)لمعان‬ Brass(‫)نحاس‬
High thermal conduct.
Good magnetic
Non polymers Covalent Chain Low cost Low strength Rubbers
Metallic & molecules Light weight Low stiffness Nylon
material secondary Resist corrosion Creep
s Ceramics Ionic Crystal grains Strong / stiff / hard Brittleness Clay(‫)فخار‬
& covalent Amorphous Resist temp Silicia
glasses Resist corrosion glasses
composites various Matrix & fiber Strong stiff High cost Polywood
Light weight delamination cemented

Some common nonmetals generally tend to be weaker, less ductile, and less dense than the metals, and to have
poor electrical and thermal conductivities.
Certains non-métaux ont généralement tendance à être plus faibles, moins ductiles et moins denses que les métaux,
et à avoir de mauvaises conductivités électriques et thermiques.

Geometry and loading situations commonly employed in
mechanical testing of materials:
(a) tension, (b) compression,
(c) indentation hardness(‫)صالبة المسافة الفارغة‬
(d) cantilever bending, (e) three-point bending,
(f) four-point bending, and (g) torsion
Géométrie et situations de chargement couramment
employées dans les essais mécaniques des matériaux:
(a) traction, (b) compression,
(c) dureté par indentation,
(d) flexion en porte-à-faux, (e) flexion trois points,
(f) flexion quatre points, et (g) torsion

Three classes of test specimen: Trois classes de pièces:

(a) smooth or unnotched, (b) notched, (c) precracked (a) lisse ou non entaillée, (b) entaillée, (c) pré-craquelée

Strain : deformation or distortion (∆ L) caused by force or

load (Unit:m)
Stress: internal reactive forces applied by a force or load
expressed by σ =W/A en Pa (N/m2)
Unit strain: ε = ΔL/L
- Tensile strain and tensile stress: in tension
- Compressive strain and compressive stress: in compression
- Shear strain and shear stress: shear (2 forces acting on a
body are offset with respect to one another)
Tensile Test
I- Uniaxial tensial test :

ELasticity :
In stress-strain curve it can be noted that the initial response is linear. Up to a certain point, the stress and
strain are directly proportional to one another.
The stress at which this proportionality ceases is known as the proportional limit. Below this value, the
material obeys Hooke's law, which states that the strain is directly proportional to the stress.
The proportionality constant, or ratio of stress to strain, is known as Young's modulus or the modulus of
elasticity. This is a property of a given material and is of considerable engineering importance. As a measure of
stiffness, it indicates the ability of a material to resist deflection or stretching when loaded and is commonly
designated by the symbol E. (Unit E: N/m2 ou Pa ou Ksi)
Up to a certain stress, if the load is removed, the specimen will return to its original length. The response is elastic or
recoverable. The uppermost stress for which this behavior is observed is known as the elastic limit.
The resilience is the amount of energy that a material can absorb while in the elastic range.
The modulus of resilience is the energy per unit volume ( σdε in N/m3)
∫
Plasticity:
Elongation beyond the elastic limit becomes unrecoverable and is known as
plastic deformation.
When the load is removed, only the elastic stretching will be recovered, and
the specimen will retain a permanent change in shape.
Whenever the elastic limit is exceeded, increases in strain no longer require
proportionate increases in stress.
For some materials, a stress value may be reached where additional strain
occurs without any further increase in stress. This stress is known as the yield point, or
yield-point stress.
Offset yield strength: property that defines the stress required to produce a
tolerable amount of permanent strain. (0.1% or 0.2% strain)
Plasticity - Tensile Strength
During tensile deformation: load increase, the specimen is getting longer.
The cross-sectional area is decreasing. The load-bearing ability of the specimen (capacité) continues to increase.
The material become more stronger. (load-bearing ability=material strength*cross-sectional area)
When the load-bearing ability peaks, the force required to continue straining the specimen begins to
decrease. This point is known as the ultimate strength, tensile strength, or ultimate tensile strength of the
material.
At the weakest location in the test specimen: area decrease → necking. The stress at which fracture occurs
is known as the breaking strength or fracture strength.

For ductile materials, necking precedes fracture, and the
breaking strength is less than the ultimate tensile
strength.
For a brittle material, fracture usually terminates the
stress-strain curve before necking, and possibly before
the onset of plastic flow.
Pour les matériaux ductiles, le rétrécissement précède la
rupture et la résistance à la rupture est inférieure à la
résistance à la traction ultime.
Pour un matériau fragile, la fracture termine
généralement la courbe contrainte-déformation avant la
striction, et éventuellement avant le début de
l'écoulement plastique.

Ductility & Brittleness- Elongation

Ductility: the amount of plasticity that precedes
fracture.
For metal deformation processes, the greater
the ductility, the more a material can be deformed
without fracture. Ductility also plays a role in toughness.
It is the percent elongation of a tensile test specimen at
the time of fracture.
Brittleness (‫)هشاشة‬:lack of ductility (independent
of strength)
( Cette valeur peut être déterminée en construisant une ligne
parallèle à la partie élastique du diagramme, passant par le
point de force ou de contrainte la plus élevée. L'intersection
où la ligne croise l'axe de déformation indique l'allongement
uniforme disponible.)
Toughness : the work per unit volume required to
fracture a material, it depends on the temperature and speed
of loading. It is the area under the stress-strain curve from
test initiation to fracture.

Elongation / contraction reduction in area / yield / young

modulus / fracture / poisson ratio : proprieties of materials (tensile test )

Poisson’s Ratio Ratio de Poisson

- Poisson's ratio ν is the ratio of transverse (lateral)
contraction strain to longitudinal extension strain in the
direction of stretching force.
- Tensile deformation is considered positive and
compressive deformation is considered negative
ν = - ε lateral (transversal) / ε longitudinal (axial)
-This value is always less than 0.5 and is usually about
0.3.
- Le coefficient de Poisson ν est le rapport entre la
déformation de contraction transversale (latérale) et la
déformation d'extension longitudinale dans la direction
de la force d'étirement.
- La déformation en traction est considérée comme
positive et la déformation en compression est
considérée comme négative
True stress – True strain curves
- The actual stress should be computed based on the instantaneous cross-sectional area, not the original. Since the
area is decreasing, the actual or true stress will be greater than the engineering stress. The actual area can then be
computed, and true stress can be determined as: σ = W /A [MPa]
- The true, natural, or logarithmic strain is calculated by:
l
dl l d0
ε =∫ =ln =2 ln
l0 l l0 d

Strain Hardening & Exponent

- When metals are plastically deformed, they become harder and stronger, a
phenomenon known as strain hardening. If a stress is capable of producing plastic
deformation, an even greater stress will be required to continue the flow.
- Various materials strain-harden different rates according to the equation σ =K ε n
where n is the strain-hardening exponent.
* n↑ = more strength with less deformation

Damping Capacity:
- Ability to absorb mechanical vibrations or damp them
out quickly by converting them from mechanical form to
heat. The area between the unloading and reloading of
the specimen curves is proportional to the amount of
energy
- When this area is large, the material is said to exhibit
good damping capacity.
- Capacité d'absorber les vibrations mécaniques ou de
les amortir rapidement en les convertissant de forme
mécanique en chaleur. La zone entre le déchargement et
le rechargement des courbes de l'échantillon est
proportionnelle à la quantité d'énergie
- Lorsque cette surface est grande, on dit que le
matériau présente une bonne capacité d'amortissement.

Rate Considerations
- The rate or speed at which a tensile test is conducted
can have a significant effect on the various properties.
Strain rate sensitivity varies widely for engineering
materials.
- rate ↑ strength ↑ ductility ↓
- La vitesse à laquelle un essai de traction est effectué
peut avoir un effet significatif sur les différentes
propriétés. La sensibilité à la vitesse de déformation
varie considérablement pour les matériaux d'ingénierie.
- taux ↑ résistance ↑ ductilité ↓

Compression Test
- When a material is subjected to compressive loadings,
the relationships between stress and strain are similar to
those for a tension test.
- As deformation proceeds, the material strengthens by
strain hardening and the cross section of the specimen
increases, combining to produce a substantial increase in
required load.
- Lorsqu'un matériau est soumis à des charges de
compression, les relations entre contrainte et
déformation sont similaires à celles d'un essai de
traction.
- Au fur et à mesure de la déformation, le matériau se
renforce par écrouissage et la section transversale de
l'éprouvette augmente, se combinant pour produire une
augmentation substantielle de la charge requise.
Hardness test
- Several tests that measure the hardness(‫ )صالبة‬of - Plusieurs tests mesurant la dureté des matériaux
engineering materials are based on: d'ingénierie sont basés sur:
* resistance to permanent deformation in the front of * résistance à la déformation permanente à l'avant de la
penetration or indentation (‫اخدود‬-‫)المسافات الفارغة‬ pénétration ou de l'indentation
* or resistance of scratching (‫)خدش‬ * ou résistance aux rayures
* or wear (‫ )تآكل‬resistance * ou résistance à l'usure
* or resistance to cutting or drilling(‫ )الحفر‬, elastic * ou résistance à la coupe ou au perçage, rebond
rebound élastique

Brinell Hardness Test HB

- A tungsten carbide or hardened steel ball 10 mm in diameter is pressed into the flat surface of a material by a
standard load of 500 or 3000 kg, and the load is maintained for 10 to 15 seconds to permit the full amount of plastic
deformation to occur.
- The load and ball are then removed, and the diameter of the resulting spherical indentation (usually in the range of
2 to 5 mm) is measured using a special grid or traveling microscope.
- The Brinell hardness number (BHN) = the load / the surface area of the spherical indentation expressed as kg/mm2

- The Brinell test measures hardness over a relatively large area and is somewhat indifferent to small-scale variations
- used extensively on irons and steels (‫)فوالذ‬
- On the negative side, however, the Brinell test has the following limitations:
1. cannot be used on very hard or very soft materials.
2. may not be valid for thin specimens.
3. not valid for case-hardened surfaces.
4. must be conducted far enough from the edge of the material so that no edge bulging occurs.
5. The substantial indentation may be objectionable on finished parts.
6. The edge or rim of the indentation may not be clearly defined or may be difficult to see.

- Le test Brinell mesure la dureté sur une surface relativement grande et est quelque peu indifférent aux variations à
petite échelle du matériau.
- largement utilisé sur les fers et les aciers
- Du côté négatif, cependant, le test de Brinell présente les limites suivantes :
1. ne peut pas être utilisé sur des matériaux très durs ou très souples.
2. n’est pas valide pour les échantillons minces.
3. n'est pas valable pour les surfaces cémentées.
4. doit être effectué suffisamment loin du bord du matériau pour qu'il ne se produise aucun renflement du bord.
5. ‫قد تكون المسافة الفارغة الكبيرة مرفوضة على األجزاء النهائية‬
6. Le bord de l'indentation peut ne pas être clairement défini ou peut être difficile à voir.
Rockwell Hardness Test HR
- Rockwell hardness test is similar to the Brinell test, with the hardness value again being determined through an
indentation produced under a static load.
- A small indenter, either a small-diameter steel ball or a diamond-tipped cone called a bale, is first seated firmly
against the material by the application of a 10-kg minor load. This causes a slight elastic penetration into the surface
and removes the effects of any surface irregularities. The indicator on the screen of the tester is then set to zero,
and a major load of 60,100, or 150 kg is applied to the indenter to produce a deeper penetration (i.e., plastic
deformation). When the indicating pointer has come to rest, the major load is removed. With the minor load still
applied, the tester now indicates the Rockwell hardness number on either a dial gage or digital display. This number
is an indication of the depth of the plastic or permanent penetration that was produced by the major load, with each
unit representing a penetration depth of 2 μm.

- Rockwell tests should not be conducted on:

* thin materials (typically less than 1.5 mm or 1/16 in.)
* on rough surfaces (‫)خشن‬
* or on materials that are not homogeneous, such as
gray cast iron.

Vickers Hardness Test HV

- The Vickers hardness test is also similar to the Brinell test but
uses a 136° square based diamond pyramid as the indenter and
loads between 1 and 120 kg.

- The Vickers hardness number = load / the surface area of the

indentation expressed in kg/mm2

- The advantages of the Vickers: - Les avantages du Vickers:

1. increased accuracy in determining the diagonal of a 1. précision dans la détermination de la diagonale d'une
square impression empreinte carrée
2. evaluate any material 2. évaluer tout matériel
3. effectively places the hardness of all materials on a 3. précise efficacement la dureté de tous les matériaux
single scale. sur une seule échelle.

- The Vickers test has a number of attractive features:
1. it is simple to conduct
2. little time is involved
3. little surface preparation is required
4. the marks are quite small and are easily hidden or
removed
5. the test can be done on location
6. it is relatively inexpensive
7. it provides results that can be used to evaluate
material strength or assess product quality
- Le test Vickers présente un certain nombre de
caractéristiques :
1. il est simple de mener
2. peu de temps est impliqué
3. peu de préparation de surface est nécessaire
4. les marques sont assez petites et sont facilement
cachées ou supprimées
5. le test peut être fait sur place
6. il est relativement peu coûteux
7 .il fournit des résultats qui peuvent être utilisés pour
 évaluer la résistance du matériau ou évaluer la qualité
du produit

Dynamic Properties
- In many engineering applications, products or
components are subjected to various types of dynamic
loading:
* Sudden impacts or loads that vary rapidly in magnitude
* Repeated cycles of loading and unloading
* Frequent changes in the mode of loading, such as from
tension to compression.
‫* التأثيرات المفاجئة أو األحمال التي تتفاوت بسرعة في الحجم‬
‫* دورات التحميل والتفريغ المتكررة‬
‫ مثل االنتقال من التوتر إلى‬، ‫* تغييرات متكررة في طريقة التحميل‬
.‫االنضغاط‬
- Dans de nombreuses applications d'ingénierie, les
produits ou composants sont soumis à divers types de
charges dynamiques :
* Des impacts soudains ou des charges dont l'ampleur
varie rapidement
* Cycles répétés de chargement et de déchargement
* Changements fréquents du mode de chargement,
comme de la tension à la compression.0

Impact Test (‫)اختبار التأثير‬

- 2 basic tests evaluate the toughness or fracture resistance of a material when it is subjected to a rapidly applied
load, or impact:
1. bending impacts, which include the standard Charpy and Izod tests
2. tension impacts.

Bending impact test

- The bending impact tests utilize specimens (square bar containing a V-, keyhole-, or U-shaped notch) that are
supported as beams.
- In the Charpy test, the test specimen is positioned horizontally, supported on the ends, and an impact is applied to
the center, behind the notch, to complete a three-point bending.
- The Izod test specimen, it is supported vertically as a cantilever beam and is impacted on the unsupported end,
striking from the side of the notch.

- Impact testers supply a predetermined impact energy
in the form of a swinging pendulum.
- After breaking or deforming the specimen, the
pendulum continues its upward swing with an energy
equal to its original minus that absorbed by the
impacted specimen.
- The loss of energy is measured by the angle that the
pendulum attains during its upward swing.
- Les testeurs d'impact fournissent une énergie d'impact
prédéterminée sous la forme d'un pendule oscillant.
- Après avoir cassé ou déformé l'éprouvette, le pendule
continue son balancement vers le haut avec une énergie
égale à son moins d'origine que celle absorbée par
l'éprouvette impactée.
- La perte d'énergie est mesurée par l'angle que le
pendule atteint lors de son basculement vers le haut.
Fatigue and the Endurance Limit (‫)قدرة التحمل‬

- Materials can also fail by fracture if they are subjected to repeated applications of stress, even though the peak
stresses have magnitudes less than the ultimate tensile strength and usually less than the yield strength.

- Les matériaux peuvent également se rompre par rupture s'ils sont soumis à des applications répétées de
contraintes, même si les contraintes de pointe ont des amplitudes inférieures à la résistance à la traction ultime et
généralement inférieures à la limite d'élasticité.

- This phenomenon, known as fatigue, can result from either the cyclic repetition of a particular loading cycle or
entirely random (‫ )عشوائي‬variations in stress.

- Ce phénomène, appelé fatigue, peut résulter soit de la répétition cyclique d'un cycle de chargement particulier, soit
de variations entièrement aléatoires de la contrainte.

- By conducting multiple tests, subjecting identical specimens to different levels of maximum loading, and recording
the number of cycles necessary to achieve fracture, curves can be produced. These curves are known as stress
versus number of cycles, or S-N, curves

- En effectuant plusieurs tests, en soumettant des échantillons identiques à différents niveaux de charge maximale et
en enregistrant le nombre de cycles nécessaires pour obtenir une fracture, des courbes peuvent être produites. Ces
courbes sont appelées courbes de contrainte en fonction du nombre de cycles, ou courbes S-N

Example:
If the material being evaluated were subjected to a
standard tensile test, it would require a stress in excess of
480 MPa to induce failure. Under cyclic loading with a
peak stress of only 380 MPa the specimen will fail after
about 100,000 cycles. If the peak stress were further
reduced to 350 MPa, the fatigue lifetime would be
extended by an order of magnitude to approximately
1,000,000 cycles. With a further reduction to any value
below 340 MPa, the specimen would not fail by fatigue,
regardless of the number of stress application cycles.

Si le matériau évalué était soumis à un essai de traction standard, il faudrait une contrainte supérieure à 480 MPa
pour provoquer une rupture. Sous une charge cyclique avec une contrainte maximale de seulement 380 Mpa,
l'échantillon échouera après environ 100 000 cycles. Si la contrainte maximale était encore réduite à 350 MPa, la
durée de vie en fatigue serait prolongée d'un ordre de grandeur jusqu'à environ 1 000 000 de cycles. Avec une
réduction supplémentaire à toute valeur inférieure à 340 MPa, l'éprouvette ne se romprait pas par fatigue, quel que
soit le nombre de cycles d'application de contraintes.

- The endurance limit or endurance strength: the stress which the material will not fail regardless of the number of
load cycles applied
La limite d'endurance ou résistance d'endurance: la contrainte que le matériau ne manquera pas quel que soit le - -
nombre de cycles de charge appliqués

- Fatigue strength: the maximum stress that can be sustained for a specified number of loading cycles.
- Résistance à la fatigue: la contrainte maximale qui peut être supportée pendant un nombre spécifié de cycles de
chargement.

Fatigue resistance
- The fatigue resistance of an actual product is sensitive to a number of additional factors:

1. Presence of stress raisers (or stress concentrators), such as sharp corners, small surface cracks, machining marks,
or surface gouges. (The stress concentrator magnifies the stress experienced at the tip of the crack, accelerating the
rate of subsequent crack growth)

2. Presence of surface crack or flaw which reduce the number of cycles required for crack initiation

3. Increased in temperature which drops the fatigue strength. (Most test data are generated at room temperature;
caution should be exercised when the product application involves elevated service temperatures.)

4. Changes in the environment:

4.1. Subjecting metal to loadings under corrosion fatigue conditions which reduce both specimen lifetime
and the endurance limit
4.2. increasing levels of humidity (reduces lifetime)
4.3. Nature of the environment attack

5. Frequency of the loading cycle: Frequency ↓ lifetime ↑

6. Residual stresses: Compression (more difficult to initiate a fatigue crack): lifetime lifetime ↑
Tension: lifetime ↓

7. Varying the magnitude of the load during service, the fatigue response can be extremely complex.

- La résistance à la fatigue d'un produit réel est sensible à un certain nombre de facteurs supplémentaires:

1. Présence de rehausseurs de contraintes (ou concentrateurs de contraintes), tels que des angles vifs, de petites
fissures de surface, des marques d'usinage ou des entailles de surface. (Le concentrateur de contraintes amplifie la
contrainte subie à la pointe de la fissure, accélérant le taux de croissance de fissure ultérieure)

2. Présence de fissures ou de défauts superficiels qui réduisent le nombre de cycles requis pour l'amorçage de la
fissure

3. Augmentation de la température qui diminue la résistance à la fatigue. (La plupart des données de test sont
générées à température ambiante; des précautions doivent être prises lorsque l'application du produit implique des
températures de service élevées.)

4. Changements dans l'environnement:

4.1. Soumettre le métal à des charges dans des conditions de fatigue par corrosion qui réduisent à la fois la
durée de vie de l'éprouvette et la limite d'endurance
4.2. augmentation des niveaux d'humidité (réduit la durée de vie)
4.3. Nature de l'attaque environnementale

5. Fréquence du cycle de chargement: Fréquence ↓ durée de vie ↑

6. Contraintes résiduelles: Compression (plus difficile à amorcer une fissure de fatigue): durée de vie ↑
Tension: durée de vie ↓

7. En faisant varier l'amplitude de la charge pendant le service, la réponse à la fatigue peut être extrêmement
complexe.
Fatigue failures
- Fatigue failure: Components that fail as a result of repeated or cyclic loadings.

- With each repeated application of load:

* the stress at the tip of the crack exceeds the strength of the material
* the crack grows a very small amount
* the crack growth continues until the remaining cross section is no longer sufficient to withstand the peak stresses.
* Sudden overload fracture then occurs through the remainder of the material

- Pannes de fatigue : Composants qui échouent à la suite de chargements répétés ou cycliques.

- A chaque application répétée de charge:

* la contrainte au sommet de la fissure dépasse la résistance du matériau
* la fissure se développe une très petite quantité
* la croissance des fissures se poursuit jusqu'à ce que la section transversale restante ne soit plus suffisante pour
résister aux pics de contraintes.
* Une rupture soudaine de surcharge se produit alors à travers le reste du matériau

- The overall fracture surface tends to exhibit two distinct regions:

* a smooth, relatively flat region where the crack was propagating by cyclic fatigue. The smooth areas of the fracture
often contain a series of parallel ridges, or fatigue striations, radiating outward from the origin of the crack and not
be visible under normal examination.
They may be extremely fine / they may have been obliterated by a rubbing action during the compressive stage of
repeated loading; or they may be very few in number if the failure occurred after
* a coarse, ragged region, corresponding to the ductile overload tearing.

- La surface de fracture globale a tendance à présenter deux régions distinctes :

* une région lisse et relativement plate où la fissure se propageait par fatigue cyclique. Les zones lisses de la fracture
contiennent souvent une série de crêtes parallèles, ou stries de fatigue, rayonnant vers l'extérieur à partir de
l'origine de la fissure et ne sont pas visibles à l'examen normal.
Ils peuvent être extrêmement fins / ils peuvent avoir été oblitérés par une action de frottement pendant la phase de
compression du chargement répété ; ou ils peuvent être très peu nombreux si l'échec s'est produit après
* une région grossière et irrégulière, correspondant à la rupture de surcharge ductile.

- For some fatigue failures, the overload area may exhibit a crystalline appearance, and the failure is sometimes
attributed to the metal having crystallized.
- Not all time dependent failure are fatigue failures.

- Pour certaines ruptures de fatigue, la zone de surcharge peut présenter un aspect cristallin, et la rupture est parfois
attribuée au métal ayant cristallisé.
- Les défaillances dépendant du temps ne sont pas toutes des défaillances de fatigue.
Temperature Effects
As temperature ↗, tensile strength ↘, hardness ↘, elongation ↗ and the material is weaker and more ductile.

The effects of temperature on the tensile properties of a The effects of temperature and strain rate on the tensile
medium-carbon steel strength of copper (cuivre)

- Malleability: (‫)قابل للطي‬ability to undergo large permanent deformations in compression without cracking. It is the
ability of a solid to bend or be hammered into other shapes without breaking
- Formability refers to the ease with which a material can be formed while satisfying quality requirements. In effect,
it refers to a material's ability to undergo plastic deformation. Therefore, ductile materials tend to be more suited
for forming processes.
- Weldability (‫)التلحيم‬of a material may also depend on the specific welding or joining process and the specific process
parameters.
- Workability is defined as the extent to which a material be deformed in a specific metal working process without
the formation of cracks. If ductility of the material is high the material can be mechanically worked with ease.

- Malléabilité: capacité à subir de grandes déformations permanentes en compression sans fissuration. C'est la
capacité d'un solide à se plier ou à être martelé dans d'autres formes sans se casser
- La formabilité fait référence à la facilité avec laquelle un matériau peut être formé tout en satisfaisant aux
exigences de qualité. En effet, il fait référence à la capacité d'un matériau à subir une déformation plastique. Par
conséquent, les matériaux ductiles ont tendance à être plus adaptés aux processus de formage.
- La soudabilité d'un matériau peut également dépendre du procédé de soudage ou d'assemblage spécifique et des
paramètres spécifiques du procédé.
- L'ouvrabilité est définie comme la mesure dans laquelle un matériau est déformé dans un processus de travail du
métal spécifique sans formation de fissures. Si la ductilité du matériau est élevée, le matériau peut être facilement
travaillé mécaniquement.

- Fracture mechanic’s principle: all materials contain flaws (‫ )عيوب‬or defects of some given size. These may be:
* Material defects (pores, cracks, or inclusions)
* Manufacturing defects (machining marks, arc strikes, or contact damage to external surfaces)
* Design defects (section changes, excessively small fillet radii, and holes )

- Principe du mécanicien de rupture: tous les matériaux contiennent des défauts (‫ )عيوب‬ou des défauts d'une
certaine taille. Ceux-ci peuvent être:
* Défauts matériels (pores, fissures ou inclusions)
* Défauts de fabrication (marques d'usinage, coups d'arc ou dommages de contact avec les surfaces externes)
* Défauts de conception (changements de section, rayons de congé excessivement petits et trous)
- Conditions under which the defect and the rate of crack will grow depend on:
1. the size of the largest or most critical flaw - a - (INSEPCTION) (‫)فحص‬
2. the applied stress (DESIGN)
3. the fracture toughness, the resistance of a material to fracture or crack growth - K - (MATERIAL)
- Les conditions dans lesquelles le défaut et le taux de fissuration vont se développer dépendent:
1. la taille de la faille la plus grande ou la plus critique (INSEPCTION)
2. la contrainte appliquée (DESIGN)
3. la ténacité à la rupture, la résistance d'un matériau à la fracture ou à la croissance de fissures (MATÉRIEL)

- Each of flaws or defects in a material can be either dormant or dynamic.

* Dormant defects: whose size remains unchanged through the lifetime of the part and are indeed permissible.
* Dynamic effects: can be applied to fatigue
- Chacun des défauts ou défauts d'un matériau peut être dormant ou dynamique.
* Défauts dormants : dont la taille reste inchangée pendant toute la durée de vie de la pièce et sont effectivement
admissibles.
* Effets dynamiques : peuvent être appliqués à la fatigue

standard method of fatigue testing fracture mechanics

Polished (‫)مصقول‬
Flaw-free specimens (‫)عينات خالية من العيوب‬
reported lifetime consists of both crack
initiation and crack propagation
‫مع بداية ظهور التشققات يبدأ احتساب مدى الحياة‬
Specimen with an already-existing flaw
focuses on the crack growth
rate (change in size per
loading cycle denoted as
da/dN) plotted as a function of
the fracture mechanics
parameter, ΔK (where ΔK
increases with an increase in
either the flaw size and/or the
magnitude of applied stress).
(flaw ↗ & stress ↗ so ΔK ↗ )

malleability - being able to bend or shape easily would make a material easily malleable, eg sheet metal such as
steel or silver is malleable and can be hammered into shape
ductility - materials that can be stretched are ductile under tensile stress, eg pulling copper into wire shows it is
ductile
hardness - the ability to withstand impact without damage
durability - the ability of a material to withstand wear or damage
toughness - the ability of a material to absorb shock without breaking
elasticity - the ability of a material to bend without cracking
tensile strength - the ability of a material to withstand a pulling force without stretching
compressive strength - the ability of a material to withstand a pushing force without being squashed

Fatigue crack growth rates over a wide range of stress intensities

for a ductile pressure vessel steel. Three regions of behavior are
indicated: (a) slow growth near the threshold ΔKth, (b)
intermediate region following a power equation, and (c) unstable
rapid growth
Chapter 2: Nature of metals and alloys
I- Primary bonds
1) Ionic Bond:
- The positive and negative ions have an electrostatic - Les ions positifs et négatifs ont une attraction
attraction for each other, resulting in a strong électrostatique l'un pour l'autre, ce qui entraîne une forte
bonding force. force de liaison.
- Characteristics of materials joined by ionic bonds: - Caractéristiques des matériaux liés par des liaisons ioniques
* moderate to high strength * résistance modérée à élevée
* high hardness (‫)صالبة عالية‬ * haute dureté
* brittleness (‫)هشاشة‬ * fragilité
* high melting point * point de fusion élevé
* low electrical conductivity * faible conductivité électrique

2) Covalent Bond:
- Adjacent atoms share outer-shell electrons so that
each achieves a stable electron configuration.
- Characteristics of materials joined by covalent bonds:
* high strength
* high melting point
* brittleness
* Electrical conductivity depends on bond strength
- Les atomes adjacents partagent des électrons de la
coquille externe de sorte que chacun réalise une
configuration électronique stable.
- Caractéristiques des matériaux reliés liaisons covalentes:
* haute résistance
* point de fusion élevé
* fragilité
* La conductivité électrique dépend de la force de liaison

3) Metallic bond :
- A metallic bond is formed when a complete outer shell cannot be formed by either electron transfer or electron
sharing.
- Metallic bond, force that holds atoms together in a metallic substance. Such a solid consists of closely packed
atoms. In most cases, the outermost electron shell of each of the metal atoms overlaps with a large number of
neighboring atoms.
- Characteristics of materials joined by metallic bonds:
* high electrical * thermal conductivity
* Bond strength varies over a wide range.
- Une liaison métallique est formée lorsqu'une enveloppe externe complète ne peut être formée ni par transfert
d'électrons ni par partage d'électrons.
- Liaison métallique, force qui maintient les atomes ensemble dans une substance métallique. Un tel solide est
constitué d'atomes étroitement emballés. Dans la plupart des cas, la couche électronique la plus externe de chacun
des atomes métalliques chevauche un grand nombre d'atomes voisins.
- Caractéristiques des matériaux liés par des liaisons métalliques:
* haute électrique * conductivité thermique
* La force de liaison varie sur une large plage.
.,

II- Secondary bonds

- Weak or secondary bonds, known as van der Waals forces, can form between molecules that
possess a nonsymmetrical distribution of charge.
- Van der Waals forces contribute to the mechanical properties of a number of molecular
polymers, such as polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

- Des liaisons faibles ou secondaires, appelées forces de van der Waals, peuvent se former
entre des molécules qui possèdent une distribution de charge non symétrique.
- Les forces de Van der Waals contribuent aux propriétés mécaniques d'un certain nombre de
polymères moléculaires, tels que le polyéthylène et le polychlorure de vinyle (PVC).

III- Atom Arrangements in Materials

- Depending on the manner of atomic grouping, materials are classified as having molecular structures, crystal
structures, or amorphous structures.
1) Molecular structure
- Molecular structures have a distinct number of atoms that are held together by primary bonds.
- There is only a weak attraction.
- Typical examples of molecules include O2, H2O, and C2H4 (ethylene).
- low melting and boiling points.
- Molecular materials tend to be weak, since the molecules can move easily with respect to one another.
- Upon changes of state from solid to liquid or liquid to gas, the molecules remain as distinct entities.

- Les structures moléculaires ont un nombre distinct d'atomes qui sont maintenus ensemble par des liaisons
primaires.
- Il n'y a qu'une faible attraction.
- Des exemples typiques de molécules comprennent O2, H2O et C2H4 (éthylène).
- points de fusion et d'ébullition bas.
- Les matériaux moléculaires ont tendance à être faibles, car les molécules peuvent se déplacer facilement les unes
par rapport aux autres.
- Lors des changements d'état du solide au liquide ou du liquide au gaz, les molécules restent comme des entités
distinctes.

2) Crystal structure
- Solid metals and most minerals have a crystalline structure.
- Here the atoms are arranged in a regular geometric array known as a lattice. Lattices are describable through a unit
building block known as unit cells.
- When metals solidify, the atoms assume a crystalline structure; that is, they arrange themselves in a geometric
lattice.
- Depending on the conditions of temperature and pressure, such metals change from one lattice form to another is
called an allotropic / polymorphic transformation.
- Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
- Packing efficiency / packing density: space occupied by atom.
- This is defined as the ratio of total volume of atoms in a unit cell to the total volume of the unit cell. This is also
called relative density of packing (RDP).
- In a simple cubic cell, no. of atoms in all corners: 1/8 x 8 = 1
Radius of an atom = r and volume of cubic cell = a*a*a = 2r*2r*2r
Latice Unit cell Atoms/ Nb of Radius APF Properties Example
strucure Schematic Unit cell Neighbor
s
Simple 1 6 a 52% None
Cubic 2
Body 2 8 √3 a 68% - more favorable to metals and is ∂ or α-Fe,
centered 4 observed in room temperature V, Cr,
cubic (BCC) - offer high engineering strength. Mo, W
- less ductile but stronger
Face 4 12 √2 a 74% - high ductility (the ability to be γ-Fe, Al,
centered 4 plastically deformed without Ni, Cu,
cubic (FCC) fracture). Ag, Pt, Au
Hexagonal 8 12 √3 a 74% - poor ductility Be, Mg,
close 8 - fail in a brittle manner α-Ti, Zn,
packed - often require special processing Zr
(HCP) procedures (‫)معالجة خاصة‬

3) Amorphous structure
- In an amorphous structure, such as glass, the atoms have a certain degree of local order, but when viewed as an
aggregate, lack the periodically ordered arrangement of atoms that is characteristic of a crystalline solid.

- Dans une structure amorphe, telle que le verre, les atomes ont un certain degré d'ordre local, mais lorsqu'ils sont
considérés comme un agrégat, ils manquent de l'arrangement périodiquement ordonné des atomes qui est
caractéristique d'un solide cristallin.
‫ فإنها تفتقر إلى‬، ‫ ولكن عند النظر إليها كمجموعة‬، ‫ تتمتع الذرات بدرجة معينة من الترتيب المحلي‬، ‫ مثل الزجاج‬، ‫ في بنية غير متبلورة‬- -
.‫الترتيب الدوري للذرات الذي يميز المادة الصلبة المتبلورة‬

IV- Development of a Grain structure

- The crystallization of a large amount of material from a single point of nucleation results in a single crystal.
- Normally when a material begins to solidify, multiple crystals begin to grow in the liquid and a polycrystalline
(more than one crystal) solid forms.
- The final sizes of the individual crystals depend on the number of nucleation points.
- The crystals increase in size by the progressive addition of atoms and grow until they impinge upon adjacent
growing crystal.
- In engineering materials, a crystal is usually referred to as a grain. A grain is merely a crystal without smooth faces
because its growth was impeded by contact with another grain or a boundary surface.
- The interface formed between grains is called a grain boundary. The atoms between the grains (at the grain
boundaries) have no crystalline structure and are said to be disordered (‫)مضطربة‬.
 a) Nucleation of crystals, b) crystal growth, c) irregular grains form as crystals grow
together, d) grain boundaries as seen in a microscope.
V- Elastic and plastic deformation
1) Elastic deformation:
- The mechanical behavior is dependent on: - Le comportement mécanique dépend de:
(1) the type of lattice (1) le type de treillis
(2) the interatomic forces (i.e., bond strength) (2) les forces interatomiques (la force de liaison)
(3) the spacing between adjacent planes of atoms (3) l'espacement entre les plans d'atomes adjacents
(4) the density of the atoms on the various planes. (4) la densité des atomes sur les différents plans.
- If the load is removed, the atoms return to their original positions and the crystal resumes its original size and
shape.
2) Plastic deformation:
- As the magnitude of applied load becomes greater, distortion (deformation) continues to increase, and a point is
reached where the atoms either:
(1) break bonds to produce a fracture Or
(2) slide over one another in a way that would reduce the load.
- Plastic deformation tends to occur (se produit) along planes having the highest atomic density (close-packed
planes if present) in directions of closest packing and greatest separation.
- The specific combination of plane and direction is called a slip system, and the resulting shear deformation is
known as slip.

Body centered cubic (BCC)
- no close packed planes
- Slip occurs on the most favorable
alternatives
- Slip occurs along the cube diagonal
- BCC materials contain 48 attractive
ways to slip
- The probability of favorable
orientation is great
- Force required to produce
deformation is extremely large since
there are no close-packed planes
- Materials with this structure
generally possess high strength with
moderate ductility.
Plastic deformation
Face centered cubic (FCC)
- Four close-packed planes.
- Each of those planes contains three
close-packed directions, or face
diagonals, giving 12 possible means
of slip.
- The probability of favorable
orientation is great
- The force required to induce slip is
quite low (existence of close-packed)
- Metals with the FCC structure are
relatively weak and possess excellent
ductility.
Hexagonal close packed (HCP)
- he hexagonal lattice also contains
close packed planes, but only one
such plane exists within the lattice.
- This plane contains three close-
packed directions
- The force required to produce slip
is again rather low
- The probability of favorable
orientation to the applied load is
small
- Metals with the HCP structure tend
to have low ductility and arc often
classified as brittle.

Strain hardening or Work hardening

- Since strength can be increased substantially during deformation, a strain-hardened (deformed) is applied

- When a load is applied to a single metal crystal, deformation begins on the slip system that is most favorably
oriented. The net result is often an observable slip and rotation.
- When a metal is deformed, the grains tend to elongate in the direction of metal flow.
- Properties that vary with direction are said to be anisotropic. Properties that arc uniform in all directions are
isotropic.
- Lorsqu'une charge est appliquée sur un cristal de métal unique, la déformation commence sur le système de
glissement qui est le plus favorablement orienté. Le résultat net est souvent un glissement et une rotation
observables.
- Lorsqu'un métal se déforme, les grains ont tendance à s'allonger dans le sens de l'écoulement du métal.
- Les propriétés qui varient avec la direction sont dites anisotropes. Les propriétés qui sont uniformes dans toutes les
directions sont isotropes.
Fracture of Metals
- If too much plastic deformation is attempted, the metal may respond by fracture.
- When plastic deformation precedes the break, the fracture is known as a ductile fracture.
- Fractures can also occur before the onset of plastic deformation. These sudden, catastrophic failures are known as
brittle fractures, and are more common in metals having the BCC or HCP crystal structures.
- Whether the fracture is ductile or brittle, however, often depends on the specific conditions of material,
temperature, state of stress, and rate of loading.

VI- Dislocation Theory of Slippage

- Dislocation (‫)الخلع‬: macroscopic plastic deformation resulting of the progressive slippage of a localized disruption
- Luxation : déformation résultant du glissement progressif d'une perturbation localisée
- Two such imperfections are:
* the edge dislocation are the edges of extra halfplanes of atoms
* the screw dislocation corresponds to partial tearing of the crystal plane

- These barriers take the form of other crystal imperfections:

* Point type (missing atoms, extra atoms, or substituting atoms of a
different variety, as may occur in an alloy)
* Line type (another dislocation)
* Surface type (crystal grain boundary or free surface).

- Ces barrières prennent la forme d'autres imperfections cristallines :

* Type de point (atomes manquants, atomes supplémentaires, ou remplacement d'atomes, cas d’alliage)
* Type de ligne (une autre dislocation)
* Type de surface (limite de grain cristallin ou surface libre).

VII- Cold Working, Recrystallization, and Hot Working

- Recrystallization: formation of new crystals by heating the metal at specific temperature (reduction of internal
energy)
Hot working Cold working
- Process is done above recryst. temperature - Process is done below recryst. temperature
- process is done on hot metal - process is done on metal at room temperature
- less force is required - more force is applied
- no residual stress is formed on the metal - residual (internal) stresses formed is more
- formation of new crystals - no crystal formation
- surface finish not good - good surface finish
- no size limit - limited size
- ductility is restored, and the material is capable of
further deformation without the danger of fracture.
 VIII- Alloys
- There are three ways in which a metal might respond to the addition of another element:
1. Two materials are insoluble in one another in the solid
state. In this case the base metal and the alloying
addition each maintain their individual identities,
structures, and properties. The alloy in effect becomes a
composite structure, consisting of two types of building
blocks in an intimate mechanical mixture.
2. Two elements exhibit some degree, of solubility in the
solid state. The two materials form a solid solution,
where the alloy element dissolves in the base metal. The
solutions can be:
2.1. substitutional: In the substitutional solution,
some atoms of the alloy element occupy lattice sites
normally filled by atoms of the base metal. The
replacement is totally random in nature, with the alloy
atoms being distributed throughout the base lattice
2.2. interstitial: In the interstitial solution, the
alloy element atoms squeeze into the open spaces
between the atoms in the base metal lattice.
3. A third possibility exists where the elements combine
to form intermetallic compounds. In this case, the atoms
of the alloying element interact with the atoms of the
base metal in definite proportions and in definite
geometric relationships. The bonding is primarily of the
nonmetallic variety (i.e., ionic or covalent), and the
lattice structures are often quite complex. Because of
the type of bonding, intermetallic compounds tend to be
hard, but brittle, high strength materials.
IX- Atomic Structure and Electrical Properties
- The electrical resistance of a metal, therefore, depends largely on two factors:
(1) lattice imperfections
(2) temperature.
- For a metal, electrical conductivity will decrease with an increase in temperature.
1. Deux matériaux sont insolubles l'un dans l'autre à
l'état solide. Dans ce cas, le métal de base et l'addition
d'alliage conservent chacun leurs identités, structures et
propriétés individuelles. L'alliage devient en effet une
structure composite, constituée de deux types de blocs
de construction dans un mélange mécanique intime.
2. Deux éléments présentent un certain degré de
solubilité à l'état solide. Les deux matériaux forment une
solution solide, où l'élément d'alliage se dissout dans le
métal de base. Les solutions peuvent être:
2.1. substitutionnel: dans la solution de substitution,
certains atomes de l'élément d'alliage occupent des sites
de réseau normalement remplis par des atomes du
métal de base. Le remplacement est de nature
totalement aléatoire, les atomes d'alliage étant répartis
sur tout le réseau de base
2.2. interstitiel: dans la solution interstitielle, les atomes
d'élément d'alliage se pressent dans les espaces ouverts
entre les atomes du réseau de métal de base.
3. Une troisième possibilité existe lorsque les éléments
se combinent pour former des composés
intermétalliques. Dans ce cas, les atomes de l'élément
d'alliage interagissent avec les atomes du métal de base
dans des proportions et dans des relations géométriques
définies. La liaison est principalement de la variété non
métallique (c'est-à-dire ionique ou covalente), et les
structures de réseau sont souvent assez complexes. En
raison du type de liaison, les composés intermétalliques
ont tendance à être des matériaux durs, mais cassants, à
haute résistance.
Chapter 3: Equilibrium Phase Diagrams and the Iron-Carbon System
I- Introduction:
- Phase is simply a form of material possessing a characteristic structure and characteristic properties
- PHASE: definable structure + uniform composition + distinct boundaries
- PHASE can be continuous (air in room) or discontinuous (grains of salt in a shaker)
- PHASE can be solid, liquid, or gas
- PHASE can be a pure substance or a solution.
- example of single phase (water alcohol) or two phases ( oil water)

II- Equilibrium phase diagram

- The equilibrium phase diagram  is a graphic mapping of the natural tendencies of a
material or a material system, assuming that equilibrium has been attained for all
possible conditions. 
- There are three primary variables to be considered: temperature, pressure, and
composition. 
- The most useful mapping, therefore, would be a temperature-composition
phase diagram at atmospheric pressure. 
- The left-hand vertical corresponds to pure material A and the percentage of B (%
W) increases as we move toward pure B at the right side of the diagram.
- Cooling curves: Transitions in structure appear as characteristic points in the
temperature-versus-time plot of the cooling history.
- Liquidus line: Line a-c-f-h-l denotes the lowest temperature at which the material
is totally liquid.
- Line d-f-j denotes a particular three-phase reaction. Between the lines, two phases
coexist, one being a liquid and the other a solid.

Solubility studies
- As we move away from the pure material, we often encounter a single-phase solid solution, in which
one component is dissolved and dispersed throughout the other. If the solubility is limited, there will be a transition
in the phase diagram, known as a solvus line,  where the single-phase solid solution becomes a two-phase mixture. 
Complete Solubility in both liquid and solid states
- If two materials are each completely soluble in the other in both the
liquid and solid states, a rather simple diagram results, like the copper-
nickel diagram.
- The upper line is a liquidus line. Above the liquidus, the two materials
form a uniform-chemistry liquid solution. 
- The lower line denotes the highest temperature at which the material
is completely solid and is known as a solidus line. Below the solidus, the
materials form a solid-state solution in which the two types of atoms are
uniformly distributed throughout a single crystalline lattice. 
- Between the liquidus and solidus is a freezing range, a two-phase
region where liquid and solid solutions coexist.
 
Utilization of phase diagrams
- The phases present: The stable phases can be determined by simply locating the point of consideration on the
temperature-composition mapping and identifying the region of the diagram in which the point appears.
- The composition of each phase: If the point lies in a single-phase region, the composition (or chemistry) of the
phase is simply the composition of the alloy being considered. If the point
lies in a two-phase region, a tie-line is constructed. A tie-line is an
isothermal (constant-temperature) line drawn through the point of
consideration, terminating at the boundaries of the single-phase regions on
either side. The compositions where the tie-line intersects the neighboring
single-phase regions are the compositions of those respective phases in the
two-phase mixture. 

Example: Consider point a, the tie-line for this point runs from S2 to L2. The
point S2 is the intersection of the tie-line with the solid phase, and thus the
solid in the two-phase mixture at point a has the composition of point S2.
Similarly, the liquid phase will have the composition of point L2.
  
The amount of each phase present:
- If the point lies in a single-phase region, all of the material, or 100%, must be of that phase.
- If the point lies in a two-phase region, the relative amounts of the two components can be determined by a lever-
law calculation using the previously drawn tie-line. 
Consider the cooling of alloy X in a manner sufficiently slow so as to preserve equilibrium. At temperatures above t1,
the material is in a single-phase liquid state. Temperature t1, therefore, is the lowest temperature at which the alloy
is 100% liquid. If we draw a tie-line at this temperature, it runs from S1 to L1, and lies entirely to the left of
composition X. 
- The fraction of solid corresponds to the fraction of the tie-line that lies to the right of point a.

The lever rule

- An overall mass balance requires that the sum of the two phases equal the total
system. Assuming a total mass of 100g gives an expression: mL + mss = 100 g
- We can also compute an independent mass balance on either of the two
components. For example, the amount of B in the liquid phase plus that in solid
solution must equal the total amount of B in the overall composition. For
temperature T1 , L contains 30% B, SS 80% B, and the overall system 50% B:
0.30 mL + 0.80 mss = 0.50(100 g) = 50 g
- The above are two equations with two unknowns: mL = 60 g and mss = 40 g 
 III- Summary of three-phase reactions and intermetallic compounds

IV- Iron-Carbon Equilibrium Diagram

- Steel, composed primarily of iron and carbon, is clearly the most important of the engineering metals.
- Fe3C, is used to terminate the carbon range at 6.67 wt% carbon. 
- There are four single phases within the diagram. Three of these occur in pure iron, and the fourth is the
carbide intermetallic at 6.67% carbon. 
Upon solidification, pure iron forms a body-centered-cubic solid that is stable down to 1394°C. Known as δ delta-
ferrite,  this phase is present only at extreme elevated temperatures and has little engineering importance.
 
pearlite : Austeniteo.77%C, FCC ——> Ferrite0.02%C,  BCC + Cementite6.67%C
- Steels having less than the eutectoid amount of carbon (less than 0.77%) are called hypoeutectoid steels.
γ ——> γ  + α
                     ↓
                     α + Fe3C

- Hypereutectoid steels  (hyper-  means greater than) are those that contain more than the eutectoid amount
of carbon. 
 γ ——> γ  + Fe3C
                     ↓
                     α + Fe3C

V- Cast Irons
- Iron-carbon alloys with more than 2.11% carbon experience the eutectic reaction during cooling and are known
as cast irons. 
- A typical cast iron contains 2.0 to 4.0% carbon, 0.5 to 3.0% silicon, less than 1.0% manganese, and less than 0.2%
sulfur. 
- carbon equivalent CE = (wt% carbon C) + 1/3 (wt% silicon)

- Silicon also tends to promote the formation of graphite as the carbon-

rich single phase instead of the Fe3C intermetallic. 
- The eutectic reaction now has two distinct possibilities, as indicated in
the modified phase diagram showing two possible high-carbon phases.
Solid lines, iron-graphite system; dashed lines, iron-cementite (or iron-
carbide):
      Liquid ——> austenite + Fe3C 
      Liquid ——> austenite + graphite
- The final microstructure of cast iron has two possible extremes: 
    (1) all of the carbon-rich phase being Fe3C (Cementite).
    (2) all of the carbon-rich phase being graphite.

- Graphite formation is promoted by: 

(1) slow cooling, high carbon and silicon contents, heavy section
sizes, inoculation practices, and the presence of sulfur, phosphorus,
aluminum, magnesium, antimony, tin, copper, nickel, and cobalt. 
- Cementite (Fe3C) is favored by fast cooling, low carbon and silicon levels, thin sections, and alloy additions of
titanium, vanadium, zirconium, chromium, manganese, and molybdenum.
Types of Cast Irons
Gray Cast Iron
- Gray cast iron: the least expensive and promote the formation of graphite.
- Typical compositions range from 2.5 to 4.0% carbon, 1.0 to 3,0% silicon, and 0.4 to 1.0% manganese.
- The microstructure consists of three-dimensional graphite flakes (that form during the eutectic reaction) dispersed
in a matrix of ferrite, pearlite, or other iron-based structure (which forms from austenite during the eutectoid
reaction). 
- A typical section through gray cast iron, shows the graphite flakes dispersed throughout the metal matrix.
- The pointed edges of the flakes act as preexisting notches or crack initiation sites, giving the material
a characteristic brittle nature.
- The size, shape, and distribution of the graphite flakes have a considerable effect on the overall properties of gray
cast iron:
* When maximum strength is desired, small, uniformly distributed flakes are preferred with a minimum amount of
intersection. 
- Gray cast irons offer:
* excellent compressive strength
* excellent machinability (graphite acts to break up the chips and lubricate contact surfaces)
* good resistance to adhesive wear (graphite flakes self-lubricate)
* outstanding sound and vibration damping characteristics (graphite flakes absorb transmitted energy). 
- High silicon contents promote good corrosion resistance and the enhanced fluidity desired for casting operations.

White Cast Iron

- White cast iron has essentially all of its carbon in the form of iron carbide (Fe3C) and receives its name from the
white surface that appears when the material is fractured. 
- Features promoting its formation are those that favor cementite over graphite
- a low carbon equivalent (1.8 to 3.6% carbon, G.5 to 1.9% silicon, and 0.25 to 0.8% manganese) and rapid cooling.
- white cast iron is very hard and brittle, and finds applications where high abrasion resistance is the dominant
requirement. 
- Where regions of white and gray cast iron occur in the same component, there is generally a transition region
comprised of both white and gray irons, known as the molded zone.

Malleable Cast Iron

- it is the white cast iron is exposed to an extended heat treatment at temperatures in the range of 900°C,
the cementite will dissociate into its component elements, and some or all of the carbon will be converted into
irregular-shaped nodules of graphite.
- greater ductility than that of gray cast iron because the more favorable graphite shape removes the internal
notches.
- The ferritic malleable cast iron, has a structure of irregular graphite spheroids in a ferrite matrix and properties,
such as: 10% elongation, 35 ksi (240 MPa) yield strength, 50 ksi (345 MPa) tensile strength, and excellent impact
strength, corrosion resistance, and machinability. 
- The pearlitic malleable cast iron is characterized by higher strength and lower ductility than its ferritic counterpart.
Typical properties range from 1 to 4% elongation, 45 to 85 ksi (310 to 590 MPa) yield strength, and 65 to
105 ksi (450 to 725 MPa) tensile strength, with reduced machinability compared to the ferritic material.
Ductile Cast Iron
- If a high-carbon-equivalent cast iron is sufficiently low in sulfur, the addition of certain materials can promote
graphite formation and change the morphology (shape) of the graphite product. 
- If magnesium  is also added just prior to solidification, the graphite will form as smooth-surface spheres. 
- The addition of magnesium is known as a nodulizer, and the product is ductile or nodular cast iron. 
 - properties can be produced that span a wide range from 2 to 18% elongation, 40 to 90 ksi (275 to 620 MPa) yield
strength, and 60 to 120 ksi (415 to 825 MPa) tensile strength. 
- good ductility high strength toughness wear resistance machinability
- low-melting-point  most expensive of the cast iron

Austempered Cast Iron

- It combines the ability to cast intricate shapes with strength and wear-resistance properties that are similar
to those of steel, with 8 to 10% lower density. 
- To achieve these results, alloyed ductile iron is subjected to the austempering.

Compacted Cast Iron

- Compacted graphite cast iron: Produced by a method similar to that used to make ductile iron,
compacted graphite iron is characterized by a graphite structure that is intermediate to the flake graphite of gray
iron and the nodular graphite of ductile iron, and it tends to possess the desirable properties and characteristics of
each. 
- high strength, castability, machinability, thermal conductivity, and thermal shock resistance.