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660

ARTICLE
A case study of flow characteristics of permeable pavements by
time and space model
Wuguang Lin, SungWoo Ryu, and Yoon-Ho Cho

Abstract: Permeable pavement is widely used to improve the water circulation system in urban areas. The advantages of
using permeable pavement are the storage of rainwater, reduction of runoff, out-flow delay, and reduction of peak discharge.
The outflow characteristics of different types of permeable pavements are explained by runoff coefficients, which define the
relationship between runoff and infiltration rate. This study presents a model of cumulative outflow with respect to time
explaining the discharge characteristics of permeable pavement. The model can be used to explain storage capacity, delay
time, peak discharge rate, and outflow of pavement structure by accumulating total discharge at the surface and subsurface
relative to time. For further verification of the model, a rainfall simulation experiment was performed in the field. Based on
the data analysis through the developed model, the advantages of different permeable pavements can be characterized.

Key words: permeable pavement, pavement storage capacity, cumulative water flow, time and space model.
Résumé : Les chaussées perméables sont utilisées pour améliorer le système de circulation d’eau dans les zones urbaines. Elles
présentent les avantages suivants : l’entreposage de l’eau de pluie, la réduction du ruissellement, le délai des écoulements et
la réduction du débit de pointe. Les caractéristiques des rejets pour divers types de chaussées perméables sont expliquées en tant
que coefficient de ruissellement, lequel définit la relation entre le ruissellement et le taux d’infiltration. Cette étude présente un
modèle de rejet cumulatif qui tient compte du temps, expliquant les caractéristiques de décharge des chaussées perméables. Le
modèle peut servir a` expliquer la capacité d’entreposage, le délai, le débit de pointe et le rejet par la chaussée en accumulant,
dans le temps, la décharge totale a` la surface et dans la sous-surface. Pour pousser la vérification du modèle, une expérience de
simulation de précipi- tations a été réalisée sur le terrain. En se basant sur l’analyse des données par le modèle mis au point, il est
possible de caractériser les avantages des diverses chaussées perméables. [Traduit par la Rédaction]
Mots-clés : chaussée perméable, capacité d’entreposage des chaussées, débit d’eau cumulatif, modèle de temps et d’espace.
1. Introduction of three porous pavement systems from the perspective of infil-
As urbanization continues, the convenience of the living envi- tration and runoff. Runoff coefficients of porous pavements at
ronment has improved with efficient land utilization. The water different precipitation conditions were measured to explain the
circulation system of the city changes as ground coverage in- relationship between infiltration capacity and pavement thick-
creases. The urbanization causes heat islands, desertification of ness. Pappas and Huang (2010) proposed a relationship between
the city, and floods. Permeable pavement is suggested in research the infiltration capacity of a permeable pavement system and the
fields to improve water circulation systems in urban areas. Four runoff rate. It showed that the runoff rate increases as the infil-
major functions of permeable pavement are storage of tration rate decreases.
rainwater, reduction of runoff, outflow delay, and delay of peak The objectives of this study are to describe the relationship of
outflow; these functions can be affected by pavement structure, inflow and outflow of water, which explains surface and subsur-
permea- bility of the pavement surface, and rainfall intensity and face outflows by cumulative concept. Furthermore, this study
duration (Sansalone and Teng 2004; Fassman and Blackbourn proposes a new simple model where parameters provide an as-
2010). sessment tool to evaluate the outflow characteristics of different
Permeable or porous pavement systems, generally, show signif- permeable pavement systems. Hydrologic responses of the pave-
icant reduction in runoff volume compared to dense asphalt ment systems were defined and evaluated through field experi-
pave- ment systems. Most studies related to hydrology ment.
characteristics in permeable pavement systems focused only on
runoff and eval- uated the efficiency of the permeable 2. Discharge characteristics of pavement types
pavement system using typical hydrograph or runoff coefficient. Pavement can be classified into impermeable, partially perme-
Collins et al. (2008) eval- uated the flood prevention capacity of able, and permeable pavement by drainage techniques at the sub-
four types of permeable pavement systems and concluded that surface. The most common form of impermeable pavement uses
all of the permeable pave- ment systems significantly reduced dense grade asphalt and concrete, which are commonly used
surface runoff volumes and peak flow rates compared to for roads with high traffic volume. Rainwater on the surface of
asphalt pavement system based on observational data of rainfall impermeable pavement flows out of the structure by geometric
and runoff. The majority of outflow resulting from permeable and drainage design, not into the pavement itself. Consequently,
pavement system was in the form of subsurface drainage. Hou
et al. (2008) evaluated the performance

Received 9 April 2013. Accepted 28 May 2014.

W. Lin, S.W. Ryu, and Y.-H. Cho. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 84 Heukseok-Ro, Dongjak-Gu, Seoul,
Republic of Korea.
Corresponding author: Yoon-Ho Cho (e-mail: yhcho@cau.ac.kr).

Can. J. Civ. Eng. 41: 660–666 (2014) dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjce-2013-0165 Published at www.nrcresearchpress.com/cjce on 6 June 2014.
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Lin et al.
Fig. 1. Rainwater drainage system of each pavement type.
formation of water film on the surface of the road reduces
contact friction which could threaten drivers’ safety.
Partially permeable pavement was also named open-graded
friction course (OGFC). This type of pavement system was intro-
duced at an airport in England in mid-1950s to prevent the forma-
tion of a water slick on the runway (Shoenberger 1981). Generally,
only the surface layer of the pavement is designed with
permeable materials, while the sub-layers are impermeable. The
porous ma- terial is placed on the surface layer to drain water
through the air voids of the surface down into the pavement.
Aside from pre- venting water slick on the surface, the surface
decreases noise, enhances frictional resistance, and minimizes
water splash. A method of rainwater drainage for this pavement
allows the rain- water to penetrate only into the surface layer
and is being dis- charged at the side of the sub-layers. Runoff
happens when the permeable layer is saturated depending on the
rain condition. The ability of reducing peak discharge and delay
runoff is limited.
Permeable pavement is a type of pavement that allows rainwa-
ter to penetrate into the surface and base layers, as well as sub-
grade down to the groundwater. The pavement can be classified
into two different systems depending on the permeable coeffi-
cient of the sub-grade. Systems with a permeable coefficient of
the subgrade that ranges from 1.0 × 10−3 to 1.0 × 10−5 mm/s are
classi- fied as partial infiltration system, while 0.1 × 10−1 to 1.0 ×
10−3 mm/s are classified as total infiltration system (Interpave
2008). In hy- draulic design, the storage capacity under the
surface pavement is usually calculated by the permeable
coefficient of the materials or porous ratio (Rollings and Rollings
1999; Smith 2006). Since per- meable pavement secures the
rainwater storage, it is better than partially permeable
pavement in terms of characteristics such as delay of runoff,
reduction of peak discharge, and total discharge. Figure 1 shows a
typical structure and the drainage system of each pavement type.
3. Empirical model by water supply and demand
concept
Since this study covers outflows at both the surface and subsur-
face layers of the pavement system, it considers the outflow dis-
charge of each layer. The discharge over time can be explained
with the typical hydrograph. Start delay is the time when rainfall
begins until rainwater is discharged out of the surface or subsur-
face. Rising limb is the inclination when rainwater starts to be
discharged until the water flow becomes constant. The slope of
the rising limb depends on rainfall intensity; it is defined as the
period to reach peak discharge. Moreover, peak discharge is the
maximum constant level of water outflow.
Figure 2 shows a comparison of the typical and cumulative
hydrograph illustrations. In the typical hydrograph, the water
flow at each layer of the pavement is presented in individual
frames. The uppermost frame represents the water input
through rainfall and, subsequently, followed by individual
discharges
661
from each section layer. The graph indicates that, after rainfall,
the discharge rate in all layers gradually decreases. While this
illustration can explain runoff behavior of rainwater, it is insuffi-
cient to describe the cumulative water flow response at its sub-
layers. Furthermore, it is limited to the individual outflow delay
over time and storage capacity, and does not show a cumulative
impact across all layers.
Meanwhile, the cumulative hydrograph plots the accumulated
water flow over time. Moreover, it presents the accumulated dis-
charge behaviors at every layer of the section on the same graph.
The input line in the cumulative hydrograph represents the total
input, while other lines represent the outflow at different layers.
Figure 2c shows a case where runoff occurs only on the surface.
When runoff occurs immediately after the rain, the discharge
reached its peak rapidly resulting in a relatively low water loss
due to absorption and infiltration. Figure 2d shows another case
where drainage at the sub-layer exists. This case happens in per-
meable pavements. Since the total outflow is the sum of runoff
and sub-layer discharge, the illustration shows that the outflow
at the sub-layer is directly proportional to the efficiency of the
per- meable pavement. Finally, Fig. 2e shows another diagram
captur- ing the responses attributed to absorption and infiltration.
Hence, the cumulative hydrograph can better explain the input
and out- put of water at different layers with respect to time
easily similar to time and space modeling in traffic
engineering (Roess et al.
2010).
Figure 3 shows a cumulative flow hydrograph that explains the
relationship between precipitation and cumulative outflow dis-
charge. The straight line as “input” in the graph represents the
accumulated precipitation over time, and the slope of the line
indicates the rainfall intensity. The curve formed just below the
mentioned line is the discharge. The graph is divided into three
levels similar to the typical hydrograph: increasing, constant,
and decreasing. Considering loss factors such as evaporation of
rain- water, water leakage, and infiltration into the sub-grade,
the in- flow and outflow curves intersect after some period of
time due to water balance.
Since this study considers only outflow discharges, there is al-
ways a gap between the inflow and outflow. In Fig. 3, there are
two different paths between tin and tend. The curve that
intersects the accumulated input is the ideal output where the
loss factors are not considered. Meanwhile, the other curve in the
same period below the ideal output is the actual output
considering the loss factors. The
area between the two curves is the qloss. The tend is presumed to
be infinite. Storage at certain time t is the difference between the
vol- umes of water input and output. The difference between
time of arrival and time of runout at a certain time is called delay.
The max- imum storage capacity can be defined by the height at
tin. The con- dition where outflow becomes constant is called
the state of equilibrium which occurs between t 0 and tin. The
total amount of effective water flowing through the pavement
can be obtained by
Published by NRC Research Press
662 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 41, 2014

Fig. 2. Time and space model with different types of discharge: (a–c) typical hydrographs and (d–f) cumulative hydrographs.

Fig. 3. Cumulative hydrograph.

integrating the area between the supply and demand curves. 4. Model explanation through rainfall simulation
There- fore, the total effectiveness concept was used and defined as
the area, E (L·min), in eq. (1), wherein higher values of E yield better 4.1. Experimental profile and rainfall simulation
hydrologic performance (storage capacity and delay effectiveness) To explain the concept of cumulative water flow versus time
of the perme- able pavement. based on the experimental results, various types of pavement
were constructed in the pavement acceleration laboratory of the
Korea Expressway Corporation. A rainfall simulation
experiment
1 was performed. The pavement structures of dense graded asphalt
(1) E [q t t ) q (t t )]
(t
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662 1 in 1 0 in s Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 41, 2014

2 (AP), permeable block (PBP), porous concrete (PCP), and porous
0
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Lin et al. 663

Table 1. Material properties.

Bedding Base Sub-base
Property PBP PCP PAP AP sand aggregate aggregate
Maximum dry density (ton/m3) 2.35 2.31 2.26 2.32 2.05 2.24 2.29
Specific gravity 2.48 2.48 2.35 2.36 2.86 2.90 2.35
Void ratio 0.06 0.29 0.19 0.12 0.39 0.29 0.03
Porosity (%) 0.05 22.75 15.99 10.37 28.00 23.00 3.00
Note: PBP, permeable block; PCP, porous concrete; PAP, porous asphalt; AP, asphalt.
in Fig. 5d. No runoff was recorded for the rainfall intensities of
asphalt (PAP) were constructed for the experiments. The dimen- 100 mm/h and 150 mm/h for the permeable pavements expect for
sions of each section were 6 m by 1.4 m. A surface slope of 2% was AP. This is
formed in the transverse direction. Cross-sections of the test pave-
ment structures were 80 mm thick block paver and 30 mm thick
bedding sand were used for the permeable block pavement. The
thickness of porous concrete and porous asphalt was 100 mm.
The thickness of the permeable granular base at all sections
was
200 mm. The permeable block and porous asphalt had 300 mm of
sub-base, and porous concrete had 50 mm of filter layer instead
of sub-base. Permeable block was used for the surface layer
materi- als, while ordinary materials were used for porous
concrete and porous asphalt. The bedding sand and permeable
granular base used particle sizes suggested by Interpave (2008)
and Louisiana State (Tao and Abu-Farsakh 2008), respectively. The
material prop- erties used were evaluated and are presented
in Table 1. For the unbonded materials proctor test was used to
determine the moisture–density relationship between soils and
soil aggregate mixtures in accordance with AASHTO T 99
(2010a). The specific gravity was conducted in accordance with
the AASHTO T 85 (2010b), while bulk density and void ratio were
in accordance with AASHTO T 19 (2009). For the bonded
materials, a simple test was conducted based on gravimetric
differences between measure- ment in the air and water. Hence,
its void ratio was determined by calculating the difference in
weight between the oven dried and the water saturated samples
(Park and Tia 2004). The core speci- mens were taken in AP,
PCP, and PAP; the other materials were sampled directly from
the site. Three specimens were tested for each material, and
mean values were used as the result.
For AP, the outflow collected at the surface only, while for the
permeable pavement the outflow collected at the surface, sub-
base, and sub-grade. The rainfall simulation system utilized a
water tank supplying inflow, a flow gauge measuring inflow, a
sprinkling pipe, and automatic outflow gauges. The detail infor-
mation is shown in Fig. 4.

4.2. Experimental results

4.2.1. Outflow
Rainfall simulation experiments were performed at three levels
of rainfall intensity: 100, 150, and 200 mm/h. Different durations
of rainfall (sprinkling time) were applied, and sprinkling water
stopped after total outflow became constant. Figure 5 shows the
results when the rainfall intensity was 200 mm/h. The figures in
5a, 5c, and 5e show a typical hydrograph and Figs. 5b, 5d, 5f illus-
trate the cumulative flow hydrograph that indicates peak dis-
charge, delay time, total delay, and maximum storage capacity.
The maximum storage capacity is the maximum amount of water
contained in the pavement structure at the time when rainfall
event stopped. It is determined at the end of the equilibrium
state. It can be greater than long-term storage capacity, but the
latter should not be treated as the former because rainwater
will con- tinue to be discharged out of the system.
Meanwhile, as shown in Fig. 5b and 5f, at the rainfall intensity
of
200 mm/h, runoff did not occur in either PBP or PAP, and the gap
between input and output was nearly the same. However, a
runoff of about 15% of the inflow took place in PCP and the gap
between input and output was bigger than PBP or PAP as shown
 Lin et al. 663

Fig. 4. (a) Cross-section of the pavement and (b) rainfall simulation

experiment system.

attributed to the free drainage system of the test which inhibits

the generation of runoff on the surface of the pavement
structure at 100 mm/h and 150 mm/h. Instead, the rainwater has
permeated into the sublayer.
Table 2 shows the experimental results for the relationship be-
tween inflow and outflow related to rainfall intensity. Regardless
of rainfall intensity, outflows were approximately 78% of inflow
for PBP, 75% for PCP, and 84% for PAP. As a result, compared to the
AP, permeable pavements used in this study reduced total
outflow by approximately 10 20%, as shown using Toutflow. It also
lists the qloss
quantified by the difference between qin and qout for different
types
of pavement. This parameter represents the amounts of water
that
were evaporated, leaked, and stored in the pavement. Considering
the area of each test section, 10 20 L/m2 water could be stored in
the pavement structure by assuming that no water was
evaporated or leaked. There were no significant differences of
outflow among per- meable pavement types; and more than 80%
outflow rates were ob- served in all pavement types. This is
probably due to the free drainage system used in the rainfall
simulation test.

4.2.2. Start delay and peak flow time

Start delay in the cumulative hydrograph is defined as the start
time of outflow at the drainage channel from the pavement
struc- ture. Since free drainage system was used in the rainfall
simula- tion test, this parameter was dimensionless for the
pavement, and
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664 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 41, 2014

Fig. 5. Outflow related to rain intensity and pavement type: (a–b) permeable block pavement, (c–d) porous concrete pavement, and
(e–f) porous asphalt pavement.

it is only related to the rain intensity, infiltration capacity, and
pavement thickness. The experiment was performed after wet-
ting each type of pavement. Figure 6 shows the trend of start
delay depending on rainfall intensity on each type of permeable
pave- ment. The start delay for PBP and PCP is recorded at about
13 min and 9 min for PAP during 100 mm/h rain intensity. Start
delay decreases as the rainfall intensity increases for each type of
pave- ment and reaches 3 to 4 min at 200 mm/h rain intensity.
testing. Regardless of rain intensity, it takes around 3 5 min to
achieve peak flow rate in AP. For PBP and PCP, reaching peak
flow rate takes about 15 20 min after rainfall. For PAP,
variation of peak flow rate according to rain intensity was large at
10 20 min. All sections of the peak flow time were shortened by
5 9 min if the rain intensity increases from 100 mm/h to 200
mm/h.

Peak flow time is defined as the sum of the overland sheet flow 107 × n1 × W
1/3
(2) t0
travel time (t0) and travel time in the channel (tch) of the most
hydrological remote point. Equation (2) below was used to esti- S1
mate the overland sheet flow travel time (t0). Equation (3) is
known as Manning’s Equation. It was used to calculate the travel where t0 is overland sheet flow travel time (min), W is the flow
time in the channel (tch), Both eq. (2) and eq. (3) were used to path length of the overland sheet (m), n1 is Manning’s roughness
generalize the peak flow time from the real dimension of test value for the surface, and S1 is the slope of the overland surface (%).
section from 6 m by 1.4 m to a unit area 1 m by 1 m.
Figure 7 shows the peak flow time at different rainfall intensi-
2
ties. Single trial was conducted for each pavement type. Surface n2 × L
(3) tch R3 s2
and base layer of the pavement systems were fully wet before 60
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Lin et al. 665

Table 2. Outflow amount related to rain intensity and pavement type. Fig. 8. Maximum storage capacity related to pavement type.
qout(L)*
Pavement
Rainfall qloss Toutflow Ofr
type
intensity (mm/h) qin (L) sr sf (L) (%)† (%)‡
PBP 100 616 0 448 168 73 84
150 693 0 561 132 81 93
200 784 0 624 161 80 83
PCP 100 616 0 453 163 74 96
150 609 0 477 132 78 80
200 868 130 530 208 76 81
PAP 100 616 0 523 93 85 98
150 546 0 476 70 87 84
200 700 0 559 141 80 81
AP 100 616 579 0 37 94 96
150 336 327 0 9 97 96
200 336 318 0 27 95 95
*sr is runoff and sf is sub layer outflow.
†
Toutflow is defined as the ratio of qout to qin.
‡Outflow rate (O , %) is quantified as the ratio of peak discharge rate to rain
fr Fig. 9. Total effectiveness related to pavement type.
intensity.

Fig. 6. Start delay related to rain intensity.

rainfall event has stopped. The average value of the maximum

storage capacity of PBP is measured as 40 L/m2. PCP and PAP can
keep 35 L/m2 and 30 L/m2 in the pavement, respectively. It can also
be noted that the maximum storage capacity increases with in-
Fig. 7. Peak flow time related to rain intensity.
creasing rainfall intensity. This is due to the increase in rainwater
inflow while outflow is constrained since it has reached its maxi-
mum discharge flow rate capacity.
The total effectiveness is calculated by eq. (1). To compare the
re- sults of the total effectiveness among the different types of
pave- ment, all test results are converted into equivalent total
effectiveness for 11 min, which is the minimum rainfall simulation
duration of AP with 200 mm/h rain intensity. Figure 9 indicates the
total effective- ness relative to different types of pavement. PCP
showed the best performance in all test sections. Each type of
pavement was com- pared as a ratio of concrete pavement total
effectiveness, since it showed the highest performance. Hence
permeable block pavement and porous asphalt have values of 95%
and 81%, respectively.

5. Summary and conclusions

where tch is travel time in the channel (min), n2 is Manning’s
rough- ness value for the channel surface, L is the length of reach
(m), R is the hydraulic radius (m), and S2 is the slope of the channel
(%).
4.2.3. Maximum storage capacity and total effectiveness
Figure 8 shows the maximum storage capacity related to the
pavement type and rainfall intensity. Storage capacity is defined
as the difference between input and output volume after the
This paper presents a time and space model using the concept
of cumulative water flow considering both surface and sub-layer
outflow, to improve the existing permeable pavement analysis
method that focuses only on the surface. This concept makes it
possible to explain the characteristics of rainfall storage of per-
meable pavement, reduction of surface outflow, delay of surface
outflow, and decrease in peak outflow. In addition, the proposed
concept distinguishes permeable pavements from the existing
impermeable pavement in terms of hydraulic characteristics.
Through a rainfall simulation experiment, elements such as
delay effects of rainfall outflow, pavement storage capacity, peak
out- flow, etc., can be explained. A comparison of the model
applied
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666
for different types of pavement was performed. The results are as
follows based on the acquired data from the test:
• Regardless of rainfall intensity, outflow quantities were ap-
proximately 78% of inflow for permeable block pavement
(PBP),
75% for porous concrete pavement (PCP), and 84% for porous
asphalt pavement (PAP). As a result, compared to the dense
graded asphalt pavement (AP), permeable pavements used in
this research reduced total outflow by approximately 10 20%.
As the rain intensity increased, peak discharge rate increased
linearly reading above 80% from all pavement types.
• The start delay of permeable pavements used in the test de-
creased from 9 13 min to 3 to 4 min as the rainfall intensity
increased from 100 to 200 mm/h. Furthermore, the peak flow
time was shortened from 20 min to 10 min as the rain intensity
increased. It was confirmed that, compared to the peak flow
time measured from AP, the permeable pavement exhibited
approximately 5 10 min delay effect.
• Regardless of rainfall intensity, the maximum storage capacity
of porous pavement systems used in this study is 30 40 L/m2.
The porous concrete pavement (PCP) showed the best
hydrologic performance compared to the other permeable
pavement sys- tems used in this case study.
Acknowledgement
This research was supported by the National Research Founda-
tion of Korea Grant funded by the Korean Government (MOE). We
are very grateful for their strong support.
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