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14 Septembre 2018
1 Marc François
0 Rappels de conventions du
calcul indiciel
2
0.1 Convention d’Einstein
Tout indice répété deux fois est un indice muet, sommé.
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3
0.2 Symbole de Kronecker δ
Définition :
⇢
= 1 si i = j
ij
= 0 si i 6= j
Ex. l’ identité du second ordre I a pour composantes <latexit sha1_base64="v/NUcNu9SO35h7YZa+BCrofVYzI=">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</latexit>
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4
0.3 Symbole de Levi-Civita
Le symbole de Levi-Civita (ou de permutation circulaire) :
Remarque
Nous verrons que ces 3 conventions sont associées au calcul
tensoriel, plus précisément au principe d’objectivité. 5
1 Tenseurs en bases canonique
6
1.1 Définition
Wikipedia
Principe d’objectivité
~ t)
du temps t : ui (X,
c’est un champ de vecteurs. <latexit sha1_base64="I6ve6K2Np4Acd3BgB/9yUPtma7Y=">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</latexit>
de composantes :
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<latexit sha1_base64="W61lIhL+gCPWH+UUsavPMAI5RPs=">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</latexit>
<latexit sha1_base64="WsYFH7fj0UjCA6hWeucVxD2/XV4=">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</latexit>
12
1.8 Simple contraction
L’opération de contraction revient à effectuer un produit scalaire
entre les termes les plus proches :
13
Simple contraction entre un tenseur du second ordre et un du
premier ordre (vecteur) :
".~n = "ij (~ei ⌦ ~ej ).nk~ek
= "ij nk~ei (~ej .~ek )
= "ij nk~ei jk
".~n = "ij nj ~ei
(".~n)i = "ij nj
Le calcul correspond à celui d’un produit matrice-vecteur. Le
résultat est un vecteur.
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14
Simple contraction entre deux tenseurs du second ordre :
A.B = Aij Bkl (~ei ⌦ ~ej ).(~ek ⌦ ~el )
= Aij Bkl (~ei ⌦ ~el ) jk
= Aik Bkl (~ei ⌦ ~el )
(A.B)il = Aik Bkl
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16
1.9 Double et n-contraction
On étend la règle des contractions de proche en proche. Le
nombre de «.» correspond au nombre de contraction.
<latexit sha1_base64="yu2NpfaslMqmM+/De4hgOHaI4K0=">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</latexit>
18
1.10 Produit scalaire pour les tenseurs
Si on contracte n fois deux tenseurs d’ordre n on définit le
produit scalaire pour les tenseurs d’ordre n.
Généralisation :
<latexit sha1_base64="gCgfOE1Ya4wN64Yr51Xu0yWih7c=">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</latexit>
20
Exemples : le produit scalaire possède le même sens physique
que la simple contraction pour les vecteurs : il mesure la
contribution des deux éléments. Par exemple :
<latexit sha1_base64="o0p9agBD0+pjVfSPURY+Uwfyihs=">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</latexit>
21
1.11 Applications : calculs intrinsèques
L’utilisation de l’opérateur ⊗ entre deux tenseurs permet
beaucoup de simplifications.
22
?
Projecteur sur un plan : ~u 2 3
1 0 0
? 4 5
Cas particulier du plan ~e3 P[~e?
3 ]
0 1 0
0 0 0
?
Symétrie par rapport au plan : ~u 2 3
1 0 0
~
e
Cas particulier du plan 3?
S[~e? ]
40 1 05
3
0 0 1
Expression intrinsèque :
S[~u? ] = I 2~u ⌦ ~u
Sij = ij 2ui uj
23
Tenseur des contraintes pour une traction selon ~u
2 3
0 0
Cas particulier de la direction ~e1 40 0 05
0 0 0
Expression intrinsèque :
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24
Déformation dans une direction ~u
L L+ΔL
E.I. E.F.
25
Calcul d’une composante (ici la 11) d’un tenseur dans une
~ i avec un tenseur exprimé en base ~ei :
base E
⌃11 = ~1 ⌦ E
:E ~1
= (~
ij ie ⌦ ~e j ) : ( ~
E 1 ⌦ ~
E 1)
⌃11 = ij (~
~ 1 )(~ej .E
ei .E ~ 1)
{
On n’utilise qu’une partie de la matrice de changement de base
c’est donc plus rapide que de changer de base.
~ 1 = (x1 , x2 , x3 )~e
Pratiquement, si l’on pose E i
2 3 2 3
⇥ ⇤ 11 12 13 x1
⌃11 = x1 x2 x3 . 4 21 22
5 4 5
23 . x2
31 32 33 x3
ou encore : 2 3 2 3
11 12 13 x1 x1 x1 x2 x1 x3
⌃11 = 4 21 22
5 4
23 : x2 x1 x2 x2 x2 x3 5
31 32 33 x3 x1 x3 x2 x3 x3
26
2 Changement de base
orthonormée
27
2.0 Décomposition orthogonale de l’identité
Le théorème de la décomposition orthogonale de l’identité
indique qu’un vecteur est somme de ses projections
orthogonales :
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<latexit sha1_base64="kScdygLwElfq+DMkd0LauLZ92UI=">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</latexit>
<latexit sha1_base64="LCTjgQjNywpnb6k6VkjLdPiLi2I=">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</latexit>
28
2.1 Changement de base orthonormée des
vecteurs
~i .
On nomme «l’ancienne base» ~ei et la «nouvelle base» E
~i
=) E = Pji~ej ~e1
~i ~e2
E = T
Pij ~ej
~e3
29
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Pij est une matrice orthogonale :
~ei ~k
= Pik E det(P.P ) = det(I) = 1
T
ij = Pik Pjk
ij = T
Pik Pkj
=) Pli 1
ij = 1 T
Pli Pik Pkj
Plj 1
= T
lk Pkj
=) Plj 1
= T
Plj ou encore P 1
=P . T
~u ~j
= Uj E ~
U = uj ~ej
= Uj Pkj ~ek ~k
= uj Pjk E
~u.~ei = Uj Pkj ~ek .~ei ~ .E
U ~i ~ k .E
= uj Pjk E ~i
ui = Pij Uj Ui = PijT uj
Aspects pratiques
31
2.2 Changement de base orthonormée des
tenseurs d’ordre quelconque
Soit un tenseur du second ordre :
= ep ⌦ ~eq
pq ~
= P P
pq pi qj i E~ ⌦ ~
E j
~i ⌦ E
= ⌃ij E ~j par définition
=) ⌃ij = T T
Pip Pjq pq
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32
Le changement de base inverse :
ij = Pip Pjq ⌃pq
On voit la continuité avec la formule vue pour les tenseurs du
premier ordre ( ui = Pij Uj ).
34
3 Rotations et symétries de
tenseurs
35
3.1 Différence entre rotation et changement
de repère
La rotation (ou translation) est physique, le changement de
repère ne l’est pas. Bien que mathématiquement proches, ce
sont des concepts différents.
Rotation
Changement de base 4
36
3.2 Rotation
La matrice de rotation défini les tournés des tenseurs de base :
R(~ej ) = Rij ~ei
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i
~e
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37
on a conservation des angles : Pour un vecteur :
R(~ej ).R(~el ) = jl ~v = R(~u)
Rij ~ei .Rkl~ek = jl = R(uj ~ej )
~ei .~ek = ik = uj R(~ej ) = uj Rij ~ei
Rij Ril = jl ) vi = Rij uj
Rij Rli = jl
T
, Rij = Rij1 T
depuis
det(R.R ) = det(I) = 1 Attention !
t
39
3.3 Projections et symétries de tenseurs
Les formules précédentes sont encore valables pour les
opérations de projection ou de symétrie, depuis les matrices que
nous avons étudié précédemment.
40
4 Objectivité
41
4.1 Motivation
Principe d’objectivité : un résultat de calcul ne peut dépendre du
repère dans lequel on l’effectue.
Les opérations que nous avons mené sur les tenseurs sont-elles
objectives ?
42
4.2 Objectivité de la contraction
L’opération de contraction entre deux tenseurs est objective. Par
ex. le calcul de la contraction entre un tenseur du second ordre
et un vecteur :
~v = a.~u
vi = aij uj Calcul effectué dans l’ancienne base
Pik Vk = Pil Pjm Pjn Alm Un
| {z }
mn
44
La contraction au sein d’un tenseur comme Aikkj est aussi
objective. Preuve : on peut la ramener à une contraction entre
deux tenseurs :
A = B⌦C
() Aijkl = Bij Ckl
D = B.C
() Dil = Bij Cjl = Aijjl
Preuve :
(~u ^ ~v )i = ⇧ijk uj vk~ei ~p
= ⇧ijk Pjq Uq Pkr Vr Pip E
~p
= ⇧ijk Pip Pjq Pkr Uq Vr E
avec ∏ le symbole de Levi-Civita :
⇧ijk = 1 si (i, j, k) 2 {(1, 2, 3), (2, 3, 1), (3, 1, 2)}
= 1 si (i, j, k) 2 {(1, 3, 2), (3, 2, 1), (2, 1, 3)}
= 0 sinon
cas p=q :
⇧ijk Pip Pjp Pkr = ⇧ijk ij Pkr =0
car ⇧ijk = 0, si (i = j) et ij = 0, si (i 6= j)
46
idem pour les cas q=r ou p=r
Au bilan on a :
⇧ijk Pip Pjq Pkr = ⇧pqr
et donc :
~p
⇧ijk uj vk~ei = ⇧pqr Uq Vr E
ce qui montre que le produit vectoriel est objectif !
Contre-exemple :
~u = ~e1
~e2
~2 ~1 k~uk1 = |u1 | + |u2 | + |u3 |
E E
~u Base ~ei k~uk1 = 1
p
~e1 ~i
Base E k~uk1 = 2
49
5.1 Définition
Un invariant est une fonction scalaire d’un tenseur dont le
résultat ne dépend pas de la base.
50
5.2 Invariant d’un vecteur
Pour les vecteurs, seule la norme euclidienne est un
invariant (l’invariance vient du produit scalaire).
En 2D :
un angle + 1 norme = 2 dimensions
En 3D :
deux angles (la rotation propre
n’intervient pas sur le vecteur qui y est insensible !) et 1 norme
= 3 dimensions.
51
5.3 Invariants d’un tenseur symétrique du
second ordre
Un tenseur A symétrique possède 6 composantes (DDL)
indépendantes car Aij = Aji .
52
On forme un premier invariant pas contraction avec δ : on
obtient la trace du tenseur.
trace(A) = I : A = ij Aij = Aii
53
alheureusement 1 souvent enseigné,
1
J2 = 2 (⇥.⇥) : I = 2 trace(⇥.⇥) il existe non pas « les inv
Quelques autres
es plus utilisés jeux
1sont :
d’invariants
1
indépendants :
J = (⇥.⇥.⇥) : I = trace(⇥.⇥.⇥)
3
• Les valeurs3propres : ( 1, 2 ,2 3 ) (souvent oubliés…).
associés
atifs au théorème
à lainvariants
• Les décomposition de Cayley-Hamilton,
éponyme)
de Rivlin-Ericksen c’est à dire
(plus mécaniques…)
caractéristiques :
J1 = ⇥ : I = trace(⇥)
1 1 1
J2 = 2 (⇥.⇥) : I = 2 trace(⇥.⇥)
3 2 = k k 2
det(⇥
1 ⇥ ⇤I ) =1 ⇥⇤ + I1 ⇤ ⇥ I22⇤ + I3
J3 = 3 (⇥.⇥.⇥) : I = 3 trace(⇥.⇥.⇥)
⇥.⇥.⇥ ⇥ I1 ⇥.⇥ + I2 ⇥ ⇥ I3 I = 0
nt associés au théorème
• Les invariants de Cayley-Hamilton,
de Cayley-Hamilton c’est à dire q
(plus matheux…)
I1 = trace(⇥)
me caractéristiques :
1 2
⇥
I2 = trace(⇥) ⇥ trace(⇥.⇥)
2 3 2
det(⇥ ⇤I ) =
I3 = det(⇥) ⇤ + I1 ⇤ I2 ⇤ + I3
propriétéI1: ⇥.⇥
⇥.⇥.⇥ I = 3 0+ I1
det( + I2 ⇥I) I3= 2
I2 + I3
0 = . . I1 . + I2 I3 I
I1 = trace(⇥)
10 ⇥ 54
Il existe des relations entre les jeux d’invariants.
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variation de volume :
EI EF
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vrai dans le repère principal donc vrai dans tout repère car la
trace est un invariant ! 55
Représentation spectrale d’un tenseur symétrique du second
ordre
57
6 Cas des bases non
orthonormées
58
6.1 Motivation
Dans certains problèmes comme la théorie des coques, il est
plus simple de considérer un repère qui suit la forme, et sera
non orthogonal.
59
6.2 Notations
Le vecteur ~u s’écrit dans sa base ~e2
2
non orthonormée comme : u ~u
~u = ui~ei ~e1
1
u
u ~ei = U Pj ~ek
i j k
(car ~ek est une base)
) u = Pj U
i i j
(P )i u
1 k i
= U (P )i Pj
j 1 k i
=U j
kj
)U k
= (P )i u
1 k i
61
8
Soit, en écriture matricielle (2D) :
1 1
U (P 1 )11 (P )2
1 1
u
2 = · 2
U (P 1 )21 (P )2
1 2
u
1 1 1
u P1 P21 U
2 = ·
u P12 P22 U2
~ i en ligne. D’où la
Au contraire on rangera les covariants ~ei ou E
forme «étrange» de l’équation *. 62
6.4 Formes linéaires
1
u
Une forme linéaire associe un scalaire à un vecteur ~u 2
u
Dans une base, on a (en 2D) : l(~u) = l1 u1 + l2 u2
ls u s
= Lk (P )j u
1 k j
Pour tous les u possibles
lj = Lk (P )j
1 k
j 1 k j
l j Pi = Lk (P )j Pi
j
l j Pi = Lk ik
j
Li = l j Pi
63
Soit, en écriture matricielle et en 2D :
1
⇥ ⇤ ⇥ ⇤ P1 P21
L1 L2 = l1 l2 ·
P12 P22
Matriciellement et en 2D :
<latexit sha1_base64="kv7W6zNnxVDPQLm3jJViDvGqZ+k=">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</latexit>
64
Exemples de formes linéaires
covariantes. On note
l’effet «d’inversion» de la variance par la division…
{
<latexit sha1_base64="Mln1WR+Z2BCcvqg4OUqBmEozHy8=">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</latexit>
6 0
=
Il faut considérer que les composantes li sont relatives à une
i
autre base : la base duale ~e (indices en haut).
~l.~u = (l1~e 1 + l2~e 2 ).(u1~e1 + u2~e2 ) = l1 u1 + l2 u2
à condition que : ~e i .~ej = ij
i
Ceci définit la base duale ~e et donc les composantes
l ~
l ~
covariantes i de lui sont relatives : l = li~e = l ~ej
i j
66
La base duale est nécessaire pour extraire les composantes :
~u = u ~ei
i
<latexit sha1_base64="CWary1N8jx/9mmLwtY6/wcdY69o=">AAAMsnicpVZfbxJBEB/UakXUVhNffPAisTHGNNA00ReT/qFpSU2KgdLWXiF3x0LPHnd4f2gbwrvxG/oN9M2P4MywEISDPetd4GZn9/ebndnd2TE7jh2EudyP1K3bdxbu3lu8n36Qefjo8dLyk2rgRb4lDi3P8fxj0wiEY7viMLRDRxx3fGG0TUccmRfb1H/UFX5ge24lvO6Is7bRcu2mbRkhqupL33VTtGy3J766hu8b12/6ab0rrF7U162GF7Is+vrb2peVDytRzdakpm5P9ut6Wv/ouS3fbp2HyOVdahGjtBmEaV24jTHD9aVsbjXHjzYt5KWQBfmUvOWFb6BDAzywIII2CHAhRNkBAwJ8TyEPOeig7gx6qPNRsrlfQB/SiI1wlMARBmov8L+FrVOpdbFNnAGjLbTi4M9HpAavEOPhOB9lsqZxf8TMpJ3F3WNOmts1fk3J1UZtCOeoVeGGI5PiyJcQmvCefbDRpw5ryDtLskQcFZq5NuZViAwd1JHcwH4fZYuRwzhrjAnYd4qtwf0/eSRpqW3JsRH84lmm0Z4GFdYGMlYBW4jwfx1/FOEGc5BPLn4vObZt9tbFvh7qt3Hu9B1GwMS3x9q+AnegQPo8t3h0KRZbSoQtx2LLyhkXY3FFJa4QiysocfuxuH0l7iQWd6LElWBvZlRrY1ofpR6PVfHFex7PN4zHvF0Z8M732ELS/VnGFdqV8zA5czRGZ55apA/wVLUYpfJpwLb3D3w3idzASuG/rKj31w6uRFlho8v5hHJZwJmJYp+MVxWjeOabRGtgTxWtpPbUcduc2tVNbG8qcVuxuK0E/sXhdhKcv02My3S2aybOlNMZqJkoAxVjTn5zLFfSGT+Qd5rBN9nwnHtcGZzjt8UrFMGV4qRM3iJ0Azqczw/GrO3IfEI7YnBXzmOtzOCsKD3fnYHcTbDKDp9kkikiV1wLhLzSzigzkS8F1DfxFXLtaJzAMY7MhPNWtDExv8Geb4yxF3mszfUCrYjg+oLmQxVJwFyhzMk+amxuqezWkZ9qQKp96jEzyGJfP9GerI0x1RRM5E91VC0N9ti8NehyNTqULJSEct2qo/M5xMiTiTV0frJinhaqa6v53Gr+01p2Y0tW04vwHF7Ca/TjHWxg/ivBIfL+Tj1LvUhpmfXM54yRsQZDb6Uk5in89WScP7a+nLs=</latexit>
Et, de même :
<latexit sha1_base64="El95kjAXvEr1kYnwxmG/o6w0dbs=">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</latexit>
67
Construction de la base duale (~e 1 , ~e 2 )
en supposant la base normée.
u2
Depuis ~e .~ej =
i
ij
~e 2
1. ~e 1 ?~e2 , ~e 2 ?~e1 ~e2
~u.~e2
2. ~e .~e1 = 1,
1
~e .~e2 = 1
2
2
u ~u
1 ~e1
u ~u.~e1
La propriété <latexit sha1_base64="CRRyvWrVq6lKY6XNqBlFVCaTXhE=">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</latexit>
correspond au théorème
de Thales ! 1
~e
u1
68
La base duale permet un calcul simple de la matrice de passage
~i :
de ~ei vers E
~1
E = ~e1 P1 + ~e2 P1
1 2
~ 1 .~e 2
E = ~e1 .~e 2 P11 + ~e2 .~e 2 P12
| {z } | {z }
0 1
) 2
P1 ~
= E1 .~e 2
Généralisation :
i
Pj ~j
= ~e .E i
69
6.6 Tenseur métrique
On peut avoir besoin des composantes (contravariantes) de ~l
l i
l u (~ej .~ei ) = lk u
j i k
8~u
lj (~ej .~ei ) = li
li = gij l j
70
l i
= g lj ij ~l.~u = l gij u
i j
Forme duale et
g ij = ~e i .~e j = li g uj
ij
71
6.7 Produit scalaire
Le produit scalaire de deux vecteurs :
<latexit sha1_base64="d0VRCO9irBVDlpTfmGZCgajFTbU=">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</latexit>
73
6.9 n-Contractions
La contraction, pour rester objective, doit réaliser un produit
scalaire entre un covariant avec un contravariant :
A.B = (Ak~ei ⌦ ~e ).(Bj ~el ⌦ ~e )
i k l j
= i k
Ak Bj ~ei ⌦ ~e j
) (A.B)j
i
= i k
Ak Bj
Par construction, le tenseur métrique permet de transformer les
indices covariants en contravariants comme pour les vecteurs.
Par exemple : ij ik j
A = g Ak
Aij = gik gjl Akl
74
6.10 Changements de bases des tenseurs
Les règles sont les mêmes que pour les bases orthonormées,
mais en faisant attention de nouveau à la variance des indices.
1 q
Ex. ik
Ajl = (P )p (P
1 i
)j (P )r (P
1 k
)l aqs
1 s pr
75
6.11 Objectivité
Toujours en faisant attention à la variance des indices, on peut
montrer que les opérations de contraction etc… sont objectives.
Ex. ~v = a.~u
vi = j
ai uj vi = Pik Vk
Pik Vk = Pir (P )s Pj
1 j l
Ul Asr uj = l
Pj Ul
| {z } j
ai = Pi (P
r
)s Ar
1 j s
sl
k
Pi V k = r l
Pi Ul Ar
(P )q Pi Vk
1 i k
= (P )q Pi
1 i r l
Ul Ar
| {z } | {z }
kq rq
Vq = l
Aq Ul
76
6.12 La base orthonormée
Dès que l’on peut, on utilise des bases orthonormées.
C’est à dire quasiment tout le temps sauf pour les coques et
membranes non planes. Cela entraîne une série de
simplifications :
E~ j = ~ei Pji Pij = Pij = Pji
1 t
~ei = ~e i
gij = ij =) Pj = ~ei .E
i ~j
On n’a plus besoin de distinguer co- et contra- variance : on
«ramène» tous les indices «en bas» et l’on retrouve les formules
vues précédemment.
u1 P11 P21 U1
= ·
u2 P12 P22 U2
U1 P11 P12 u1 ⇥ ⇤ ⇥ ⇤ P11 P12
= · () L1 L2 = l1 l2 ·
U2 P21 P22 u2 P21 P22
77
Bibliographie
78
Les tenseurs en mécanique et en élasticité, Léon Brillouin, Masson,
1960.
80