MESRI, G., ROKHSAR,A. & BOHOR, B. F. (1975). GPotechnique25, No. 3, 527-554.

Composition and compressibility of typical samples

of Mexico City clay

G. MESRI,* A. ROKHSARt and B. F. BOHORS

Composition and compressibility characteristics of Les caract&istiques de la composition et compres-

Mexico City clay were investigated using samples sibilitC de l’argile de Mexico ont Bt6 examinees en
with natural water contents in the range of 421- utilisant des Bchantillons ayant une teneur en eau
574%. The composition study included scanning naturelle de 421% & 574%. L’ttude de la com-
electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and chemical position a compris un examen au microscope
analyses, as well as measurements of physical Clectronique, la diffraction aux rayons-X et des
properties. Compressibility characteristics were analyses chimiques, aussi bien que des mesures de
investigated by means of one-dimensional consolida- proprittts physiques. Les CaractCristiques de com-
pressibilite ont &e examinCes & l’aide d’essais de
tion tests run on specimens in the following states:
consolidation g une dimension sur des echantillons
natural undisturbed, artificially sedimented, re-
dans les conditions suivantes: nature1 intact, depose
moulded at natural water content, remoulded-aged, artificiellement, remanie & la teneur en eau naturelle
and hydrogen peroxide treated. The primary et trait&s au peroxyde d’hydrogkne. Le premier
objective was to study the secondary compressibility objectif Ctait d’btudier la compressibilitB secondaire
of Mexico City clay with special reference to the de l’argile de Mexico avec une rtfbrence speciale
effects of previous secondary compression and aux effets de compression secondaire prealables et de
thixotropic hardening. Compositional analysis in- durcissement thixotropique. L’analyse de la com-
dicated 5-10% sand-sized particles, most of which position a indique 5% &. 10% de particules de la
are calcareous ooliths (the remainder of this size taille de sable, dont la plupart sont des oolithes
fraction is a suite of heavy minerals); 55-65x of calcaires (le resie de cette fraction est un ensemble de
the whole sample is composed of silt-sized siliceous mineraux lourds): 55% ti 65”/, de tout l’&hantillon
microfossils, mostly diatoms; 2(t30°% is composed sont des microf&silessiliceux, pour la plupart des
diatom&es, de la taille du limon; 20% & 30% sont
of clay-sized particles, of which an estimated 10%
compos& de particules de la taille de l’argile dont
are smectite and the rest biogenic and volcanogenic une estimation de 10% est du smectique et le reste
silica; the remaining 5-10% is organic matter. est de la silice biogenique et volcanique. Les 5% B
Based on test results it was hypothesized that the 10% restant sont de la matiere organique. Base sur
smectite in Mexico City clay is interlayered with des r&ultats d’essai, on a fait l’hypoth&se que le
hydroxide complexes of aluminium, iron and smectique dans l’argile de Mexico est intercall de
possibly magnesium. Primary and secondary com- couches de complexes de l’hydroxide d’aluminium,
pressibilities are interrelated. During sustained de fer et peut-&re de magnksium. I1 y a un rapport
entre les compressibilit&s primaires et secondaires.
loading secondary compression and thixotropic
Pendant un long chargement, des compressions
hardening take place simultaneously. After sus- secondaires et durcissements thixotropiques ont lieu
tained secondary compression there is a decrease in simultankment. Une compression secondaire sou-
primary as well as secondary compressibility for tenue diminue la comprCssibilit6 primaire aussi bien
pressure increments less than the reserve consolida- que secondaire pour des augmentations de pression
tion pressure. Thixotropic hardening, however, infkrieures ?I la pression de consolidation de r&serve.
increases the viscous resistance, and thereby Cependant, le durcissement thixotropique augmente
decreases the amount of compression during primary la rCsistance visqueuse, et par 18diminue l’importance
consolidation, but increases the rate of secondary de la compression pendant la consolidation primaire,
mais augmente le degrC de compression secondaire.
compression. The structural resistance which
La rCsistance structurale qui se d&eloppe pendant la
develops during sustained secondary compression compression secondaire soutenue, diminue le degrC
decreases the rate of primary consolidation during de consolidation primaire pendant l’augmentation
the subsequent increment and results in computed subskquente, et aboutit g des permeabilites estimkes,
permeabilities which are less than the true perme- qui sont infbrieures ?t la perm&abilitB rtelle de la
ability of the soil fabric. mat&e du sol.
* Associate Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana.
t Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, Tehran Polytechnic, Iran.
$ Associate Geologist, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana.

Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 528 G. MESRI, A. ROKHSAR AND B. F. BOHOR

Mexico City clay, ranging in thickness from 15 m to 40 m, underlies most of the urban areas of
Mexico City. It has been the source of many serious engineering problems (Zeevaert, 1949,
1953a, 1953b, 1957a, 1957b; Marsal and Mazari, 1959).
Mexico City clay is a classic example of a difficult and unusual soil. It has been described
as very organic, montmorillonitic, thixotropic and very sensitive. Whereas its plasticity index
commonly exceeds 300%, it exhibits angles of shearing resistances in the range 34-47” (Lo,
1962; Alberro and Santoyo, 1973). When remoulded samples of Mexico City clay were
allowed to rest at constant water content, the secant modulus of elasticity and undrained
compressive strength increased by 300% and 200x, respectively, in 260 days (Zeevaert, 1949).
However, in unconfined creep-strength tests at constant water content the shear strength of
undisturbed Mexico City clay was reduced by 20% when the time to failure was increased
from one minute to about thirty days (Casagrande and Wilson, 1951).
By far the most distinct characteristic of Mexico City clay is its extremely high compressi-
bility. The general subsidence of the ground surface and the large settlement of buildings and
other structures in Mexico City provide a well-known demonstration of this property; the
city is settling. Its extremely high delayed compressibility combined with the stratigraphic
conditions (the formation is interbedded with thin layers and lenses of sand and silt) results in
large secondary settlements which continue for centuries (Zeevaert, 1949, 1953a, 1953b,
1957a, 1957b; Marsal and Mazari, 1959).
The main object of the research programme reported here was to study the secondary
compressibility characteristics of Mexico City clay, with special reference to the effect of time
and thixotropic hardening. Also, a detailed study of the composition of the clay was carried
out in an attempt to explain the observed compressibility characteristics.

COMPOSITION OF MEXICO CITY CLAY

Results of previous studies
According to Zeevaert (1949, 1953b) the closed basin of the Valley of Mexico was formed
at the end of the Pliocene epoch. The basin was occupied by a large lake of low salinity that
was filled during the Pleistocene by airborne volcanic ash and materials eroded from the soils
and rock enclosing the basin. The Mexico City clay (Tacubaya formation), which extends
from a depth of approximately 7 m to 37 m, dates from the late Pleistocene. It originates
from the fine volcanic ash and other pyroclastic materials which were transported by wind and
water into the lake and from the micro-organisms that flourished there.
Zeevaert (1949, 1953a, 1953b, 1957a, 1957b) has described Mexico City clay as an organic
silty clay composed of large quantities of fossils, ostracods and very fine diatoms, as well as
ash and glass particles. He found 40% of the particles to be less than 2 pm in size and 50%
of this clay-sized fraction was montmorillonite l, the balance being mostly skeletal material
and ash. According to Zeevaert (1949) the montmorillonite in Mexico City clay is high
in magnesium content, has a poorly organized crystalline structure, and appears to be sodium
montmorillonite. Apparently based on Zeevaert’s results, several investigators have referred
to the mineralogy of the Mexico City clay as montmorillonitic or bentonitic (Casagrande and
Wilson, 1951; Skempton and Northey, 1952; Skempton, 1953; Mourn and Rosenqvist, 1961).
Zeevaert has also reported that the Mexico City clay contains calcium carbonate and 5-10x
organic colloids.
Marsal and Mazari (1959) prepared a comprehensive report on Mexico City clay. The
detailed composition study includes a large number of samples from different locations in the
1 Based on tests by Dr R. E. Grim of the University of Illinois.

Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 COMPOSITION AND COMPRESSIBILITY OF TYPICAL SAMPLES OF MEXICO CITY CLAY ’ 529
city. The results indicate between 22% and 63% of the component particles are smaller than
2 pm, and that there is 3-21x carbonate content, l-7’% organic matter, and a high content
of diatoms and ostracods. Their conclusions concerning the composition of Mexico City
clay are generally in agreement with those of Zeevaert, with one important exception. Marsal
and Mazari concluded that the clay content might be classified as illite. However, they
point out that their investigations concerning the mineralogical composition of the clay-sized
fraction did not yield conclusive results.
Leonards and Girault (1961) reported compositional analyses on samples of Mexico City
clay.2 Their samples contained about 8-10% organic matter and a small amount of calcite.
Based on X-ray diffraction and differential thermal analysis, the remaining material was
identified as amorphous and was classified as allophane. Leonards and Girault concluded
that there was no evidence of the presence of any montmorillonite or illite.
Lo (1962) reported investigations performed3 on a sample of Mexico City clay which re-
vealed that it consisted mainly of amorphous materials. Some of the amorphous materials
were identified as fragments of diatoms and the rest were considered to be probably silica-
alumina gels or more or less altered volcanic material. The sample contained 4% organic
matter and 10% calcite. Also, electron diffraction detected an unknown amount of mont-
morillonite, which was considered to be of poor crystallinity since X-ray diffraction partly
failed in detecting it. Based on the chemical analysis of the pore-water, the exchangeable
cations of the montmorillonite content were identified as sodium and potassium.
Girault (1964) reviewed the existing information on the mineralogy of the fine fraction of
Mexico City clay, making additional references to tests by Martin and Mitchell, and again
concluded that the fine material is amorphous and classified it as allophane, stating that it
‘definitely is not montmorillonite.’

Results of present investigation

The samples of Mexico City clay on which this study is based came from a depth of about
15 m in the lake zone. Undisturbed four-inch-diameter tube samples were obtained from
two boreholes located approximately midway between Eduardo Molina and Gran Canal on
an extension of the centre line of Orient 157. The natural water content of the samples
ranged from 421% to 574%. Five specific gravity measurements on air-dried specimens
yielded a mean value of 2.35; no single determination differed from the mean by more than
O-02. The Atterberg limits are given in Table 1 and will be considered in detail subsequently.

Table 1. Effect of pretreatment on Atterberg limits of Mexico City clay

State of clay Liquid limit, Plastic limit, Plasticity index,

% % %
Natural 500 150 350
Dispersed in distilled water I 537 162 315
Treated with hydrogen peroxide 344 116 228
Air-dried 118 41
Oven-dried 93 3;
81. 56* %:
Treated with hydrogen peroxide
and oven-dried 88* 52* 36
I
* After consolidation to maximum pressure of 64 000 lb/ftl.

a Based on tests by Dr T. L. White of Purdue University.

3 Tests done by Dr J. Mourn of the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute.

Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 540 0. MESRI, A. ROKHSAR AND B. F. BOHOR

The consolidation testing programme was carried out in two stages and using two separate
shipments of samples. In the first stage three series of one-dimensional consolidation tests
were performed on samples from the first shipment which had a natural water content in the
range of 545-574%. The first series consisted of four tests on undisturbed specimens which
were carefully trimmed into the stainless steel rings. The four samples were loaded to 1000,
4000, 8000 and 16 000 Ib/fP respectively, and the coefficient of secondary compression was
measured for a period of six weeks (first sustained loading). At the end of this period the
loads were doubled and secondary compression measurements were made for an additional
four weeks (second sustained loading).
The second series of tests was performed on artificially sedimented samples. Mexico City
clay at natural water content was mixed with distilled water in a malt mixer for two hours to
make a uniform slurry with a liquidity index of 8. The slurry was de-aired under reduced
pressure for a week and then poured directly into the Teflon-lined consolidation rings.
Drainage was allowed from the bottom of the consolidation cell. The clay settled and formed
a loose sediment with free water on the top. The loading cap was carefully placed on the
sample as soon as the free water surface reached the top of the sediment. This procedure
was adopted in order to produce a normally consolidated young sediment, and in order to
minimize sample extrusion during the application of the loading cap. The samples were
allowed to consolidate under the weight of the loading cap for an hour. After this period the
consolidation cells were placed in the loading frames. The four samples were loaded to 145,
1000, 4000 and 16 000 lb/ft2 respectively, and the coefficient of secondary compression was
measured for four weeks. Subsequently, the loads were doubled and secondary compression
measurements were made for another four weeks.
Remoulded samples were used for the third series of tests. The clay was thoroughly
remoulded at natural water content and carefully packed into stainless steel rings without
allowing air to be entrapped in the samples. The loading schedule was identical to that of
the sedimented samples.
One of the most interesting results of the tests on samples from the first shipment was the
significant influence of previous sustained loading on the coefficient of secondary compression.
For the remoulded and sedimented samples, previous sustained loading increased the
coefficient of secondary compression by a significant amount. This behaviour was considered
to be either a thixotropic aging effect or an effect which was developed by the secondary
volume changes during the first sustained loading. In order to investigate this observation
further, two additional series of test were performed on remoulded samples. Also, another
series of tests was performed on undisturbed samples to obtain additional data on the
coefficient of secondary compression at pressures near the critical pressure.
The second stage of the study was performed using samples from the second shipment
which had a natural water content in the range of 421462%. Undisturbed samples were
used in the first series of tests. In order to determine the changes in the coefficient of secondary
compression close to the critical pressure, the four samples were loaded to 1000, 1500, 2000
and 3000 lb/ft2 respectively, and the coefficient of secondary compression was measured for
four weeks. Subsequently, all of the samples were loaded to 16 000 lb/ft2 and kept under that
pressure for two weeks. To study the influence of laboratory overconsolidation on the co-
efficient of secondary compression all four samples were unloaded to 275 Ib/ft2 and were then
reloaded to 1000, 4000, 16 000 and 32 000 lb/ft2 respectively, and measurements of the secon-
dary compression were made over a period of two weeks.
To study the effect of time (aging) at constant water content after remoulding, a batch of
clay was thoroughly remoulded at natural water content. A portion of the clay was carefully

Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 COMPOSITION AND COMPRESSIBILITY OF TYPICAL SAMPLES OF MEXICO CITY CLAY 541

o Undlrturbed

Fig. 16. Typical one-dimensional consolidation ewes for Mexico City clay, first shipment

packed into four stainless steel consolidation rings which were allowed to rest under water at
a constant temperature water bath (26°C) for a period of 77 days prior to testing. The samples
were carefully sealed inside plastic boxes in order to prevent any moisture content changes
during aging. The remaining portion of the soil was sealed and stored in a humid environ-
ment. At the end of 77 days the latter portion was throughly remoulded and packed into
four additional stainless steel rings and tested immediately. The aged samples were loaded to
145, 1000, 4000 and 16 000 lb/fP respectively, and the coefficient of secondary compression
was measured for four weeks. Subsequently, the loads were doubled and secondary com-
pression measurements were made for another four weeks. The loading procedure for the
remoulded samples which were not aged was identical to that of the aged samples, except that
after the first sustained loading the loads were increased using a load increment ratio of l/2.
In order to study the effect of organic content in Mexico City clay on the coefficient of
secondary compression, two more tests were performed on remoulded samples. One sample
in its natural condition and another sample treated with hydrogen peroxide were remoulded
at almost identical water contents and were loaded to 2000 lb/fP; the coefficient of secondary
compression was measured for two weeks. The loads then were doubled and secondary
compression measurements made for an additional two weeks.
In all tests after the last sustained loading the samples were loaded to the maximum pressure
and then unloaded to a small pressure and dismantled. The loads were reduced either in
increments using a load decrement ratio of two or in one single decrement.

CONSOLIDATION TEST RESULTS

Consolidation curves
Typical void ratio<ffective stress relationships for undisturbed, sedimented, and remoulded
samples from the first three series of tests are compared in Fig. 16. Undisturbed Mexico City
clay is considered to be a normally consolidated aged deposit. The critical pressure GC,
based on eight tests on undisturbed samples, had an average value of 1800 lb/fP. The
overburden pressure s0 was estimated from the soil profile to be about 1200 lb/ft2. Thus the
ratio of the critical pressure to overburden pressure, ac/GO,is 1.5. Zeevaert (1949) has reported
an average value of I.4 for a large number of samples from throughout Mexico City.
Skempton and Northey (1953) have shown that there is a definite correlation between sensi-
tivity and the liquidity index under any given pressure. They suggested comparing the in situ
values of liquidity index, at a given consolidation pressure, with the liquidity index of the

Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 542 0. MESRI, A. ROKHSAR AND B. F. BOHOR

0 “nd,rr”rbed
A Remaulded-aged

Fig. 17. One-dimensional consolidation curves showing influence of remoulding and aging on Mexico City clay

Fig. 18. Relationships between compression index and consolidation pressure for Mexico City clay

same clay after its consolidation in the oedometer from a slurry with a high initial water
content. For the study of the mechanisms responsible for sensitivity and the critical pressure
of natural soils the comparison of the liquidity indexes at the critical pressure is considered
to be most meaningful. Therefore, a parameter termed liquidity index ratio is defined as
the ratio of the liquidity index of the undisturbed sample to the liquidity index of the sedi-
mented sample, both defined at the critical pressure. For the undisturbed samples of Mexico
City clay used in the present study the liquidity index ratio averaged 1.64. For comparison,
the ratio for Canadian Leda clay is in the range 2.22-2-47 (based on unpublished tests on
samples from Gloucester, Ottawa). Based on the data of Skempton and Northey (1952), the
ratios for Horten and Gosport clays are 2.36 and 1.28 respectively. The liquidity index
ratio is considered to be a useful indicator of the causes of sensitivity in natural soils. The
critical pressure represents the consolidation pressure at which major changes in natural
structure (particle arrangement and interparticle bonding) of the clay begin to take place.
Therefore, the liquidity index ratio is probably a better indicator of natural sensitivity than the
conventional definition in terms of undrained shear strength. It is suggested here that for
quick clays with sources of sensitivity in leaching and cementing effects, this ratio will be
generally greater than two. For non-quick clays which have developed high sensitivities
from thixotropic effects the ratio is expected to be less than two. Mexico City clay apparently
owes its sensitivity entirely to thixotropy. It should be pointed out that sample disturbance
will decrease the measured liquidity index ratio.

Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 COMPOSITION AND COMPRJiSSIBILITY OF TYPICAL SAMPLES OF MEXICO CITY CLAY 543

Undisturbed and
normally consolidated

Fig. 19. Relationship between compression index and void ratio for Mexico City clay

Fig. 20. One-dimensional consolidation curves for remoalded Mexico City clay showing influence of hydrogen
peroxide treatment

0.6
r Firrr Second

Fig. 21. Relationship between secondary compression index and consolidation pressure for Mexico City clay

Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 544 0. MESRI, A. ROKELMR AND B. F. BOHOR

A comparison of the consolidation curves for sedimented and remoulded samples appears
to indicate that intense mechanical dispersion in distilled water had little if any effect on the
particles of Mexico City clay fabric (no major breakdown of natural packets, floes or aggregate
grains, if any existed, took place). The two consolidation curves merge near the critical
pressure. Also, there is little difference between the swelling curves for undisturbed, remoulded
and dispersed sedimented samples.
The influence of aging after remoulding on the void ratio4fective stress relationship is
shown in Fig. 17. Aging at constant water content decreased primary compression and the
aged samples stabilized at higher void ratios than the remoulded samples at pressures less than
about 5000 lb/ft2. As consolidation pressure increases, the void ratio-effective stress curves
for the remoulded-aged and remoulded samples merge. Aging brings the consolidation
curve for the remoulded Mexico City clay closer to that of the undisturbed sample. An
appreciable part of the natural structure and stiffness is recovered in a relatively short time.
It appears possible that Mexico City clay would regain its natural undisturbed stiffness fully by
thixotropic hardening.
The variation of compression index, C,, with consolidation pressure for undisturbed,
sedimented and remoulded Mexico City clay is shown in Fig. 18. The compression index of
undisturbed samples maximizes at about twice the critical pressure. The rapid change in
compression index of undisturbed samples near the critical pressure shows the brittle nature
of the natural structure of Mexico City clay. Fig. 19 shows that there is a close relationship
between compression index and void ratio for normally consolidated young Mexico City clay.
The consolidation curve for the hydrogen peroxide treated, remoulded sample is compared
with the consolidation curve of a remoulded sample at natural composition in Fig. 20. It is
apparent that even after removal of organic content, Mexico City clay composition stabilizes
at very high void ratios. The data in Fig. 20 will be considered in detail subsequently.

Secondary compression
The measurements of secondary compression are reported in terms of C, =A e/A log t or
clip= C,/(l + e,), where e is the void ratio, t is the time and e, is the void ratio at the beginning
of the linear portion of the e-log t curve. In this Paper, the parameters C, and E,~ are termed
secondary compression index and coefficient of secondary compression respectively.
Figure 21 shows C, as a function of consolidation pressure for the undisturbed, sedimented
and remoulded samples. The secondary compression index for undisturbed Mexico City clay
increases with increasing consolidation pressure and reaches a maximum at a stress level
about twice the critical pressure; thereafter, it decreases and approaches the values for sedi-
mented and remoulded samples. The secondary compression index for the sedimented
Mexico City clay decreases continuously with pressure. In agreement with previous results
(Mesri, 1973) the secondary compression index for the remoulded clay increases as consolida-
tion pressure increases, reaches a maximum and thereafter merges with the values for
sedimented clay. A striking and rather significant aspect of the results is the considerable
similarity between the behaviour or C, and C, as a function of consolidation pressure for
undisturbed, sedimented and remoulded Mexico City clay samples (Figs 18 and 21). It was
previously proposed (Mesri, 1973) that primary and secondary compressibilities are inter-
related and, in general, soils with high primary compressibility would also be expected to
exhibit high rates of delayed compression. In Fig. 22 the corresponding values of C, and C,
are plotted. There appears to be a reasonable relationship between C, from first sustained
loading and C, for undisturbed, sedimented and remoulded samples of Mexico City clay.
The secondary compression index is about 3% of the compression index.

Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 COMPOSITION AND COMPRESSIBILITY OF TYPICAL SAMPLES OF MEXICO CITY CLAY 545

FlW Second
oJ rurt~lned sustained
loading loading
0 . Undisturbed
h . Sedimented
” 0,) - 0 . Remoulded
:
Q

I
‘a 1 4 6 8 10 12
0, 3 A elA log ii

Fig. 22. Relationship between secondary compression index and compression index for Mexico City clay

I Illlllll 111111111 , ,,IIl,U

I@? low 10000 100 000

Conxllidatlon prerrvre: lb/k2

Fig. 23. Influence of aging on the secondary compression index of remoulded Mexico City clay

When a clay is allowed to undergo secondary compression under a sustained load it develops
a reserve consolidation pressure a, - G, (reserve resistance (Bjerrum, 1967)). The behaviour of
such a clay under the next load increment depends on the magnitude of the load increment.
For pressure increments less than SC-G,, the compressibility is considerably less than the
virgin compressibility and the clay compresses on a recompression curve with a slope C,, or
recompression index. For Mexico City clay the average C, is less than 5% of the average C,.
In a similar manner C, is expected to be small for pressure increments less than the reserve
consolidation pressure (Mesri, 1973). However, when the pressure increment is greater than
the reserve consolidation pressure the previous sustained loading is not expected to influence
the value of C,. An extensive series of tests on a non-thixotropic organic soil fully substan-
tiates this point (Rokhsar, 1973).
In all tests on Mexico City clay the first sustained load was kept on the sample for periods
from four to six weeks ; after the first sustained loading the consolidation pressure was doubled
(except for one series, which will be considered later). Therefore, in all tests and at all
pressures, the pressure increment after the first sustained loading was at least twice the reserve

Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 546 0. MESRI, A. ROKHSAR AND B. F. BOHOR

Fig. 24. Influence of remoulding water content on magnitude of aging effect

consolidation pressure. However, Fig. 21 shows that for the sedimented and remoulded
Mexico City clay previous sustained loading considerably increased C, under the second
sustained load. The increase is largest at low pressures or high void ratios and decreases as
the consolidation pressure increases and void ratio decreases. The values of C, for the
sedimented and remoulded samples from the second sustained loading merge at an even
smaller consolidation pressure and move toward the C, values for undisturbed samples. As
to be expected laboratory sustained loading has little influence on the value of C, for undis-
turbed samples at low pressures as laboratory loading time is insignificant compared with the
geological age of the natural clay. However, the effect of previous sustained loading on
C, becomes more significant as consolidation pressure increases and the natural structure is
remoulded by consolidation.
The second set of tests was performed in order to investigate the mechanism responsible
for the increase in C, after the sustained loading. The values of C, for the remoulded and
remoulded-aged samples are compared in Fig. 23. A comparison of the C, values for the
first sustained loading clearly shows that C, values for the remoulded-aged samples are
considerably higher than the corresponding values for remoulded samples. There is no
doubt that the increase in C, after a sustained load is thixotropic in nature. The data on
C, from the second sustained loading, shown in Fig. 23, are even more interesting. For the
remoulded-aged samples at low pressures the C,-consolidation pressure relationships from
the first and second sustained loading overlap. This is reasonable since the samples which
were subjected to the first sustained pressures at 145 lb/ft2 and 1000 lb/ft2 respectively, did not
experience sufficient volume change to destroy the effect of 77 days of thixotropic hardening.
However, the next two samples which had first sustained loads of 4000 lb/fP and 16 000 lb/ft2
respectively, had experienced large void ratio changes before the first sustained load. There-
fore, the effect of initial aging was at least partially lost. This is in agreement with the conclu-
sion of Mitchell (1960) that strains progressively destroy thixotropic structure that has formed
on aging, and the lower the strain the more pronounced is the thixotropic effect. However,
the fact that C,consolidation pressure relationships from the first sustained loading for the
remoulded and remoulded-aged samples do not merge appears to indicate that, as was the
case for undisturbed samples, the thixotropic aging effect is not completely lost even after
considerable consolidation.

Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 COMPOSITION AND COMPRESSIBILITY OF TYPICAL SAMPLES OF MEXICO CITY CLAY 547

x
:
” 3
Q
r,
1 1
2
I

0
‘00 ,004 10000 100 wo

Fig. 25. Relationship between coefficient of secondary compression and consolidation pressure for Mexico
City clay

Void TLI.3

Fig. 26. Influence of dispersion, remoulding and aging on the permeability of Mexico City clay

Regarding the remoulded samples which were not aged, after the first sustained loads the
consolidation pressures were increased using a load increment ratio of l/2; therefore, as
expected, the increase in C, is not as large. However, it is extremely interesting to note
that at high pressures the C,consolidation pressure relationships from the second sustained
loading of remoulded-aged and remoulded samples overlap.
Thixotropic effects have been found to increase with increasing water content (Mitchell,
1960). The dependence of thixotropic hardening on remoulding water content is shown in
Fig. 24. As remoulding water content increases, the influence of sustained loading on C,
becomes more significant. However, it should be noted that part of the difference in C, is
due to the smaller load increment ratio which was used for the low water content samples.
The secondary compression data are plotted in Fig. 25 in terms of Q,. It was previously
suggested (Mesri, 1973) that E,* for normally consolidated young clays would remain reasonably
constant with consolidation pressure. This appears to be true for undisturbed samples but
untrue for sedimented and remoulded samples of Mexico City clay.

Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 548 G. MESRI,A.ROKHSAR AND B. F. BOHOR

Fig. 27. Relationship between coefficient of permeability and void ratio for Mexico City clay

Coeficient of permeability
The coefficients of permeability were computed by fitting Terzaghi’s theory of consolidation
to plots of the measured deformation against square root of time (Taylor, 1948). The co-
efficients of permeability for undisturbed, sedimented, t%moulded, and remoulded-aged
samples are compared in Fig. 26. A line is drawn through the points for undisturbed samples.
At a given void ratio permeability differences between remoulded and sedimented samples
and undisturbed samples would be expected to reflect differences in soil fabrics. If the
natural undisturbed sample contains domains or floes of particles which are broken down
during remoulding or mechanical dispersion, this would be expected to result in reduced
coefficients of permeability for remoulded and sedimented samples. Data in Fig. 26 show
that sedimented and remoulded samples have almost identical permeabilities that are slightly
less than the the permeability of undisturbed samples, possibly suggesting some degree of
particle dispersion during the remoulding process. However, the permeabilities of remoulded
and undisturbed clays approach one another at low void ratios as the undisturbed clay becomes
increasingly remoulded by consolidation. The coefficients of permeability of remoulded-
aged samples are very close to those of the undisturbed samples.
All of the permeability data on Mexico City clay samples except those for increments
immediately following a sustained loading are given in Fig. 27 and an apparently unique
relationship between the coefficient of permeability and void ratio for Mexico City clay is
indicated.
The effect of sustained loading and secondary compression on the computed permeability of
Mexico City clay is shown in Fig. 28. The solid symbols show the coefficients of permeability
for the load increments applied immediately after a sustained load. Apparently, as has been
pointed out by Northey and Thomas (1965) the structural resistance which develops during
sustained secondary compression decreases the rate of primary consolidation during the
subsequent increment and results in computed permeabilities which are less than the true
permeability of the soil fabric. In one series of tests on remoulded samples a load increment

Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 COMPOSITION AND COMPRESSIBILITY OF TYPICAL SAMPLES OF MEXICO CITY CLAY 549

Fig. 28. Influence of sustained loading and secondary compression on the computed coefficient of permeability

ratio of 513 was used after the sustained loads. The large pressure increment reduced the
effect of the structural resistance to compression and hence the computed permeabilities
were unaffected by previous sustained loading (Rokhsar, 1973).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Composition of Mexico City clay

In the following, the term ‘Mexico City clay’ refers only to the samples of Mexico City clay
which were tested in this investigation. However, these samples are considered to be very
typical of the the Mexico City clay deposit. Mexico City clay consists of about 5% to 10%
sand-sized concretionary particles or ooliths composed of calcium carbonate; 55% to 65%
silt-sized siliceous diatoms; 20% to 30% clay-sized particles, of which probably IO% is
interlayered smectite and the remaining is biogenic or volcanogenic silica; and 5% to 10%
organic material. The basic characteristics of the siliceous diatoms, interlayered smectite
and organic matter combine to give the Mexico City clay its unusual physical properties.
The results of the present study appear to indicate that, among the three important compo-
nents, the organic content plays the least significant role or at least its influence is overshadowed
by the significant characteristics of diatoms and interlayered smectite. For example, the
plasticity data in Table 1 show that even after the removal of organic material Mexico City
clay composition shows very high plasticity. Data in Fig. 20 show that the void ratio-
effective stress relationship and secondary compressibility are not substantially affected by the
removal of organic material. Also, bonding by organic molecules is not responsible for the
relatively low swelling capacity of Mexico City clay, as the removal of the organic content
did not result in increased swelling (Fig. 20). Measurements showed that even the rates of
secondary swelling were identical for samples in their natural condition and for those treated
with hydrogen peroxide. The plasticity data on oven-dried samples show that even the hydro-
gen peroxide treated Mexico City clay did not completely rehydrate upon rewetting. There-
fore, cementing by the oxidized organic matter is not responsible for the almost completely
irreversible dehydration.
It is not possible to determine the exact nature of the organic matter in Mexico City clay
and the manner in which it is bonded to the other minerals. Foreman (1955) has reported
that he has seen specks of black organic material in Mexico City clay up to 15 pm in size and
has described them as black organic particles. Possibly some of the authigenic organic
remains include organic matter from diatoms and other micro-organisms. It is also possible
that some of the organic substance is still present within the diatom frustules and hydrogen

Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 550 G. MESRI, A. ROKHSAR AND B. F. BOHOR

peroxide treatment at least in part ‘cleans’ the diatoms. The organic content is responsible
for the grey color of the Mexico City clay.
Siliceous micro-organisms make up about two-thirds of the Mexico City clay. The clay is
largely composed of micro-fossils-mainly siliceous skeletons (frustules) and skeletal fragments
of diatoms. These samples of Mexico City clay are impure diatomites. The production of
diatoms is governed directly by the dissolved silica content of water. Apparently, the great
quantities of silica released by the volcanic ash as it underwent weathering initiated a great
bloom of diatoms in the Pleistocene lake waters of the Valley of Mexico.
Diatoms are unicellular plants (algae) with cell walls made of silica, which live for the most
part under water. The biogenic silica has been described as poorly crystalline silica, organic
silica (Hanna, 1927) or hydrated silica with small amounts of alumina or ferric oxide (Mills,
1893). According to Taylor (1929) there is certain quantity of organic substance in addition
to the silica in the shells. The siliceous shells display a variety of geometric shapes-mostly
circular or lens-shaped-and contain dots, grooves, ridges, and depressions. All of the
textures seen on diatom surfaces are the result of a vast number of minute cavities, canals,
holes or chambers in the siliceous wall. Finely perforated diatom frustules are capable of
holding a large amount of water.
The water-filled diatom particles make up the open framework of the Mexico City clay and
are probably largely responsible for its unusual physical properties. Extreme lightness and
elasticity of diatom particles can account for the lightness and elasticity of the undisturbed
Mexico City clay samples. Patrick and Reimer (1966) report a specific gravity of 2.00 for
fossil diatom silica. Water-filled diatoms are also mostly responsible for the unusually high
plastic limit of Mexico City clay. The hydrogen peroxide treated sample has a plastic limit
of 116% (Table 1). The plastic limit of pure sodium montmorillonite is only 47% (Mesri
and Olson, 1971).
For most soils, as the plasticity index increases the angle of internal friction decreases.
The extremely high plasticity of Mexico City clay with its unusually high angle of internal
friction can only be explained by its diatom content. Interlocking between diatom particles
is probably a major factor. The structural changes in the adsorbed water of fine diatom
particles and the colloidal silica-water system of biogenic silica is at least partly responsible
for the thixotropic nature of Mexico City clay. Finally, diatoms give Mexico City clay its
cream and fawn to iron-rust colours (Van Heurck, 1896).
The clay-sized fraction of Mexico City clay is composed of volcanogenic cristobalite and
biogenic opaline silica (Greenwood, 1973) and interlayered smectite. The X-ray diffraction
data show that most of the cristobalite present is that which occurred originally in the volcanic
ash, with only a small percentage authigenically derived from diatoms or volcanic glass.
The evidence from the SEM, X-ray diffraction and chemical analysis all appear to indicate
that the clay mineral is of the smectite family. According to Foreman (1955) montmorillonite
was formed in the uplands through weathering of volcanic ash and is not the result of diagenetic
changes. In this Paper it is hypothesized that the smectite in Mexico City clay is interlayered
with aluminium, iron and possibly magnesium hydroxide complexes, in that there is some
material irregularly distributed between the layers which prevents them from coming completely
into contact (collapsing) when the water is expelled. Very extensive literature exists on the
subject of interlayering (Rich, 1968).
Complex interlayering can have a significant influence on the physical properties of natural
clays (Quigley, 1969; Quigley et al., 1971). Interlayering makes the X-ray diffraction data
difficult to interpret since the diffraction patterns are altered. Cation exchange capacity has
often been used in the literature to indicate the presence or absence of certain clay minerals.

Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 COhlPO!lIlTON AND COMPRFSIJ3ILITY OF TYPICAL SAMPLES OF MEXICO CITY CLAY 551

However, cation exchange capacity often can be drastically reduced by interlayer formation.
Leonards and Girault (1961) and Marsal and Mazari (1959) have reported cation exchange
capacities of 27 meq/lOO g and 39 meq/lOO g respectively, for Mexico City clay. If in fact
these determinations have been made on the clay mineral content rather than the whole
clay-sized fraction (which is two-thirds silica), these values probably indicate interlayering
rather than absence of smectite. It should be noted that organic molecules can also enter
into cation exchange reactions. However, in Leonards and Girault’s (1961) study hydrogen
peroxide treatment did not affect the measured cation exchange capacity. The chemical
analyses appear to indicate that the exchangeable cations are mostly sodium.
Swelling of montmorillonite clays is greatly reduced by interlayer material (Kidder and
Reed, 1972). This is entirely consistent with the observed swelling behaviour of Mexico City
clay. After drying, the clay does not rehydrate in distilled water (Table 1). Also, compared
with its compression index, the swelling index of Mexico City clay is rather small. Marsal
and Mazari (1959) reported a reduction in liquid limit of Mexico City clay as a function of
consolidation pressure. Interlayering is probably responsible for this unusual behaviour.
Apparently the hydroxy-cation polymers bond the adjacent silicate layers once they are
brought closer together and thus inhibit expansion.
In addition to ‘gelling’ of the colloidal silica-water system, reorganization and reorientation
of interlayer material is probably partly responsible for the thixotropic behaviour of Mexico
City clay. The reorganization probably takes place at constant particle arrangement and
without particle reorientation.
Tests by Kenney (1967) have shown that the residual angle of shearing resistance for natural
soil is dependent on mineral composition, and subsequent investigators have considered
residual friction angle as ‘one of the most revealing mineralogical tests’ (Quigley ef al., 1971).
The method of using pre-cut samples and reversal direct shear testing has been recently
modified by the senior Author and has been used very successfully to measure residual shear
strengths of pure clay minerals and mineral mixtures, as well as a large number of natural
shales. The method basically consists of remoulding the soil and consolidating two halves
of the direct shear sample separately in consolidation loading frames. After consolidation,
the two flat smooth surfaces are sheared against each other. Using this method residual shear
strength is reached after relatively small shear displacements (La Gatta, 1970; Bishop et al.,
1971). For example, using the new method residual angles of 4.5-5-O” for Cucaracha shale
from Panama and Bearpaw shale from Canada, and of O-2” for sodium montmorillonite have
been measured.
Two direct shear tests were performed on remoulded samples of Mexico City clay as an
indirect check on existence of platy clay minerals. One test was performed on a sample in
natural condition which was consolidated under 200 lb/ii?, and was sheared at 50 lb/in2, and
100 lb/in2. The maximum friction angle for the first shear cycle was 30”, which reduced to a
residual value of 21.5” after approximately one inch cumulative shear displacement. The
second test was performed on a hydrogen peroxide treated sample which was also washed
with sodium chloride solution and subsequently with distilled water. The sand-sized and
coarse-silt-sized particles were removed by fractionation. The friction angle for the first
shear cycle was 26.3” and reduced to a residual value of 20.6” after a cumulative shear dis-
placement of O-6 in. It should be mentioned that a similar test on pure microcrystalline
silica (20%(2 pm and 90%(50 pm) gave a friction angle of 34” which remained constant and
independent of the magnitude of shear displacement. Kennyls (1967) tests on two mineral
mixtures gave a residual angle of 22.8” for a mixture of 90% quartz and 10% sodium mont-
morillonite at low electrolyte concentration. The reduction in shearing resistance with

Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 552 G. MESRI, A. ROKHSAR AND B. F. BOHOR

shear displacement appears to substantiate the existence of platy clay mineral particles in
Mexico City clay and the magnitude of the reduction suggests that the clay mineral is of the
smectite family.

Thixotropic hardening and secondary compression

The processes of thixotropic hardening and secondary compression occur simultaneously,
affect each other, and together influence the compressibility characteristics of Mexico City
clay. Mitchell (1960) has explained the mechanism of thixotropic hardening as the time-
dependent changes in particle arrangements, adsorbed water structure, and distribution of
ions. The particle movements are considered to be of a rotational nature resulting in decreases
in spacings at points of closest approach and increased short-range interaction and bonding
(Mitchell and Houston, 1969). Secondary compression has been previously defined (Mesri,
1973) as the continuation of the mechanism of volume change initiated during primary con-
solidation. It includes deformation of individual particles such as clay packets or floes, organic
fibres and porous diatoms, plus the relative movements of individual particles with respect to
each other, resulting in increased short-range particle interaction and bonding.
After sustained secondary compression or thixotropic hardening, primary compressibility
decreases. The clay exhibits a critical pressure and, for pressure increments less than the
reserve consolidation pressure, primary compression takes place on a recompression curve
with slope C, considerably less than the compression index, C,. For Mexico City clay C, is
about 5% of C,. A clay which has developed a critical pressure by sustained secondary
compression also exhibits reduced secondary compressibility, as measured by C, for loads
less than the critical pressure (Mesri, 1973). However, the clay which exhibits a critical pressure
because of thixotropic hardening (‘thixotropy in effect builds precompression into the soil’
(Mitchell, 1960)), experiences larger secondary compression rates upon reloading. This seems
to suggest that sustained secondary compression increases structural resistance and reduces
primary as well as secondary compression. Thixotropic hardening, however, merely increases
viscous structural resistance, which reduces compression during primary consolidation but
leads to increased secondary compression rates. It is hypothesized that, at least in the case
of the Mexico City clay which exhibits this type of behaviour, thixotropic hardening results
from the changes in the structure of adsorbed water and reorganization of interlayer cation-
hydroxide complexes and possibly organic molecules (Mourn et al., 1973) without changes in
interparticle spacing and increased short-range interparticle interaction. This interpretation
is in agreement with Newland and Allely (1960). However, sustained secondary compression
results in a decrease in short-range interparticle spacing and increased short-range interaction
and interparticle bonding. Therefore, as expected, sustained secondary compression decreases
primary compressibility as well as the rate of secondary compression. Based on an analysis
of the structural viscosity coefficient in his theory of consolidation, Barden (1968) concluded
that thixotropy would increase the viscosity coefficient and that ‘secondary effects’ would be
greatest after a long period of rest. Barden’s analysis is in agreement with the present results.
However, it should be emphasized that a distinction need be made between the thixotropic
and secondary effects after a period of rest and between the behaviour of thixotropic and
non-thixotropic soils. Finally, the thixotropic and secondary compression effects could be
expressed using different terminology as follows : secondary compression increases the
frictional component of strength (shearing resistance) whereas thixotropic hardening develops
cohesive resistance, which is highly dependent on strain rate.

Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 COMPOSITION AND COMPRESSIBILITY OF TYPICAL SAMPLES OF MEXICO CITY CLAY 553

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Authors are grateful to Professor Ralph B. Peck for personally bringing the Mexico
City clay samples from Mexico City and to Dr Carlos L. Flamand who provided the samples.
The senior Author also wishes to express his appreciation to Professor Peck for his continued
interest and for many useful discussions during the course of the study. The chemical
analyses were performed at the Illinois State Geological Survey.

REFERENCES
Alberro, J. A. & Santoyo, E. V. (1973). Long term behaviour of Mexico City clay. Proc. 8th Znt. Conf. Soil
Mech. Fdn Engng 1, Part 1, l-9.
Barden, L. (1968). Primary and secondary consolidation of clay and peat. Ge’otechnique 18, No. 1, l-24.
Bishop, A. W., Green, G. E., Garga, V. K., Andresen, A., & Brown, J. D. (1971). A new ring shear
apparatus and its application to the measurement of residual strength. Geotechnique 21, No. 4,273-328.
Bjerrum, L. (1967). Engineering geology of normally consolidated marine clays as related to settlement of
buildings. Ge’otechnique 17, No. 2, 83-l 18.
Carozzi, A. V. (1960). Microscopic sedimentarypetrography,p. 253. New York: Wiley and Sons. 485 pp.
Casagrande, A. & Wilson, S. D. (1951). Effect of rate of loading on the strength of clays and shales at con-
stant water content. Geotechnique 2, No. 3, 251-263.
Foreman, F. (1955). Paleontology in southern North America, part II. Bull. Geol. Sot. Am. 66, 475-510.
Girault, P. (1964). Mineralogia de las arcillas de1 valle de Mexico. Zngenieria, October, 51 l-518.
Gluskoter, H. J. (1965). Electronic low-temperature ashing of bituminous coal. Fuel 44, No. 4, 285-291.
Greenwood, R. (1973). Cristobalite: its relationship to chert formation in selected samples from the deep
sea drilling project. Jnl Sedim. Petrol. 43, No. 3, 700-708.
Hanna, G. D. (1927). Cretaceous diatoms from California. Calif: Acad. Sci. 13, 5-49.
Kenney, T. C. (1967). The influence of mineral composition on the residual strength of natural soils.
Proc. Geotech. Conf. Oslo 1, 123-129.
Kidder, G. & Reed, L. W. (1972). Swelling characteristics of hydroxy-aluminum interlayered clays. Clays
and Clay Minerals 20, 13-20.
La Gatta, D. P. (1970). Residual strength of clays and clay-sha/es by rotation shear tests. Harvard Soil
Mechanics Series No. 86. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University.
Leonards, G. A. & Girault, P. (1961). A study of the one-dimensional consolidation test. Proc. 5th Znt.
Conf Soil Mech. Fdn Engng 1,213-218.
Lo, K. Y. (1962). Shear strength properties of a sample of volcanic material of the Valley of Mexico.
Geotechnique 12, No. 4, 303-318.
Marsal, R. J. & Mazari, Y. M. (1959). The subsoil of Mexico City. 1st Panam. Conf. Soil Mech. Fdn
Engng, Mexico City. September.
Mesri, G. (1973). Coefficient of secondary compression. Jnl Soil Mech. Fdn Div. Am. Sot. Civ. Engrs
99, SMl, 123-137.
Mesri, G. & Olson, R. E. (1971). Consolidation characteristics of montmorillonite. Ge’otechnique 21,
No. 4, 341-352.
Mills, F. W. (1893). An introduction to the study of diutomaceae. London: Iliffe and Sons.
Mitchell, J. K. (1960). Fundamental aspects of thixotropy in soils. Jnl Soil Mech. Fdn Div. Am. Sot. Civ.
Engrs 86, No. 3, 19-52.
Mitchell, J. K. & Houston, W. N. (1969). Causes of clay sensitivity. Jnl Soil Mech. Fdn. Div. Am. Sot.
Cio. Engrs 95, SM3, 845-871.
Mourn, J. & Rosenqvist, I. T. (1961). The mechanical properties of montmorillonite and illite clays
related to the electrolytes of the pore water. Proc. 5th Znt. Conf. Soil Mech. Fdn Engng 1, 263-267.
Mourn, J., Rao, C. N. & Ayyar, T. S. R. (1973), A natural 17 8, montmorillonite-organic complex from
Allepy, Kerala State-India. Clays and Clay Minerats 21, No. 2, 89-95.
Newland, P. L. & Allely, B. H. (1960). Discussion: Jnl Soil Mech. Fdn Div. Am. Sot. Civ. Engrs 86, SM6,
99-101.
Northey, R. D. & Thomas, R. F. (1965). Consolidation test pore pressures. Proc. 7th Znt. Conf. Soil
Mech. Fdn Engng 1, 323-327.
Patrick, R., & Reimer, C. W. (1966). The diatoms ofthe United States 1. Monographs of the Academy of
Natural Science of Philadelphia. Philadelphia: Livingston Publishing Company.
Quigley, R. M. (1969). Soil mechanics research problems caused by aluminum and iron adsorption on
clay minerals. Proc. Znt. Uay Conf., Tokyo 1, Section 5, 793-803.
Quigley, R. M., Matich, M. A. J., H orvath, R. G. & Hawson, H. H. (1971). Swelling clay in two slope
failures at Toronto, Canada. Can. Geotech. Jnl8, No. 3,417-424.
Rich, C. I. (1968). Hydroxy interlayers in expansible layer silicates. Clays and Clay Minerals 16, 15-30.

Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 554 G. MESRI, A. ROKHSAR AND B. F. BOHOR

Rokhsar, A. (1973). A theoretical and experimental study of one-dimensional consolidation of clays. PhD
thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 217 pp.
Skempton, A. W. (1953). The colloidal activity of clays. Proc. 3rd Int. Conf Soil Mech. Fdn Engng 1,
57-61.
Skempton, A. W. & Northey, R. D. (1952). The sensitivity of clays. Geotechnique 3, No. 1, 30-53.
Taylor, D. W. (1948). Fundamentals of soil mechanics. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Taylor, F. B. (1929). Notes on diatoms. Bournemouth: Guardian Press.
Van Heurck, H. (1896). Diatomaceae. Translated by W. E. Baxter. London: William Wesley and Son.
Zeevaert, L. (1949). An investigation of the engineering characteristics of the volcanic lacustrine clay deposits
beneath Mexico City. PhD thesis, University of Illinois.
Zeevaert, L. (1953a). Pore pressure measurements to investigate the main source of surface subsidence in
Mexico City. Proc. 3rd Int. Conf Soil Mech. Fdn Engng 2, 299-304.
Zeevaert, L. (1953b). Outline on the stratigraphical and mechanical characteristics of unconsolidated
sedimentary deposits in the basin of the Valley of Mexico. Proc. 4th Congress Int. Assoc. Quaternary
Research, Rome, Pisa 2, 976-994.
Zeevaert, L. (1957a). Foundation design and behaviour of tower Latin0 Americana in Mexico City.
Geotechnique 7, No. 3, 115-133.
Zeevaert, L. (1957 b). Consolidation of Mexico City volcanic clay. Proc. Conf Soils Engng Purposes
ASTM, STP No. 232, Mexico, 18-32.

Downloaded by [ Purdue Univ Lib TSS] on [19/09/16]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.