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The Early Oldowan Stone-Tool Assemblage

from Fejej FJ-1a, Ethiopia

Deborah Barsky, Cécile Chapon-Sao, Jean-Jacques Bahain, Yonas Beyene,

Dominique Cauche, Vincenzo Celiberti, Emmanuel Desclaux, Henry de Lumley,
Marie-Antoinette de Lumley, François Marchal, Pierre-Elie Moullé & David Pleurdeau

Abstract Résumé

Located in the Omo-Turkana basin at the northern limit of the
Koobi Fora sedimentary Formation, the Fejej region has recently
proven to be a rich study area for understanding early hominin
behaviour and paleoenvironmental conditions. Among the rich
fossiliferous and stone artefact localities discovered so far at
Fejej, the FJ-1a archeological site has yielded a faunal and lithic
assemblage in primary context. The archeological level is situ-
ated within a 15 meter fluvial sequence beneath a volcanic tuff.
Geochronological data from the FJ-1 sequence indicate an age
of nearly 1,9 Ma for the FJ-1a artefact level. The stone industry
was knapped from locally available raw materials (mainly quartz
and basalt) and rocks had been carefully selected according to
specific petrographical and formal criterion. Hominins mastered
several distinct stone knapping methods and used more or less
exhaustive reduction sequences in order to produce small flakes.
The different techniques used for stone reduction are defined in
this paper thanks to a series of refits of flakes onto cores. Along
with the refits, an in-depth analysis of the flakes, cores and worked
pebbles provides an overview of the technological capacities of
hominins present at the site nearly 2 million years ago. After the
Fejej FJ-1a site was abandoned the archeological materials were
rapidly buried, leaving an almost undisturbed archeological
level. This site appears to represent a short episode of hominin
occupation.
La région de Fejej est située dans le bassin Omo-Turkana, à la
limite septentrionale de la Formation sédimentaire de Koobi
Fora. Récemment, cette région s’est avérée être importante pour
la compréhension du comportement des homininés et des condi-
tions paléoenvironnementales. Parmi les localités découvertes à
Fejej, riches en fossiles et en industries lithiques, le site archéo-
logique de FJ-1a a livré un assemblage de faunes et d’industries
dans un contexte primaire. Le niveau archéologique est renfermé
dans une séquence sédimentaire fluviatile sous un tuf volcanique.
Les données géochronologiques de la séquence de FJ-1 indiquent
un âge d’environ 1,9 Ma pour le niveau archéologique FJ-1a.
Sur le site, des matières premières locales (essentiellement quartz
et basalte) ont servi à tailler les industries lithiques. Les homini-
nés ont sélectionné les roches selon des critères pétrographiques
et géométriques spécifiques. Ils maîtrisaient plusieurs méthodes
de débitage différentes et utilisaient des séquences de réduction
des nucléus plus ou moins exhaustives, afin de produire des éclats
de petites dimensions. Cet article décrit les différentes techniques
de débitage des roches, par la description d’une série de remon-
tages d’éclats sur les nucléus. Ensuite, une analyse approfondie
des éclats, des nucléus et des galets taillés permet de comprendre
les capacités technologiques des homininés présents sur le site de
FJ-1a il y a près de 2 Ma. Après l’abandon du site par les homi-
ninés, les ossements et les industries lithiques furent rapidement
enfouis, laissant un niveau archéologique en place, indicatif d’un
épisode d’occupation de courte durée.

Keywords: Plio-Pleistocene, refits, stone tool assemblage, Ethiopia, Mode 1, Oldowan, variability, technology, knapping

Deborah Barsky (corresponding author) 8 dbarsky@hotmail.fr ; dbarsky@iphes.cat

* Area de Prehistoria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), Avinguda de Catalunya 35, 43002 Tarragona, Spain
and IPHES, Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social, C/Escorxador s/n,  43003 Tarragona, Spain

Cécile Chapon-Sao / Jean-Jacques Bahain / David Pleurdeau

* Département de Préhistoire du Muséum national d’histoire naturelle, UMR 7194 du CNRS, 1 rue René Panhard,
75013 Paris, France

Yonas Beyene * Academic and Research Vice President, University of Wolkite, SNNPR, Ethiopia

Dominique Cauche / Emmanuel Desclaux

* Laboratoire départemental de préhistoire du Lazaret, 33 bis bd. Franck Pilatte, 06300 Nice, France

Vincenzo Celiberti * Centre européen de recherches préhistoriques de Tautavel, Ave. Léon Grégory, 66720 Tautavel, France

Henry de Lumley / Marie-Antoinette de Lumley

* Institut de Paléontologie Humaine, Fondation Albert 1er Prince de Monaco, 1 rue René Panhard, 75013 Paris, France

François Marchal * UMR 6578 - Unité d’Anthropologie bioculturelle CNRS/Université de la Méditerranée/EFS, Faculté de
Médecine, Sect. Nord, Univ. de la Méditerranée, CS80011, blvd. Pierre Dramard, 13344 Marseille Cedex 15, France

Pierre-Elie Moullé * Musée de préhistoire régionale de Menton, rue Lorédan Larchey, 06500 Menton, France

DOI 10.3213/2191-5784-10196 Published online November 2, 2011 © Africa Magna Verlag, Frankfurt M.

Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 9 (2), 2011, pp. 207–224 207

 D. Barsky et al.
Discovery and general context of the
Fejej FJ-1 site
The Fejej region is located in the Ethiopian sector of
the African Rift system in south-western Ethiopia,
only 10 kilometres north of the border between Kenya
and Ethiopia (Asfaw et al. 1991; Lumley & Beyene
2004) (Fig. 1). The Fejej fossiliferous sediments lie at
the northernmost extremity of the Koobi Fora Forma-
tion on the east side of Lake Turkana. This Formation
is part of the Plio-Pleistocene Omo Group, which also
includes the Shungura, Mursi and Usno Formations in
the Lower Omo Valley, and the Nachukui Formation
west of Lake Turkana (Heinzelin 1983; Brown & Fei-
bel 1986; Harris et al. 1988). These sedimentary de-
posits include successive volcanic layers, basalt flows
or tephras, which have allowed for the elaboration
of a precise geochronological framework based on
K-Ar and Ar-Ar dating and tephrochonological data.
The Omo Group Formations have registered changing
environmental conditions over a period of 4.5 million
years. Paleogeographical reconstructions based on the
nature of the deposits (deltaic, fluvial, lacustrine) have
revealed that two major hydrographical systems suc-
ceeded one another in the Omo-Turkana basin: 1) an
episodic lake system and 2) a large axial fluvial system
named Turkana River or Paleo-Omo River, that flowed
towards the Indian Ocean through the Anza Rift (Har-
ris et al. 1988; Brown & Feibel 1991; Cerling 1994;
Rogers et al. 1994; Feibel 1997).
208 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 9 (2), 2011
The Fejej region remained unknown in the exten-
sively studied Omo-Turkana Basin until 1989, when
the first survey campaigns were organized (Ministry
of Ethiopian Culture Paleoanthropological Inventory
Team; Berkeley University, California; New York
University, NY) (Asfaw et al. 1991; Fleagle et al.
1992). Further surveying brought to light more than 50
paleontological and/or archeological localities, dating
from the Oligocene to the Late Pleistocene (Lumley &
Beyene 2004).
The FJ-1 locality is a mesa Formation capped by
a layer of volcanic ash and covering a surface area
of about 450 x 250 m (Asfaw et al. 1991; Lumley &
Beyene 2004). Numerous bone remains (including
hominins) and a rich stone industry were discovered
around the mesa. Given the large extension of the
site, the area was subdivided into sectors (indexed
FJ-1a through FJ-1k). Sector FJ-1a was selected for
excavation since an especially large concentration
of worked pebbles and flakes was discovered there.
Systematic excavations were initially undertaken
over a surface area of 9 m² (December 1992;– Janu-
ary 1993) and then further extended to 35 m² (May
– June 1997) and finally to 80 m² (December 1998;–
January 1999). The archeological material (~4 000
artefacts) is stored at the National Museum of Ethio-
pia, Addis Ababa, and a complete interdisciplinary
study of the site was published in 2004 (Lumley &
Beyene 2004).
Fig. 1. Location of
the Fejej region (a)
and other Plio-Pleis-
tocene sedimentary
Formations of the
Omo-Turkana ba-
sin (b, after Feibel
1993).
 The Early Oldowan Stone-Tool Assemblage from Fejej FJ-1a

Stratigraphy and sedimentology of the

FJ-1a site at Fejej

The FJ-1 depositional sequence is described from three

isolated outcrops, stratigraphically correlated to com-
pose a single sequence measuring 15 m. The entire
sequence is divided into five major units (Fig. 2).

- At the base of the sequence, Unit 1 shows lateral

variation with two facies (Chapon 2007): the first
is composed of silt rich in sands and the second
of sands with some silt. Sediments are poorly
sorted and correspond to high-energy fluvial
deposits.

- Unit 2 is a polymictic conglomerate with granitic

sands. Channelling figures were observed at the
base of the Unit as well as oblique and cross-
bedded stratification indicating a fluvial origin.
Metamorphic heavy minerals from Units 1 and
2 show a low degree of polish, indicating short-
distance transport. The Fejej region is dominated
to the east by the metamorphic Hamar mountain
range, culminating at 2000 m and a basaltic pla-
teau gently sloping towards Lake Turkana. The
immaturity of the sediment and the type of peb-
bles in the conglomerate (quartz, basalt, gneiss,
pegmatite and amphibolite), indicate that this
Unit was deposited by temporary rivers flowing
from the northeastern Hamar mountain range Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the lithostratigraphy of
towards the southwest into the Omo-Turkana the FJ-1 locality deposits (Lumley et al. 2004a).
basin.

- Unit 3 is composed of pale yellow silty sands with
two layers of calcrete. The Unit shows a bimodal
grain-size distribution with poorly classed, mature
sediment of fluvial origin.
- Unit 4 is a light grey volcanic tuff with horizon-
tal lamina and ripple-mark structures. The tuff is
mainly composed of glass shards < 2 mm long
and includes tubular carbonated concretions and
rhizomes. The presence of angular quartz and
feldspar grains indicates that the volcanic glass is
contaminated by detritus. This Unit corresponds
to a pyroclastic deposit in a calm aquatic environ-
ment.
- Unit 5 is made up of light brown, silty sands with
carbonated concretions. Partially dismantled by
erosion, it has not yet been the object of a detailed
sedimentary analysis.
A trench cut into the sedimentary complex of the
FJ-1 mesa revealed that archeological level “C1” is
located in the basal part of Unit 3, about 3 m below the
tephra layer (Unit 4).
Geochronology of the FJ-1a site
Geochronological data from the FJ-1 sequence is pro-
vided by magnetostratigraphy, tephrochronology and
ESR dating. Magnetostratigraphic analyses show reverse
polarity in Unit 1 and normal polarity in Units 3 and 4
(Chapon 2007). The Fejej FJ-1 Tuff (Unit 4) was chemi-
cally analyzed by different methods and there has been
debate concerning its correlation with other tephra from
the Shungura or Koobi Fora Formations (Asfaw et al.
1991; Haileab & Feibel 1993; Feibel 1999). New results
from more recent surveys in the Fejej region suggest
that the FJ-1 Tuff may be correlated to the Borana Tuff
(Koobi Fora Formation) which, in turn, is correlated
with an unnamed tuff from the Upper G Member of the
Shungura Formation (Chapon 2007; Chapon et al. 2008;
Chapon et al. 2011). The age of the archeological layer is
therefore between 1.95 ± 0.03 Ma, onset of the Olduvai
Sub-Chron, and 1.869 ±0.021 Ma, 39Ar–40Ar age of
KBS Tuff (Cande & Kent 1995; McDougall & Brown
2006). This proposed age is supported by two Electron
Spin Resonance (ESR) dates of 2.40 ±0.54 Ma and 1.96
±0.32 Ma, obtained from quartz grains sampled from
Units 1 and 3 respectively (Lumley et al. 2004a).

Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 9 (2), 2011 209

 D. Barsky et al.

Bioindicators the Fejej FJ-1 assemblage is therefore biostratigraphi-

cally dated to between 2.33 and 1.78 Ma (Echassoux
Biochronology et al. 2004).

Faunal remains were systematically collected from Although Unit 1 is stratigraphically earlier than the
stratigraphical Units 1, 3 (archeological layer C1) and other fossil bearing Units, the relatively poor preserva-
5 (Tab. 1). Biostratigraphical data suggests relatively tion of the fossils and the low frequency of remains for
homogeneous faunal associations in all three Units each species make it difficult to precisely evaluate the
corresponding to the Upper G and H Members of the biostratigraphical position of this level. In addition,
Omo Shungura Formation and to the Upper Burgi and species’ presence/absence in Unit 1 is not necessarily
KBS Members of the Koobi Fora Formation. The age of significant (for example, the absence of Metridiochoerus
modestus and Equus, Tab. 1). However, the presence of
Elephas recki cf. atavus indicates that this level cannot
be older than the Omo Shungura Formation’s Upper
Fejej FJ-1 Unit 1 Unit 3 Unit 5 Member F (2.33 Ma). The presence of the genus Equus
Primata X in Units 3 and 5 suggests that the lower chronological
Theropithecus sp. X X X limit for these levels may be situated at 2.32 Ma since
Paracolobus sp. X X this species first appears in Member G of the Omo Shun-
Xenocyon africanus X gura Formation. According to the appearance/disappear-
Canis sp. X ance grid for suids (White 1995), the presence in Unit
Hyaenidae X 3 of Metridiochoerus modestus and Notochoerus scotti
Herpestes (Galerella) sp. X X
situate this level between 1.89 and 1.80 Ma.
Felidae X X
Deinotherium bozasi X
Elephas recki ssp. X The micromammals from archeological level C1,
Elephas recki cf. atavus X including Arvicanthis morphotype niloticus/primae-
Ceratotherium simum X X vus, Heterocephalus cf. atikoi, Lepus capensis and cf.
Diceros bicornis X X X Coleura afra indicate an open environment and a semi-
Equidae X X X arid climate. This faunal association is comparable to
Equus sp. X X the upper levels of the Shungura Formation in the lower
Hexaprotodon aethiopicus X Omo Valley (Members E, F and lower G; Wesselman
Notochoerus scotti X X
1984) and also to the Koobi Fora Formations in East
Metridiochoerus andrewsi X X X
Metridiochoerus modestus X X
Turkana (Black & Krishtalka 1986).
Kolpochoerus limnetes X X X
Giraffa pygmaea X X The fauna Fejej FJ-1 can be placed within the pale-
Pelorovis sp. X X oclimatic and paleoenvironmental evolution described
Alcelaphini X for the Omo-Turkana Basin for the last 4 million years
Aepyceros shungurae X X X and may be assigned to the arid event recognised in this
Tragelaphus nakuae X X X area between 2.3 and 2 Ma.
Hippotragini X
Reduncini X X
Antilopini X X
Orycteropus sp. X
Paleoecological and taphonomical features of the fauna
cf. Coleura afra X
Lepus capensis X Paleoecological conditions in the Fejej FJ-1 region at
Hystrix sp. X the time of the hominin occupation of the FJ-1a site
Arvicanthis gr. niloticus/primaevus X have been assessed from palynological data and faunal
Heterocephalus cf. atikoi X associations, both of which translate an open, grassy
Chelonia indet. X X landscape with wooded areas (Echassoux et al. 2004;
Crocodilus sp. X X
Umer et al. 2004). The pollen analysis indicates an
Anura indet. X
evolution towards increased humidity that probably
Sauria indet. X
Colubridae indet. X favoured the development of a mosaic, riverside land-
cf. Claria sp. X scape with forested mountain ranges. The presence of
Siluriforma indet. X Crocodylus and fish remains confirm that there was a
Fish indet. X X nearby water source, as does that of the grass-eating
antelope Reduncini (Kob) which is generally found in
Tab. 1. Synthetic table showing presence/absence of dif- wet areas such as floodplains. In coherence with the
ferent vertebrate taxons in each Stratigraphical Unit of the pollen analysis, species’ diversity indicates a variety
Fejej FJ-1 site (Echassoux et al. 2004). of ecological settings around the site.

210 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 9 (2), 2011

 The Early Oldowan Stone-Tool Assemblage from Fejej FJ-1a
Although surface finds tend to be altered and
strongly mineralized, bones from archeological level
C1 are well preserved. Surface remains from Fejej FJ-1
had undergone significant taphonomical and second-
ary biological modifications. In contrast, fossil bones
recorded from archeological level C1 do not show
traces of secondary modification. Fossils from the ar-
cheological level do not appear to have been rolled nor
dispersed and their burial in situ by fluvial sediments
was probably rapid. Unlike the surface finds, no carni-
vore remains were found in level C1 and bones show
no traces of carnivore or rodent activity. While surface
finds reflect a mixed ensemble, those from level C1
were often found in anatomical connexion, with refit-
ting bone fragments discovered adjacent to one another,
suggesting a highly localized activity area.
Fossils are found associated with stone artefacts.
Long bones from level C1 were systematically broken
and fractured surfaces display smooth edges typical
of intentional breakage, as well as impact scars, while
no such traces are observed on the surface finds. Evi-
dence of human activity, notably fractures on fresh
bones, is frequently observed on shafts, bone splin-
ters and determinable epiphysis. Such traces are ob-
served on 35 % of the determinable bones and 41 %
of the bone splinters. A significantly high proportion
of Aepyceros shungurae bones (46 %) also show this
kind of intentional breakage (see Echassoux et al.
2004 for a detailed taphonomical description). The
Fejej FJ-1a site represents a seemingly undisturbed
archeological level with knapped stone artefacts as-
sociated with a faunal assemblage presenting traces
of human intervention.
100
91 %
90
80
70
60
50
39 %
40
30 %
30
20
9%
10 7%
1%
0 ate (Unit 2 sample size=254 pebbles);
quartz basalte gneiss pegmatites
Fejej FJ-1 archeological level C1 Conglomerate (sedimentological Unit 2)
Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 9 (2), 2011
Note that the locality FJ-1e (Unit 3), located about
100 m from FJ-1a, has yielded three hominin dental
remains attributed to Homo aff. H. habilis (Lumley &
Marchal 2004).
The Fejej FJ-1a stone assemblage and refits
The stone assemblage from Fejej FJ-1a (Lumley et al.
2004b; Barsky et al. 2006) was knapped from local
raw materials collected from the alluvial deposits of a
small river near the site. Quartz pebbles are dominant
(91 %) compared to basalt (7 %) and only a few arte-
facts were knapped from other types of rocks (2;%). By
comparison, sampling in the FJ-1 conglomerate (Unit
2), located just below archaeological Unit 3 and prob-
ably deposited by the same fluvial system, revealed that
quartz and basalt pebbles each represent about 35 %
of available rock types (Fig. 3). So, at Fejej FJ-1a, the
quartz pebbles seem to have been preferentially used.
This characteristic is not unique to the Fejej FJ-1a as-
semblage and is observed elsewhere in the Lower Omo
Valley (Shungura Formation, Ethiopia) where quartz
often exceeds 90 % of Oldowan assemblage composi-
tion even though it is not numerically more frequent
than other petrographic groups in the pebble sources
(Delagnes et al. 2011).
The overwhelming dominance of quartz in the
archeological assemblage shows that Fejej hominins
intentionally sought this rock type out for their tools.
The quartz pebbles, although jointed, have few inclu-
sions and their suitability for knapping is underlined
by the scarcity of angular fragments (debris) relative
to well struck flakes, as well as by the numerous re-
fits of flakes onto cores (Figs.
4–10). However, almost half of
the flakes do show transverse
or longitudinal fractures which
probably occurred during their
extraction. The probability that
knapping occurred on-site is sup-
ported by numerous refits of bro-
ken flakes: 10 Siret accidents, 5
transversal breaks, 1 ventral face
fracture. Preservation in the silty
sandy Fejej FJ-1a Unit 3 deposits
was optimal and, apart from the
15 %
Fig. 3. Frequencies of different rock
4% types in the Fejej FJ-1a stone industry
3% and in the nearby Unit 2 conglomer-
1%
amphibolites other rocks the most likely raw material source.
Note the overwhelming abundance of
quartz in the FJ-1a assemblage.
211

basalt industries whose surfaces are slightly altered, all
elements of the assemblage are well preserved. Cutting
edges are sharp and irregular retouch, perhaps resulting
from use, is clearly visible on many pieces. Worked
pebbles, flakes and angular fragments in quartz show
no traces of rolling, lustre or alteration.
The apparent relationship between pebble shape
and subsequent pebble use suggests that hominins were
capable of purposeful thought processes. Whole peb-
bles may have been brought to the site to serve as a
raw material supply (manuports). Thick pebbles with
oval sections were often employed as percussion instru-
ments (61 % of hammerstones) while flat pebbles and
pebbles with oval sections were shaped by one or a
few blows into chopper-like instruments (56 % pebble
tools). Flake production was often carried out on cube-
shaped pebbles (50 % of the cores) that did not require
initializing knapping stages for successful flake extrac-
tion. Unifacial and bifacial knapping methods were
performed on flat pebbles using bipolar on an anvil or
hand held percussion (Figs. 4–6). Orthogonal (Figs. 7
and 8) and multifacial reduction methods (Figs. 9 and
10) were carried out on thick, cube shaped pebbles.
Pebble size also appears as a criterion for hom-
inins when they selected rocks for specific elements
of their toolkit. The industry is quite small with pebble
length rarely exceeding 10 cm: few cores bear witness
to lengthy knapping episodes and whole and worked
pebbles are close in size. The majority of the flakes
measure from 2 to 3.5 cm (average non oriented flake
length= 3.9 cm).
Assemblage composition reflects a primary oc-
currence. Refits between broken and knapped products
confirm this hypothesis. Numerous knapped flakes
and fragments were refitted onto cores and all stages
of pebble reduction are represented. Small flakes and
fragments (L= <2 cm) were collected by sieving (526
pieces). The FJ-1 assemblage is composed of 2610
pieces, of which 1114 come from archeological level
C1 (Tab. 2). The industry is predominantly composed
of flakes and angular fragments with quite a few cores
and worked pebbles (Tab. 3).
Only eleven pieces have edges that may have been
shaped by intentional retouch but numerous others
Sectors of Fejej FJ-1 FJ-1a
Surface finds 508
Level CO (colluvium above archeological level) 853
Level C1 (level in place) 1114
Total stone artefacts 2475
212 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 9 (2), 2011
D. Barsky et al.
display irregular retouch that could result from use.
Many whole or broken pebbles display percussion scars
and/or accidentally detached flake negatives. These are
often situated on pebble extremities or on the edges of
their fractured surfaces. Some larger pebbles with per-
cussion scars on their plane surfaces might have been
used for anvils. Traces of percussion on worked pebbles
and cores suggest their use as multi-purpose tools.
Worked pebbles, almost always in quartz (80;%),
show little formal standardisation and the distinction
between cores and tools is unclear. Pebbles worked by
a few unidirectional removals may indeed be called
‘choppers’ although it is generally agreed that, in early
Mode 1 or Oldowan assemblages, flakes rather than
intentionally shaped pebble tools were the knapper’s
ultimate goal (Toth 1985; Schick & Toth 1993; Roche
et al. 2003). There are however some chopper-like
pieces with apparent traces of crushing on worked
edges that appear to be intentionally shaped tools.
These are mainly “primary” choppers with only one
removal (46 %) or choppers with a few adjacent remov-
als; generally between 2 and 5. Sometimes the tools
are situated on the lateral edges of a pebble but they
are mostly on pebble extremities. Bifacial reduction
strategies are rarely observed on either worked peb-
bles or cores and there are only four bifacially worked
pebbles (chopping-tools). There are a few heavy duty
scrapers (rostro-carénés) with convex edges “shaped”
by abrupt, unidirectional removals and retouch. It is
unclear whether or not the retouch on these pieces is the
result of use wear or intentional shaping — hominins
may simply have exploited the abrupt cutting edge of
some unidirectional cores (Tab. 4).
Cores were mostly knapped on quartz (86 %); less
often on basalt or granite. Comparatively longer and
more complex knapping episodes were carried out on
basalt. A precise description of the flaking techniques
used at Fejej is provided by core and flake analysis,
as well as by refits of flakes onto cores, revealing that
hominins mastered a wide range of relatively standard-
ized reduction modes (Tab. 5). Direct, hard hammer
percussion is most frequently observed, although some
of the cores were flaked using controlled bipolar on
an anvil percussion (pebble slicing, as at the Hadar
sites of AL 666 and AL 894, 2.3 Ma, Kimbel et al.
1996; Goldman-Neuman & Hovers 2009, as opposed
FJ-1b FJ-1c FJ-1e Total
1 114 20 643
Tab. 2. Number of stone
853
artefacts from the different
1114
sectors of Fejej FJ-1 (Lum-
1 114 20 2610
ley et al. 2004b).
 The Early Oldowan Stone-Tool Assemblage from Fejej FJ-1a

Tool type quartz basalt granite sandstone-quartzite Total

N % N % N % N % N %

Whole pebbles and hammerstones 100 54.6 63 34.4 14 7.7 6 3.3 183 100
Broken pebbles 21 47.8 17 38.6 3 6.8 3 6.8 44 100
Worked pebbles 68 80.0 13 15.3 1 1.2 3 3.5 85 100
Cores 78 84.7 10 10.9 3 3.3 1 1.1 92 100
Flakes (> 2 cm) 1001 95.5 42 4.0 2 0.2 3 0.3 1048 100
Small flakes (< 2 cm) 345 97.5 8 2.2 1 0.3 - -  354 100
Angular fragments 757 95.5 32 4.0 4 0.5 -  - 793 100
Retouched pieces 11 100  -  - -  -  -   - 11 100
Total 2381 91.2 185 7.1 28 1.1 16 0.60 2610 100

Tab. 3. Rock type distribution according to the different tool types from Fejej FJ-1a (Lumley et al. 2004b).

 Worked pebble type Surface bed CO bed C1 Total

N % N % N % N %
single concave removal 18 38.3  6 15 68.2  39 45.9
chopper 23 48.9 6 4  18.2 33 38.8
double chopper  2 4.3 2 4 4.7
heavy duty scraper (rostro-caréné) 1 2.1  3 13.6  4 4.7
chopper with heavy duty scraper (rostro-caréné) 1 2.1 1 1.2
chopping-tool 2 4.3 2 2.3
chopping-tool with a chopper 1 1 1.2
chopping-tool with heavy duty scraper (rostro-caréné) 1 1 1.2
Total 47 55.3 16 18.8 22 25.9 85 100

Tab. 4. Frequency of worked pebble types in the each bed level of the Fejej FJ-1 site (Lumley et al. 2004b).

Technology Striking platform

cortex and/or cortex and/or removal

N %
breakage plane removal negative negative

unipolar 29 1 - 30 32.6
prismatic (unipolar) 1 - - 1 1.1
bipolar 6 1 1 8 8.7
Unifacial

intersecting 4 - - 4 4.3
peripheral centripetal 9 2 - 11 12
multipolar orthogonal 1 - - 1 1.1
sub-total unifacial cores 50 4 1 55 59.8

unipolar - 3 - 3 3.3
Bifacial

bipolar 1 3 - 4 4.3
centripetal 1 2 - 3 3.3
sub-total bifacial cores 2 8 - 10 10.9

18.5
Multifacial

orthogonal surface 1 15 1 17
multiplatform - 10 - 10 10.9
sub-total multifacial cores 1 25 1 27 29.3

Total 53 37 2 92 100

Tab. 5. Technological distribution of cores from the Fejej FJ-1 site (Lumley et al. 2004b).

Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 9 (2), 2011 213

214
D. Barsky et al.

Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 9 (2), 2011

Fig. 4. Refit of five flakes onto a quartz core (58 x 57 x 45 mm). An initial series of flakes was obtained from the surface of an ancient fracture using bipolar flaking
on an anvil. Another striking platform, oriented orthogonally from the first, was also used. Finally, a cortical striking platform was exploited to produce flakes from
the pebble’s profile in a “slicing” manner, by applying controlled bipolar percussion (drawn by D. Cauche, V. Celiberti, M. Montesinos).
 The Early Oldowan Stone-Tool Assemblage from Fejej FJ-1a
to simple quartz crushing; Fig. 4). Unifacial reduction
dominates relative to bifacial or multifacial techniques
(60 % of the cores). While unifacial cores most often
show a single flaking direction (unipolar) some do
display bipolar, intersecting, centripetal (peripheral)
or orthogonally oriented removal negatives. Recurrent
peripheral flaking produced unifacial discoid cores
(Fig. 6). Some cores have two independantly knapped
surfaces, with unipolar, bipolar or centripetally oriented
removals. Sinuous core edges typical of systematic
bipolar exploitation are scarce and we underline the
absence of intentional bifacial exploitation.
At Fejej FJ-1 hominins most often produced flakes
from unprepared surfaces during brief, unidirectional
knapping episodes. Rounded pebbles were sometimes
Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 9 (2), 2011
Fig. 5. Refit of two quartz flakes
onto a core (82 x 61 x 40 mm). A
series of unidirectional flakes was
struck from the cortical surface of a
flat, oval shaped pebble. The flattest
side of the pebble served as a plat-
form to extract some well struck
flakes from its opposite, more con-
vex surface. Flakes obtained show
cortical butts and longitudinal neg-
atives on their dorsal surfaces. The
first flake shows a Siret type frac-
ture and the second, larger flake,
was obtained by a blow in the same
direction as the one preceding its
extraction. This knapping sequence
clearly demonstrates the unfold-
ing of the recurrent unidirectional
technique typical at Fejej FJ-1a. If
pursued along the entire periphery
of the pebble, this technique would
have produced a unifacial discoi-
dal core (Fig. 6). One of the flakes
comes from the colluvium (drawn
by D. Cauche, V. Celiberti, M.
Montesinos).
sliced or split in order to create suitable knapping surfac-
es to extract flakes. Flake removal negatives occasionally
served as platforms, producing orthogonal cores (Car-
bonell et al. 1999). The presence of a few polyhedron-
shaped multiplatform cores shows that such “prepared”
platforms were sometimes used during more lengthy
knapping episodes consisting of frequent core rotations
(Figs. 9 and 10). However, multiplatform flaking is
poorly developed at FJ-1. We may suggest that a more
developed multiplatform exploitation was later to lead to
the production of spheroid-type tools that are not present
in the FJ-1 assemblage (as at Olduvai Gorge, Lower and
Middle Bed 1; Leakey 1971). Cores with multiplatform-
orthogonal removals and two, three or more flaking gen-
erations are very rare at this site (globular or polyhedron
shaped cores =10.9;%, Tab. 5).
215
 D. Barsky et al.

Fig. 6. Refit of four quartz

flakes onto a core (101 x 72
x 62 mm). A cortical striking
platform was exploited with a
recurrent gesture to extract sev-
eral well struck flakes, four of
which were recovered and refit-
ted onto this unifacial discoidal
core. All of these elements were
found in the same square me-
ter. The flakes all have cortical
striking platforms and longitu-
dinally oriented removal nega-
tives on their dorsal surfaces.
The refitted core surface shows
at least five more removal neg-
atives for which the flakes were
not recovered. The knapping
episode was relatively long and
attests to organized and system-
atic flake production (drawn by
D. Cauche, V. Celiberti, M.
Montesinos).

Flake morphology reflects a pattern of non-exhaus-
tive unidirectional technology that parallels the patterns
seen on the core forms (Figs. 11 and 12). Most of the
flakes (90 %) conserve at least some cortex and their
striking platforms are almost always cortical (77.5;%,
Tab. 6). The overwhelming abundance of flakes with
residual cortex and/or cortical butts underlines the use
of unprepared surfaces and the overall simplicity of
the stone knapping methods employed at FJ-1. While
it is true that the abundance of residual cortex on flake
butts and dorsal surfaces may also be attributed to
the overall small size of the knapped pebbles (Toth
1982, 1987; Braun et al. 2005), non-cortical platforms
would be present in higher proportions if orthogo-
nal and multiplatform flaking techniques were more
frequently used. Thus, the massive representation of
Toth flake types I–III (flakes with cortical platforms)
underlines the exploitation of unprepared surfaces and
the dominance of unidirectional flaking strategies at
FJ-1 (Tabs. 5 and 6).
Non-cortical flakes likely produced during more
lengthy knapping episodes are scarce (9 %). In spite
of the more extensive knapping observed from the
basalt cores, corresponding flakes are relatively rare
(3.8 basalt flakes/core, compared with 7.1 quartz flakes/
core and only 0.5 flakes/core for other rock types).
However, basalt flakes without any cortex are propor-
tionately more frequent than for quartz. On all of the
flakes, removal negatives on dorsal surfaces are most
often unidirectional and parallel to the knapping axis
(60;%), in conformity with the rest of the assemblage.

216 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 9 (2), 2011

 The Early Oldowan Stone-Tool Assemblage from Fejej FJ-1a

Fig. 7. Refit of four basalt flakes onto a core

(72 x 55 x 48 mm). This refit illustrates an
orthogonal knapping strategy. The core pres-
ents three generations of orthogonally oriented
removals struck from negatives of previous
blows that were apparently used to initiate
knapping episodes by providing appropriate
flake extraction planes. Flakes show smooth
striking platforms and longitudinally oriented
removal negatives on their dorsal surfaces.
While flat ovate pebbles were reduced using
centripetal strategies, rounded or cube shaped
supports were flaked using this, more appropri-
ate, orthogonal strategy (drawn by D. Cauche,
V. Celiberti, M. Montesinos).

Fig. 8. Refit of four basalt flakes onto a core

demonstrating the orthogonal knapping strat-
egy (72 x 55 x 48 mm). The removal negative
of a large flake served as a striking platform for
a series of recurrent flakes (photo D. Barsky).

Flake type (after Toth 1985) %

Type I: entirely cortical flakes 7.2 flakes with
Type II: cortical striking platform and residual cortex on the dorsal surface 41.9 cortical platforms:
Type III: striking platform only with cortex 28.4 77.5%
Type IV: non cortical striking platform and cortical dorsal surface 2.5
Type V: non cortical striking platform and residual cortex on the dorsal surface 11.5
Tab. 6. Whole flake types from Fejej FJ-1 accord-
Type VI: non cortical flake 8.5 ing to the position of their residual cortex (Toth
1985). Note the overwhelming predominance of
Total 100%
flakes with cortical striking platforms (77.5 %).

Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 9 (2), 2011 217

218
Fig. 10. Refit of five quartz flakes onto
a core (65 x 60 x 54 mm). This core and
corresponding flakes illustrate the multi-
platform flaking technique that is rarely
observed at Fejej FJ-1a. Elsewhere, this
D. Barsky et al.

technique was applied to knap quartz

pebbles and may later have lead to the
production of spheroids and bola type
objects (photo D. Barsky).

Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 9 (2), 2011

Fig. 9. Refit of five quartz flakes onto a core (65 x 60 x 54 mm). The technique observed from this core approaches the multiplatform knapping
method which sometimes produces polyhedron or globular type cores: removal negatives served alternately as striking platforms for subsequent
removals with a core rotation following each blow. Natural (cortical) platforms offered by this initially quadrangular pebble were also oppor-
tunistically exploited. At least three generations of removals may be observed from this piece and some of the flakes attest to the use of bipolar
knapping on an anvil (drawn by D. Cauche, V. Celiberti, M. Montesinos).
Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 9 (2), 2011
Fig. 11. Quartz knapping products from Fejej FJ-1a level C1. 1–6: cortical flakes;
7–9: flakes with ample cortical surfaces (drawn by D. Cauche, V. Celiberti, M. Mon-
tesinos).
219
The Early Oldowan Stone-Tool Assemblage from Fejej FJ-1a
Fig. 12. Quartz knapping products from Fejej FJ-1a level C1. 1–6: angular fragments; 7:
small flake with cortical butt and cortex on the dorsal surface; 8–9: flakes with cortical
butts; 10 and 12: flakes with cortical butts and cortex on their dorsal surfaces; 11: flake
with cortical butt, cortex on the dorsal surface and mixed opposite impact points; 13: flake
with cortical butt, cortex on the dorsal surface and irregular retouch (drawn by D. Cauche,
V. Celiberti, M. Montesinos).
 D. Barsky et al.
Primary flakes (with cortical dorsal surfaces and butts)
are well represented. Cortical flakes whose dorsal sur-
faces merge with cortical striking platforms (20 % of
the cortical flakes) may have been accidentally pro-
duced from hammerstones.
Fejej FJ-1a knapping technology and refits
Sedimentary conditions, the fresh aspect of the in-
dustry and the presence of refits, indicate that the
artefacts were rapidly buried and explain the optimal
preservation at the site. Among the lithics, 39 broken
flake segments were refitted (mainly Siret-type acci-
dents or flakes with transversal fractures). There are
also two series of flakes (lacking the core), each of
which includes three refitting elements. Two angular
quartz fragments were refitted, as were two broken
basalt pebbles; one with two and the other with four
conjoining elements. Two pieces of a quartz pebble
with a percussion negative (hammerstone) and three
fragments of a quartz anvil were also refitted. Two
angular fragments were refitted onto broken pebbles
with isolated removals (basalt, quartz). Of the 92
cores discovered, eleven have from one to five refit-
ting flakes.
Study of the spatial distribution at FJ-1 (FJ-1a
sector) suggests that level C1 represents a short term
occupation (Lumley et al. 2004c). Vertical projections
reveal a single archeological level of varying artefact
density whose average thickness reaches about 20 cm.
Some fossils found in anatomical connection indicate
that bones were still connected by ligaments or car-
tilage when they were buried and that they remained
relatively undisturbed since that time. Bone fragments
are usually closely associated with the stone industry
and both of these show corresponding areas of density.
Although no specific activity areas were defined, two
zones do show a greater concentration of archeological
material (surface areas: 12 m2 and 24 m2). The smaller
of the two, rich in stone artefacts and large bone frag-
ments, has been interpreted as a place where carcasses
were “prepared” by activities such as disarticulation,
while the cutting of meat from the bones may have oc-
curred a few meters away (Lumley et al. 2004c). The
close proximity of refitted stone artefacts and the com-
pleteness of the lithic sample (hammerstones, anvils,
debitage) all indicate in situ knapping.
While some of the refitted artefacts were found
up to three metres apart or in the colluvium, most of
them were discovered within a single square metre or
in adjacent squares in archeological level C1. While
flakes refitting onto cores were found within a restricted
area (nearby or within the same square metre), the cores
220 Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 9 (2), 2011
themselves were often discovered a few meters away.
Given the apparently undisturbed nature of the site, this
artefact disposition may reflect a given stone knapping
behaviour nearly 2 million years ago. Although it is dif-
ficult to interpret this phenomenon, we might suggest
that, following the in situ production of a few flakes,
cores were transported over a short distance to be used
for percussion activities or as cutting tools, before being
discarded. This hypothesis is supported by the presence
of percussion marks and/or edge damage on the cores
themselves. In any case, among the activities that likely
took place at Fejej FJ-1, hominins made stone tools,
disarticulated carcasses, broke bones and probably fed
on meat after cutting it off of the bones with small,
sharp cutting instruments.
Conclusions
The Fejej FJ-1a stone assemblage provides an excep-
tional example of early stone technology in Africa.
Different reduction modes are illustrated by numerous
refits of flakes onto cores which clearly demonstrate
that hominins simultaneously mastered several or-
ganized and relatively standardized stone reduction
modes. In spite of the relatively large variety of rocks
available from nearby alluvials, the overwhelming
dominance of quartz in the assemblage suggests that
hominins selected their raw materials with discern-
ment. Also, pebbles naturally presenting angles fa-
vourable for flake detachment were preferentially
chosen for knapping. This choice is reflected by the
strong dominance of cortical striking platforms on
the flakes. This characteristic may indicate that Fejej
FJ-1a hominins did not master platform preparation
or it may reflect a technological preference.
Overall, knapping episodes were short and 90 %
of the flakes maintain at least some cortex. The as-
semblage is dominated by small, non standardized
flakes with some cores and worked pebbles. However,
intentionally shaped, standardized tools are not a sig-
nificant component of this industry. Unifacial technol-
ogy largely dominates among the knapping methods
used and few pieces display bifacially worked edges.
Bifacial technology resulting in cores with extrac-
tion negatives originating from a sinuous equatorial
edge (typical of later Mode 2 assemblages), are not
represented at Fejej FJ-1a. Multifacial technology is
incidental and there are very few polyhedron-shaped
or globular cores. While many flakes and worked
pebble edges show irregular retouch or crushed edges,
intentionally retouched pieces are scarce and show no
formal standardization. At Fejej FJ-1a, technological
variability is expressed by the use of different modes
of unidirectional flaking (linear recurrent, recurrent
 The Early Oldowan Stone-Tool Assemblage from Fejej FJ-1a
on an anvil, orthogonal and unifacial discoidal, Bar-
sky 2009; Carbonell et al. 2009) and resulting core
morphology depended largely on the pebble’s initial
shape. Flake extractions were often achieved using
the bipolar on an anvil technique and there are some
truncated or sliced pebbles.
In spite of its seemingly developed variability, the
Fejej FJ-1a assemblage shows affinities to some older
African industries. Subtle differences have recently
been described in the cultural complex referred to as
“Oldowan” or “Mode 1” (Delagnes & Roche 2005;
Barsky 2009) and new perspectives for the study of
early flake-core assemblages have been proposed
(Carbonell et al. 2009). Indeed, given new discov-
eries, the “Oldowan” cultural complex is now over-
expanded and includes not only the earliest African
stone industries, such as those from Kada Gona or the
eponymous Oldowan assemblages from Lower and
Middle Bed 1 at Olduvai Gorge (Leakey 1971; de la
Torre & Mora 2005), but also Eurasian flake-core
assemblages dating to as late as the Early Middle
Pleistocene (the term “Oldowan” has been used to
describe the industry from Isernia la Pineta in Italy,
dating to ca 0.6 Ma; Lumley et al. 2009).
The industries from Kada Gona localities EG10
and EG 12, OGS6 and OGS7 from the Hadar region
of Ethiopia demonstrate that hominins possessed sys-
tematic and efficient stone reduction modes very early
on (2.6 Ma, Semaw et al. 1997, 2009; Semaw 2000,
2005) and the FJ1-a assemblage reflects how these
methods were developed and adapted to other raw
materials, notably quartz. Recent evidence from the
FwJj20 site (1.95 Ma, Upper Burgi Member, Koobi
Fora Formation, Braun et al. 2010), with in situ ar-
tefacts and fossil bone fragments, some of which
presenting clear striation marks apparently made by
stone tools, provides evidence that diverse resources
were made available to hominins practicing stone
tool-mediated food accessing.
Like at Fejej FJ-1a, unidirectional, recurrent
knapping methods and their variants dominate at
Kada Gona EG 10 and EG 12 and at Lokalalei LA2C
(Kibunjia 1994; Roche et al. 1999; Roche 2000; De-
lagnes & Roche 2005). The more complex bifacial
orthogonal technique (involving striking platform
preparation) has also been documented at these sites.
Among the earliest sites at Gona, OGS-7 (Ounda
Gona) has yielded a stone assemblage displaying
relatively sophisticated and varied stone reduction
strategies (dominant bifacial and multifacial knap-
ping) and selectivity in raw material collection and use
(Semaw et al. 2009). We may propose that some stone
reduction methods, in this case bifacial or multifacial
Journal of African Archaeology Vol. 9 (2), 2011
knapping, existed within the range of potential techno-
logical capacities, and that these may have been more
or less fully developed at different sites depending on
a variety of factors, including raw material quality or
site function.
Controlled pebble slicing using the bipolar on an
anvil technique is present at FJ-1a as at other early
Mode 1 sites, particularly those where quartz was
exploited (2.3-2.4 Ma, Omo 71, 57, 123, FtJi 1, 2 and
5, Shungura Formation, Members E and F, Chavaillon
1970, 1975, 1976; Howell et al. 1987). This technique
was also used to knap volcanic rocks at A. L. 666
and A. L. 894 (2.3 Ma, Hadar, Ethiopia; Kimbel et
al. 1996; Goldman-Neuman & Hovers 2009). Fejej
hominins employed longer, slightly more complex
direct knapping methods when knapping basalt, a
finer raw material than quartz. At Fejej, as at other
early African sites, hominins demonstrate selective
behaviour by choosing core reduction schemes in
accordance to a given raw material’s quality. Such
discernment is also noted at Kada Gona and at the
Lokalalei localities LA 2C and LA 1 (Kibunjia 1994;
Roche et al. 1999; Roche 2000; Delagnes & Roche
2005; Stout et al. 2005).
Industries from the more recent sites of Kokiselei
5 and Naiyena Engol 1 (ca 1.6-1.8 Ma, Kibunjia et al.
1992 West Turkana, Kenya, Roche et al. 1999, 2003)
show slightly more advanced morphologies; elements
such as multidirectional flaking leading to polyhedron
or globular shaped cores are more frequent at these
sites than at Fejej FJ-1a and knapping sequences are
generally longer. The production of large and small
intentionally shaped tools (spheroids, scrapers) devel-
oped around this time as well, for example in Lower
and Middle Bed 1 at Olduvai Gorge (1.8 Ma, Tanzania,
Leakey 1971, Tamrat et al. 1995; de la Torre & Mora
2005), once again raising questions about the scope of
“Oldowan” or Mode 1” assemblage variability.
Acknowledgements
We thank the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the
Authority for Research and Conservation of Cultural
Heritage, the National Museum of Ethiopia, the Min-
istry of Culture and Tourism and the South Nations,
Nationalities and Peoples Region for permits and sup-
port; D. Gebre, M. Bekele, A. Dessie, A. Amzaye,
T. Yifru, S. Bacha, B. Seyfu, T. Hagos, A. Sebbo, G.
Kedir, M. Girma, Sissay, Godana, Amharu, Ubichat
and S. Tornay, for field assistance. We also thank the
French Center for Ethiopian Studies, the administration
of Omorate town, the members of South Omo Police
forces and the Daasanach people.
221
 D. Barsky et al.
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