Eurock '93, Ribeiro e Sousa & Grossmann (eds) © 1993 Balkema, Rotterdam 90 54103396

Stability measures for rock slopes

Mesures pour stabiliser des pentes rocheuses
StandsicherheitsmaBnahmen für Felshânge
1.Dixon & C. M. Cox
Sir Owen Williams and Partners Geotechnical Ltd, UK

ABSTRACT: An assessment of stability measures chosen to stabilise rock cuttings in

Precambrian rhyolite and Upper Carboniferous Coal Measures in Shropshire and West
Glamorgan, United Kingdom, respectively is presented.
The paper comments upon the analyses performed in assessing the stability of the
cuttings' rock slopes and the different approaches that were required in the design of
stability measures.
The design of stability measures included methods for stabilising local areas of
pOtential instability such as rock bolts and dowels for unstable blocks, buttress walls
for completely weathered master joints within shear zones and geotextile reinforcement
for overburden above the rock slopes.

RESUME: Cet article présente une évaluation des mesures choisies pour stabiliser des
tranchées dans des roches telles que la rhyolite du précambrien et les couches du
Carbonifère Supérieur respectivement du Shropshire et du West Glamorgan en Grande
Bretagne.
L'article commente les analyses effectuées pour, évaluer, la stabilité des parois
rocheuses de tranchées ainsi que les differentes approches nécessaires lors de la
conception des mesures de stabilisation.
Le proget de mesures de stabilisation étudie différentes méthodes pour stabiliser des
ZOnes precises à potentiel d'instabilité. Ces procédés sont l'usage de gougeons et de
boulons d'ancrage pour les blocs instables, la construction de murs de contrefort pour
l~s jOints principaux désagrégés dans les zones de cisaillement et l'emploi de
geotextiles pour renforcer les couches de sols au dessus des paroies rocheuses.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Es liegt eine Beurteilung der gewahlten Stabilitatsmessungen zur

Stabilisierung von Felsaushub im prakambrischen Rhyolit und den Kohleschichten des
Oberkarbon jeweils in Shropshire und in West Glamorgan, GroBbritannien, vor.
Der Bericht kommentiert die durchgeführten Analysen bei der Bewertung der Stabilitat.
Von Felshangen der Aushübe und die unterschiedlichen Ansatze, die bei der Erstellung
der Stabilitatsmessungen erforderlich waren.
Die Stabilitatsmessungen umfaBten Methoden zur Stabilisierung ortlicher Bereiche
Potentieller Instabilitat wie z.B. Felsnagel und Dübel für instabile Blocke,
Felsvorsprungwinde für vollstandig verwitterte Hauptkluften in Scherzonen und
geotextile Verstarkungen für Deckgebirge über den Felshangen.

1 INTRODUCTION constructed through glacial sand and

gravel, boulder clay and Precambrian
T~e rock cutting at Overley Hill is rhyolite.
S~tuated west of the M54 terminus at The Earlswood Rock Cutting forms part
ClUddley on the A5 Improvement between of the western extension to the M4
Telford and Shrewsbury approximately 2 km motorway 2 km west of Neath, West
west of the town of Wellington, Glamorgan (Figure 1). The cutting is
Shropshire, UK (Figure 1). The cutting is approximately 400 m long with a maximum
approximately 500 • in length and has been depth of 35 • in the Upper coal Measures.

779
 Topsoil was to cover the surface of the
batters which were to be landscaped with
wild grasses natural to the area. The
slope angle of each rock face was to be
confirmed following a stability assessment
using rock discontinuity data recorded
from trial pre-splitting excavations prior
to construction of the cutting. Rock
traps were to be constructed at the toe of
the rhyolite slopes. These traps were
designed to have depths varying between
0.7 m and 1 m, and a width of no more than
2 m when the overlying rock slope was at
about 9.40 m.
The design of the cutting through
Earlswood Hill had to consider the
formation of four rock faces each of which
Fig, 1 Locations of the Rock Cuttings
would present different problems during
construction. These faces were as
follows:-
2 GEOLOGY AND GROUND CONDITIONS
al Slip road - northern face.
Overley Hill is an inlier of rhyolite,
dated from zircon within the rock at b) Slip road - southern face.
566 ± 2 Ma, which is bordered on its
western and eastern slopes by the Brockton c) Main cutting - east face.
and Burcot Faults (continuations of the
Church Stretton Fault) respectively. d) Main cutting - west face.
Coed-yr-AII t (Upper Coal Measures l As previously stated, the dip of the
sandstone and mudstone forms the low lying beds is 30° towards the north. The bedS
ground surrounding Overley Hill. Faults are further affected by two sets of sub-
master joints within the Precambrian rock vertical joints trending approximatelY
strike in a north north-east to north-south and east-west. The blocky
south south-west directio~ which is nature of the rock is not particularlY
parallel to the prevailing direction of satisfactory for forming stable faces. It
major folds and faults within Shropshire. was immediately apparent that construction
Natural ground water is at the of the southern face of the slip road waS
interface of the rhyolite and the likely to be difficult since the bedding
overlying boulder clay. was likely to dip out of the face
The geology of the Earlswood area in presenting suitable planes for failure.
that of rhythmically deposited sediments This face was designed at 30° in an
of the Pennant Measures (Upper Coal attempt to reduce this problem.
Measures). These rocks comprise Conversely, the northern face was easier
sandstones, mudstones and siltstones of a to deal with since bedding dipped directlY
fluviatile origin with occasional coals into the face and slopes of 60° were
and seat earths. The sequence forms part designed accordingly. 'n
of the southerly limb of the synform which The curvature and length of the ma1
forms the South Wales Coalfield, and as cutting complicated matters. The eastern
such the dip is generally northwards at face was considered to be stable sin7e
approximately 30°. there was a limited tendency for sl1P
planes to develop on bedding planes that
dipped obliquely into the cutting faced
3 THE DESIGN CONCEPTS It was accepted that this situation woul•
be suitable for the construction of 80
Between the overburden and rock slopes for slopes. Conversely, in the western face
the Overley Hill Cutting there was to be a the dip of the bedding was oblique and out
3 m wide berm which was to be underlain by of the face, sometimes obviated by t~e
slopes of 70° constructed in rhyolite curvature of the cutting. Although th1~
having a maximum height of 9.40 m. Slope was recognised as a potential problem a
stability analyses indicated that for a an early stage, the aesthetics of the
6 m deep cutting, overburden slopes having concept tended to dictate the need for a
a gradient of 1:2 would be satisfactory. .
symmetr1cal arrangement. Furt er, the
h
depth of the cutting was such that high,

780
steep slopes would be inadvisable and thus
l50' N
the ultimate design was one where a series
of faces formed at 80° were separated by
berms of 5 m. It was considered that this
would limit failures and the variability
of the available data tended to support
this.
At the design stage it was decided that
80° faces should be formed by the pre-
split blasting technique whilst the
remainder of the rock was to be removed by
bulk blasting. Different rocks behave
differently during pre-split blasting
which is governed by such factors as the
overall geometry and strength of the rock.
In the Earlswood Cutting sandstones
responded better to pre-splitting than
mudstone.

4 ROCK STABILITY ASSESSMENT Fig.2 Contour.d St.reonlt illustrating th. 'W.dO' Failur. AnalySis for t he
PropoUd Nort~ FoCI"'; Rock Slop. at OVlrl.y Hill using Discontinuity
M,alurt",.n', coUectld frora th. Pr.-splittlng Trials
The stability of the rock slopes in both
cuttings is controlled by discontinuities
such as faults and joint sets, all of Based on observations of dip and
which act as potential planes of weakness. orientation of discontinuities taken from
Rock stability assessment in both cases the pre-split trials, stability analyses
was carried out in accordance with the illustrated that rock slopes of 70° were
TRRL Report LR 1039. The main purpose for appropriate for both the northern and
Using this technique is that it readily southern slopes of the cutting.
defines the potential of a jointed rock For design slopés of 80° in the
mass to fail by one or more of three Earlswood Cutting, wedge and toppling
failure modes, namely; plane, wedge or (Figure 3) failures were considered to be
toppling. the most significant modes of failure but
Following a preliminary assessment of plane failure was playing its part in
the stability of rhyolite using certain areas of the cutting.
discontinuity readings collected from rock
outcrops and quarries surrounding Overley
Hill it was concluded that for 70° slopes,
wedge and plane failures were likely to be
the most significant modes of failure.
A further qualitive assessment on the
Potential stability of rhyolite for 70°
cutting slopes was undertaken prior to
construction of the design slope.
Discontinuity measurements were recorded
during a survey carried out on rhyolite
w
exposed in the trial pre-splitting blast
craters and used in this assessment.

Results of the stability assessment

showed that the possibility of plane
failures were greater on rhyolite slo~
dipping at 70° to the north (350°) than
those dipping in a southerly direction
(170°) at a similar angle.
Wedge failures were possible on the Fig. ) Contoured St.rtanlt Illusrratlng th, Toppll"l9 Failure AnalysIs tor th.
Proposed Rock Slop" at Eariswood HIli UllrnJ OlscontlnUlty
SOuthward facing slope where a l'1.asurllllnh coil.cted fro. m. Prt- spilttu'9 TrlQls
discontinuity plane dipping at 56° to the
east south-east (126°) intersected a
similar plane dipping at 65° to the north Therefore, a preliminary conclusion of
nOrth-east (036°) (Figure 2). this work was that it would be necessary
to reduce the slope to such a degree that

781
 approaches were adopted for rock slopes
the potential for failures would be
reduced. This was achieved by a reduction exposed in the Overley and Earlswood Hill
of the slope angle to a nominal 55°. Cuttings, namely rock bolts and dowels.
Although this was enabling a stable face Rock bolts are steel elements grouted
to be formed, it was recognised at this into holes in the rock mass and fitted
with a face plate and nut. They can be
stage that there would be the need for
extensive stabilisation techniques to tensioned or untensioned. Dowels are
steel elements grouted into pre-drilled
ensure long term stability.
holes in the rock and behave essentially
Further analyses on the quality of the
rock mass was carried out by the standard as shear pins, therefore they are ideally
techniques introduced by Bieniawski suited to dealing with problems of sliding
(1976) and Barton et al (1976). rock masses.

Following the construction of the

5 STABILITY MEASURES REQUIRED FOR THE cutting through Overley Hill, those blockS
of rhyolite identified during the mapping
ROCK SLOPES
for possible stabilisation on to the rock
Stability measures were required where slopes using rock bolts were studied
highly fractured zones, master joints or during a site inspection, and confirmed as
coal seams within the rhyolite and Upper requiring rock bolts from this inspection.
Coal Measures cuttings intersected the Dimensions of the loose slabs of rhyolite
design slopes, and where highly disturbed requiring this stability measure were
loose rock was present at the top of the recorded and used in the calculation of
rock slopes. Areas of loose blocks or the spacing, angle and direction of
potential failures would require attention inclination, and free and fixed lengths of
too. Details of the treatments were the rock bolts in accordance with
decided during the rock face excavations. Stillborg (1986) and B5 8081 (1989).
To assist in identifying areas where Thirty-three rock bolts having lengthS
stability measures were required - the varying between 2.5 m and 6.5 m and
type of treatment and its extent - the diameters of 25 mm were inserted into pre-
production rock slopes in the cuttings at drilled holes. The thread bars had an
Overley and Earlswood Hills were logged in ultimate strength of 270 kN and a yield
10 m lengths and the following factual strength of 245 kN. The bolts in the rock
data was recorded:- slopes at both cuttings were installed,
tensioned and retensioned in accordance
1. Photographic record. with BS 8081 (1989).
The design of the rock bolting scheme
2. Sketch elevation of the rock slope for the Earlswood Cutting was not straight
showing the rock type, dip and azimuth forward in so far as some areas of the
of the master discontinuity sets. cutting were unsuitable for bolting, some
were marginal and some could be treated
3. Other relevant features such as using a combination of methods. However,
fractured zones, weathered zones, face using the guidelines dictated by the
appearance and mineralisation. analysis of Barton et al (1976) it waS
decided that rock bolting was needed on
By using the logs prepared from the 2.5 m centres in the regions where they
engineering geological mapping of the were required.
design slope and subsequent site At various points throughout the
inspections of those areas identified for cutting instrumented rock bolts were
treatment on the logs, the following installed in an effort to monitor the
stability measures were decided on site:- changes in load occurring to the bolts as
the rock mass responded to external
features such as weathering. The
Rock bolts and dowels instrumented rock bolt is a hollow,
ribbed, steel bar fitted with four
The methods of analysing the rock mass internal extensometer rods secured at
identified potential stability problems anchor points in the body of the bolt, and
and, in a general sense, indicated the extending from these to a measuring head.
solutions to these problems. The most Changes in load, compression or tension,
basic of stabilisation methods is rock along the bolt causes the relative
reinforcement or the introduction of position of the anchor points to change.
elements into the rock to reinforce the This movement is measured by the use of a
inherent rock strength. Two such dial depth gauge in the aperture at the
measuring head.

782
 The instrumented rock. bolts were
installed in the same manner as the other
bolts in the Earlswood Cutting. Once they
had been tensioned base readings were
taken and are to be used for comparison
purposes throughout the foreseeable future
as an indication as to the behaviour of
the rock bolts as a whole.
Dowels are steel bars grouted into the
rock, usually vertically or close to it,
so as to act as shear pins. They act to
prevent the sliding of blocks in a rock
mass. They differ from bolts in that they
are not tensioned, require little specific
Rhyolite and Upper Coal Measures strata
excavated from the cutting were used in
the construction of 300 mm wide masonry
walls. Weep holes, 100 mm in diameter,
were positioned at 5 m centre intervals in
the masonry walls. Inclined pipes connect
the weep holes to the fractured or
weathered zones within the natural slopes,
and assist in the removal of condensation
from behind the C 10 P concrete poured
into the voids between the rock slopes and
masonry (Figure 4).
Boo:tall

design work and are grouted fully along Masonry fOClnç of th. rhyollh~
the length at the time of installation. exr cvc t e d from th. tuttlng
to be flush wltn the
In the Earlswood Cutting it was clear c djc cent cutting focI
that there would be instances where the
Use of dowels would be an advantage,
LOOSt material r,mov'd
particularly on any reasonably long and replaced by
shallow surface. This was particularly the ClOP concrete :: 9m
case in the southern slip road cutting Drcllnagt Chonnlll 'Wttp
Holts.
where dowels, 'only, were used to enhance
the stability of the rock slopes. In the
main cutting it was decided that dowels
Loau matinal r,movld and
and rock bolts could be used in close "placId by underplnnlnç In
proximity, and as such dowels were used as ClOP (Oner'fl Vith reinforCing
bars or mtsh tapPle to
part of the 2.5 m grid that was selected do.."ls
for the rock bolts. Some areas of the
main cutting were predominated by the
dowelling method of reinforcement, notably CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW
the area towards the southern end of the Not to Seal,
cutting where bedding planes dip more or
less directly into the cutting following FIg. 4 DUIgn Ddall of th. Buttr •• , 'Wall, for th. Rock CuttlnlJ'
at Qnrl.y and EClrlswood Mills
the recognition of sliding as the major
stability problem.
Biodegradable soil blankets were
positioned over topsoil, aixed with wild
Buttress Walls grass seeds, on regraded overburden slopes
at Overley Hill in order to stabilise the
A site inspection of the areas highlighted batters.
for buttress wall construction was Gouge within a highly to completely
undertaken soon after the construction of weathered 'seam' of rhyolite on the
the cuttings through Overley and Earlswood southern slope of Overley Hill Cutting was
Hills where dimensions of the cavities carefully cut out and exposed. Four
requiring this stability trea~ent were dowels were inserted vertically 600 mm
recorded. The design detail of the into the fresh rhyolite from the
buttress wall was modified to take into foundation of the buttress wall. Inserted
account fractured or weathered zones, coal horizontally 300 mm into the unweathered
seams and seat earths which were exposed rock were "L-dowels" at 500 mm centre
On the rock slopes and requiring intervals. The masonry wall was
protection using this form of treatment. constructed to a height of about 9 m in
The buttress walls in the cuttings were the form of an "hour-glass".
designed and constructed in a manner which
contoured the rock slopes. During
construction of the walls, which slope Rock Fall Netting
tOwards the bat'ter at 5° from the
Vertical, their heights were determined by In the Earlswood Cutting most of the face
prOjecting down the line of the overburden was capable of being drilled so as to
slope to each wall plus 0.5 m. tccept bolts or dowels. However, in
Foundations of the masonry walls were certain areas this was not a realistic
regulated with blinding concrete, the possibility since rock conditions were so
depth of which varied. poor i.e. heavily jointed, fractured and

783
of low strength, as to make the for additional protection. The mesh was
installation of bolts or dowels reinforced by 13 mm diameter galvanised
impossible. Any movement of the material steel, vertical cables placed at 2 m
is usually as small friable particles and centres. In all cases where netting was
hence the danger from falling large blocks used, every effort was made to pin it
is reduced. closely to the contour of the cutting face
Rock fall netting was therefore thereby limiting the momentum any moving
inserted over some areas of the rock block could acquire before impact with the
slopes in the Earlswood Cutting. It was netting. Also, rock bolting and dowelling
fastened to the rock face using short took place close to the areas where
anchors (Figure 5) so that should any netting was required. There is overlap of
fragment move it would move but a short the stabilisation methods to ensure that
distance before it was restrained. spalling of harder material at· the edges
of the weak material is minimised.

Detail of Top Anchar

Shotcreting
Section X'X

Shotcreting is the term used for the work

of spraying concrete to provide structural
support. The effect of high pressure
spraying of concrete is that the finished
material is very dense and can have very
high strengths. The benefit of shotcrete
is that it can deliver quite large
quantities of concrete over short periods
of time and can be used to lend structural
support in a variety of situations.
Perhaps the biggest disadvantage of
Sectian x-x
shotcrete is the final appearance which
has been described by some as a
'Disneyland' effect. Efforts are made to
reduce the artificial finish with varying
success. usually the addition of suitable
colouring is sufficient to make the
finished surface more acceptable.
On the western face of the Earlswood
Cutting there was an area of fractured,
weak mudstone immediately underlying a
coal seam and seat earth in the upper
parts of the cutting where it waS
considered necessary to use shotcreting.
The area had suffered from overbreak
during blasting of the face, together with
over-dig in an attempt to recover the
Fig. 5 Design Detoil of the Rock Fall Netting to Protect
the Rock Slopes in the Eur t swood Cutting situation. The result was to form a 20 m
long vertical/sub-vertical face of between
3 to 4 m high which was unstable.
Initially efforts were made to rock bolt
The net .would hold the fragment until· the face during those works and although
it was weathered sufficiently small to successful elsewhere the poor state of the
migrate downslope under the netting to be rock meant that rock bolts were difficult
cleaned away under regular maintenance to install. This difficulty of
works. The net used was of a type that installation was compounded by some
would readily support loads of 2 to 4 considerable danger to the work face and a
tonnes and hence all but the largest straight forward rock bolting scheme had
blocks could be held. If the rock is such to be abandoned.
that blocks of this size can be released It was recognised that shotcrete waS
then it should have been stabilised by likely to be inadequate on its own,
methods other than netting. The netting because it did not have the required
used had a double twist hexagonal mesh flexural strength to prevent any
with approximately 3 mm diameter substantial movement of the pillars of
galvanised wire which was coated with PVC rock li~ely to be prone to toppling

784
failures. Therefore, a combined three on a smaller spacing was carried out to
stage process was developed to stabilise ensure voids had been infilled.
the area. This involved the treatment of Coal workings in a seam below the
the slope with a thin, 50 mm layer of cutting had produced cavities auch nearer
shotcrete which would add temporary the surface than had originally been
stability to the face, fill gaping joints expected. The highest cavity was
and generally form a band between the between 3 and 4 m above formation level.
various loose blocks. Secondly, following The extraction of coal had produced some
a suitable period of hardening of the instability in the roof rocks but not
shotcrete layer, rock bolts were sufficient to cause collapse. However
installed. These were of the order of 7 m when excavation in the cutting withdrew
long to allow the anchor zone to be formed lateral support to the roof rocks, it was
in generally sound, if weak rock. These clear that there could be a major collapse
bolts were suitably tensioned, their face of the slope over the 20 m of the face
plates supported by reinforcement on the affected. Of primary concern at this
shotcrete face and secondary grouted. The stage was the stabilisation of the slope
final phase of the operation was a 75 mm sufficiently to allow the work of filling
layer of shotcrete over the entire face. the underlying cavity to be carried out in
This second layer of shotcrete differed safety. This was achieved by the use of
from the first because it was reinforced temporary works in the form of 7 m rock
with steel fibres to increase the flexural bolts in an arch above the cavity at
strength of the finished surface. Steel roughly 3 m centres. These were tensioned
fibres, up to 75 mm long were added to the to a minimal load of 50 kN since it
mix so that they were sprayed onto the was recognised that they would be for
face with the concrete mix. Although the temporary service only. It was decided
method worked well, it was not without its that a mass concrete wall would be
problems since the addition of fibres constructed which allowed concrete to be
caused problems in pumping the mix to the placed in the cavity. This wall was faced
nozzle. with rock excavated from the cutting.
Shotcreting was also used on the
eastern slope in two areas where the
vertical face was also affected by weak 6 CONCLUSIONS
mudstone outcrops. It was considered
unnecessary to batter the face back but Rock bolts are used wherever possible to
that rock bolting alone would not be support loose blocks of fractured rock on
adequate to prevent significant spalling to the rock face that would otherwise be
and undermining of the upper portions of removed by scaling. Rock bolts lose their
the face. The rock bolt spacing was load when there is movement within the
varied according to the strength of the rock or where gouge is present surrounding
rock but its closest was 2.5 m. the free length of the rock bolt. It is
Altogether something of the order of therefore recommended that bolts are
1200 m' of shotcrete was used to stabilise retensioned in accordance with BS
the vertical faces of the upper and lower 8081 (1989) approximately 6 months after
Portions of the eastern slope of ~he the initial phase of tensioning. The
Earlswood Rock Cutting. In all cases the 'free length' of the rock bolt is to be of
final layer of shotcrete was coloured, a length which prevents a significant load
with varying success, in an attempt to loss when there is a small relaxation in
alleviate the environmental impact and the bolt or rock.
lessen the 'Disneyland' effect. Dowels were used as an effective
Rock fall nets and shotcrete were not measure where shearing was recognised as a
uSed to assist in the stabilisation of the major problem.
rock slopes within the cutting at Overley Buttress walls are constructed to
Hill.
protect weathered situations such as joint
sets, fracture planes, coal seams or seat
earths within rock slopes. If these
Treatment of Mine Workings and Coal Seams unstable areas of rock remain untreated
not only would the rock slopes experience
Abandoned mine workings occurring in coal possible plane, wedge and toppling
seams within 15 m of formation level were failures but instability would be observed
treated so as to prevent subsidence of the on the overlying overburden slopes in the
Carriageway in the Earlswood cutting. form of shallow, translational slips.
In certain areas where the grout take Rock fall netting can be effectively
had been substantial, secondary drilling used to prevent downward aigration of rock

785
fragments where the physical nature of the
rock to be reinforced aakes other methods
unsatisfactory.
Shotcreting is a method of rock
stabilisation which has been used as an
alternative to rock bolting and the
construction of buttress walls where high
strength is not required but where safety
of the work force during installation is
of a high priority.

REFERENCES

Barton, N. R., Review of a New Shear

Criterion for Rock Joints. Engineering
Geology, Elsevier. Vol. 7, 1973, pages
287-332.
Barton, N., Lien, R., & Lunde, J. (1974)
Engineering Classification of Rock
Masses for the Design of Tunnel
Support. Rock Mechanics. Vol. 6,
pages 189 - 236.
Bieniawski, Z. T. (1979), The Geomechanics
Classification in Rock Engineering
Applications. Proc. 4th Int. Congo
Rock. Mech. ISRM Montreux, Vol. 2,
pages 41-48.
British Standards Institution (1989)
BS 8081. Code of Practice for Ground
Anchorages.
Stillborg, B. Professional Users Handbook
for Rock Bolting. Series on Rock and
Soil Mechanics, Trans Tech publications
Vol. S, 1986.
Transport and Road Research Laboratory
(G. D. Matheson) Laboratory Report.
TRRL LR 1039. Rock Stability
Assessment in Preliminary Site
Investigations - Graphical Methods.
Department of the Environment and
Department of Transport. 1983.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank the

Director, West Midlands Construction
Programme Division, Department of
Transport, and the Welsh Office for
permission to publish this paper. The
views expressed in this paper are those of
the authors and are not necessarily those
of the Department of Transport, West
Midlands Construction Programme Division
nor the Welsh Office.

786