MINERAL PROCESSING 143

Advantages and methods for the real-time detection

of hydrocyclone operating problems
C. Bazin
Université Laval, Quebec City, Quebec

M. Renaud
Université Laval, Quebec City, Quebec

A. Faucher and M. Mai Manga

COREM, Quebec City, Quebec

ABSTRACT Grinding circuits are operated in the presence of disturbances resulting from ore changes
and equipment malfunctions, such as hydrocyclone overloading, worn or partly plugged apexes, surging,
and internal liner detachment that may cause a loss of classification performance. Metal recovery losses
in downstream leaching or flotation circuits justify the development of methods for rapid detection of
hydrocyclone malfunction. Two methods are presented in this paper. The first method uses measurements
from sensors available in a grinding circuit and the second uses vibration sensors installed on the indi-
vidual hydrocyclones of a nest.

KEYWORDS Hydrocyclone, Malfunction, Vibration analysis, Simulation, Diagnosis

RÉSUMÉ Les circuits de broyage sont parfois perturbés par des changements dans le minerai et le mau-
vais fonctionnement d’équipements, tel que la surcharge des cyclones, l’usure ou le blocage partiel des
apex, les surpressions et le décollement du revêtement interne, qui peuvent causer une perte de rende-
ment en classification. Les pertes dans la récupération des métaux dans les circuits de lixiviation ou de
flottation en aval justifient le développement de méthodes de détection rapide du mauvais fonctionnement
des hydrocyclones. Deux méthodes sont abordées dans cet article. La première méthode utilise des
mesures de capteurs disponibles dans un circuit de broyage et la seconde utilise des capteurs de vibration
installés sur les hydrocyclones individuels d’un nid.

MOTS CLÉS Hydrocyclone, Mauvais fonctionnement, Analyse des vibrations, Simulation, Diagnostic

INTRODUCTION
Hydrocyclones are used for many purposes, ranging
from water separation, fines removal, and the preparation of
the feed for subsequent concentration circuits in a mineral
processing plant. The strategic role of the hydrocyclones for
the preparation of the feed to a concentration circuit is often
underestimated because of the hydrocyclones’ simplicity of
operation and robustness (McIvor, 1988; Napier-Munn,
Morell, Morrison, & Kojovic, 1996). It remains that, in
spite of their simplicity, hydrocyclones have been studied
extensively from 1970 to 1990 with the objective of devel-
oping mathematical models of their operation to be incor-
porated into grinding circuit simulators (Flintoff, Plitt, &
Turak, 1987; Lynch, 1977; Napier-Munn et al., 1996). Such
a development effort is already an acknowledgment of the
importance of these units in a mineral processing plant. Sev-
eral authors (Casali, Vallebuona, Bustos, Gonzalez, &
Gimenez, 1998; Del Villar, Thibault, & Del Villar, 1996;
Plitt & Kawatra, 1979) have proposed soft sensors to esti-
mate the classification efficiency of hydrocyclones using
sensor measurements. However, few of the proposed sensors
are used in the industry. More recently several papers were
published that explore the application of 3-D modelling of
the hydrocyclones (Cullivan, Williams, Dyakowski, &
Cross, 2004; Narasimha, Sripriya, & Banerjee, 2005) and
sensors (Bochicchio & Olson, 2010; Bond et al., 1999; Hou,
Hunt, & Williams, 1998; Neesse, Schneider, & Golyk, 2003;
Willams, Dickin, Gutierrez, & Dyakowski, 1997; Williams,
Ilyas, & Dyakowski, 1995) to help in the detection of

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144 C. Bazin, M. Renaud, A. Faucher, and M. Mai Manga

hydrocyclone malfunction. Krebs (as cited by Olson, 2008)
has developed and commercialized a system to help in the
detection of roping situations.
This paper examines the economic impact of a malfunc-
tion of one or more hydrocyclone units in a nest on the
operation of a subsequent concentration process. Two
approaches are considered for the detection of unit mal-
function. The first approach is based on an analysis of the
signals from sensors currently available in a grinding cir-
cuit. The second approach is based on monitoring and
analysis of the hydrocyclone vibration intensity, as meas-
ured by sensors installed on a unit. The latter method was
successfully tested in a pilot plant and was validated in an
industrial plant.
hydrocyclone operation through slurry viscosity, which
interferes with the movement of the particles submitted to
the classification process. Depending upon the required
plant capacity, several hydrocyclones may be grouped in a
nest or a row to carry out the classification.
Hydrocyclone malfunctions
Various malfunctions can hamper the operation of
hydrocyclones (Bond et al., 1999; Napier-Munn et al.,
1996; Plitt, Flintoff , & Neale, 1986). The feed pipe or inlet
valve may plug, thereby reducing the number of active
hydrocyclones of a nest. The apex can be completely or

OPERATION OF HYDROCYCLONES
The operation of a classifier is often characterized by the
partition curve that is dependent on the unit geometry and
operating conditions. These aspects are briefly reviewed in
this section.

Characterization of a separation process

Hydrocyclones separate particles according to their
weight or size, for particles of constant specific gravity and
shape, using a balance between centrifugal, fluid, drag
forces, and gravity (Lynch, 1977). The coarse (heavy) par-
ticles are directed to the underflow, while fines and/or light
minerals report to the overflow of the hydrocyclone. The
quality of the separation process is measured by the split of
the particles between the feed and the underflow streams
using:
WU xU;i
Yi = 100 –––––––– (1)
WF xF;i

The proportion of particles in size class i that reports to

Figure 1. Hydrocyclone main components.
the underflow is denoted Yi; the solids flow rates in the
hydrocyclone feed and underflow are respectively noted WF
and WU, while xF;i and xU;i stand for the weight fractions in
size interval i. The values of Yi are usually plotted against
the geometric mean particle size of a size interval to obtain
the partition or efficiency curve of the classifier.

Hydrocyclone geometry
The main components of a hydrocyclone are shown in
Figure 1. The hydrocyclone diameter influences the cut size
and the capacity of the unit. The cut size is the size of par-
ticle around which the separation should occur in the clas-
sifier. For a perfect classifier, the cut size corresponds to
the position of the vertical line of the ideal separation curve
(shown in Figure 2). Once the hydrocyclone is commis-
sioned, the operator can modify the apex (diameter of the
underflow pipe) and the vortex finder (diameter of the over-
flow pipe) to adjust the capacity and cut size of the hydro-
cyclone. The slurry feed solids concentration influences the Figure 2. Ideal and typical partition curves for a classifier.

CIM Journal | Vol. 2, No. 3

 Advantages and methods for the real-time detection of hydrocyclone operating problems 145

partly plugged (Plitt et al., 1986) or the detachment of an
internal liner may deteriorate the quality of the separation
(Bazin, Mai Manga, Renaud, & Caron, 2009). When the
underflow of a hydrocyclone becomes overloaded, the apex
discharge may shift from a normal spray discharge to a rope
discharge, leading to a coarser cut size (Bond et al., 1999;
Plitt, Flintoff, & Stuffco, 1987). Hydrocyclones may also
undergo surging that results from intermittent feed, leading
to less efficient classification.
Some of these malfunctions can be detected by a visual
inspection of the nest’s hydrocyclones. However, hydrocy-
clone nests are sometimes located in remote areas of a plant
and are, therefore, difficult to access by operators (Napier-
Munn et al., 1996). The lighting around a hydrocyclone nest
is often insufficient for good inspection of the individual
hydrocyclone underflow streams. In some cases, the under-
flow discharge is covered by a wooden or rubber barrier to
reduce splashing, which makes its inspection difficult.
Instrumentation for grinding circuits
The degree of instrumentation available in a grinding
circuit varies from plant to plant. The usual sensors for a
grinding circuit consist of a weight meter for the fresh feed
conveyor, a pressure meter on the hydrocyclone nest, volu-
metric flow and slurry density meters on the overall hydro-
cyclone nest feed pipe, pump box level, power meters on
the mill motors, and added process water flow meters. Bear-
ing pressure sensors are used to monitor changes in the
mass of ore in autogenous and semi-autogenous grinding
mills. Particle size monitors are sometimes available to
monitor the size distribution of the hydrocyclone overflow.
All these sensors provide real-time measurements that are
collected by a computer, stored in a data historian,
and used for process control and daily balance
reports.
CuPb flotation circuit
The circuit considered is operated by Xstrata Zinc
Canada’s Brunswick mine in New Brunswick. The plant
processes a complex sulphide ore, consisting of sphalerite,
galena, chalcopyrite, pyrite, and non-sulphide, to produce
zinc, copper, lead, and bulk lead-zinc concentrates (Orford
et al., 2005). The circuit consists of primary grinding with
a semi-autogenous mill, followed by flash flotation of the
lead and copper minerals. The tailings of flash flotation are
processed in the secondary grinding circuit (shown in Fig-
ure 3). The overflow from the hydrocyclones of the second-
ary grinding circuit advances to a copper-lead flotation
circuit that completes the rougher recovery of the copper
and lead minerals.
The secondary grinding circuit is equipped with a nest of
18 hydrocyclones with, typically, eight to 10 operating
units. The plugging of one of the (nine) operating hydrocy-
clone apexes is simulated in order to generate the data for
the analysis of the impact of a hydrocyclone malfunction on
CuPb scavenger flotation (see Figure 3). The dynamic
grinding circuit simulator used for this purpose is described
by Bazin et al. (2009). The effect of the plugged apex on
process variables is summarized in Tables 1 and 2. A
plugged apex forces the feed of the hydrocyclone to the
overflow, leading to a coarser overflow product (Table 1).
The plugged apex produces a decrease in the hydrocyclone
feed rate because one of the unit underflows bypasses to the
overflow. The circulating load decreases, leading to
decreased pressure to the hydrocyclones and a lower pump
box level, assuming that the pump is operated at a constant
speed (Table 2). It should be noted that the effect of a
plugged apex in a nest of nine hydrocyclones is small and

IMPACT OF HYDROCYCLONE
MALFUNCTION
No detailed studies are available to assess the
impact of an abnormal operation of hydrocyclones
on the downstream flotation or leaching circuits.
The analysis from actual plant data is difficult
because it requires identifying a problem and trig-
gering a sampling campaign on the concentration
circuits. In both normal and abnormal situations,
developing valid conclusions may require more
than one sampling campaign in order to establish a
basis for comparison. However, it is obvious that, if
an abnormal situation is detected, it will be cor-
rected rather than allowing it to continue for the
purpose of studying its impact on the downstream
process. Simulation is used here to provide a first
approximation of the economic impact of a hydro-
cyclone malfunction on the operation of flotation
and gold leaching circuits. Figure 3. Xstrata Zinc Brunswick Mining secondary grinding circuit.

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146 C. Bazin, M. Renaud, A. Faucher, and M. Mai Manga

would be difficult to detect from sensor measurements,

which is the typical difficulty associated with the detection
of hydrocyclone malfunction from sensor measurements.
Flotation response of the CuPb rougher circuit is simu-
lated using recovery by size of the minerals (Bazin, Grant,
& Cooper, 1991) and by the size distribution of the circuit
feed (cyclone overflow). For this particular complex sul-
phide ore, Bazin et al. (1991) found that the size distribu-
tion of the minerals is directly related to the ore size
distribution. Therefore, using the ore size distribution, it is
possible to estimate the size distribution of the individual
minerals. This information is combined with the mineral
recovery by size to estimate the overall mineral recovery of
the flotation process (Bazin et al., 1991). The application of Figure 4. Doyon grinding circuit.
this procedure to the ore size distribution of Table 1 leads to
the results found in Table 3.
Lead recovery is affected by the coarser feed (P80 = tion. Concentrate grade is not significantly affected by the
0.050 mm) resulting from the plugged apex, compared to plugged apex. In the actual circuit, the rougher and scav-
the normal situation (P80 = 0.043 mm). Recovery of copper enger concentrate streams (Figure 3) are combined and
is also negatively impacted by the hydrocyclone malfunc- cleaned in three stages. Approximately 95% of the lead
minerals are recovered in the cleaner circuit. The overall
loss of Pb recovery due to the plugged apex is estimated at
Table 1. Effect of a plugged apex on the cumulative size distribution of the 2.2% [ = 0.95x (79.1 - 76.8)]%. Assuming that the plugged
grinding circuit product
apex is detected two weeks after the problem arose and that
Size (mm) % Passing Normal Plugged
the circuit feed rate is 435 t/h with a 2.2% Pb content in the
0.424 100.0 100.0
0.300 100.0 99.9
scavenger flotation feed, the loss of gross revenue is
0.212 100.0 99.6 approximately US$122,000 (75,000 kg of Pb at
0.150 99.8 98.7 US$1.65/kg). This evaluation, which does not include
0.106 98.8 97.0 losses of copper and silver (and possibly of zinc, due to the
0.075 94.7 92.5 higher lead and copper content in the zinc circuit flotation
0.053 85.1 82.9
feed), clearly supports the financial incentive for evaluating
0.038 71.1 69.6
algorithms that detect hydrocyclone malfunction.
0.027 56.4 55.5
0.019 43.2 42.9
0.013 32.6 32.5 Gold leaching plant
0.009 24.6 24.6 The second example is based on the observation of a loss
-0.009 0.0 0.0 in quality of classification of a 50 cm (20 in.) hydrocyclone
at the Mines Doyon gold concentrator, located near Rouyn
Noranda, Quebec. The grinding circuit configuration at the
Table 2. Effect of a plugged apex on sensed variables time of sampling is shown in Figure 4. This circuit differs
Normal Plugged from the one shown in Figure 4 because a secondary grind-
Pump box level (%) 44 33 ing circuit has been added to process the primary hydrocy-
Pump RPM 566 566 clone overflow.
Hydrocyclone pressure (psi) 17.8 17.2 The partition curve of the primary hydrocyclones,
Hyddrocyclone feed rate (m3/h) 719 697
observed from the data of two sampling campaigns, is shown
Hydrocyclone feed % solids 60.2 59.3
in Figure 5. Coarse particles escape to the overflow during
operation, with liner problems indicated
by the top part of the curve that does not
Table 3. Simulated CuPb flotation bank results rapidly converge to 100%. This effect was
Recovery or Loss (%) Concentrate Grade (%) found to be caused by the detachment of
Mineral Normal Plugged Metal Normal Plugged an internal liner of the hydrocyclone.
PbS 79.1 76.8 Pb 12.8 12.5
Sampling campaign data conducted after
CuFeS2 62.5 61.3 Cu 2.2 2.2
the repair of the unit produced a second
Zn(Fe)S 16.4 16.1 Zn 10.0 9.9
FeS2 18.9 18.5 Fe 26.2 25.7
partition curve (Figure 5), which indicates
Non-sulphide 0.3 0.3 acceptable classification of the coarse par-
ticles. Such a problem is difficult to detect

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 Advantages and methods for the real-time detection of hydrocyclone operating problems
Figure 5. Measured impact of a liner detachment on the hydrocyclone
partition curve.
because the concentration of coarse particles increases only
marginally, with a P95 that shifts from 0.178 to 0.186 mm in
the overflow product. This increase could easily be attributed
to measurement error.
The impact of this type of hydrocyclone problem on gold
recovery is simulated using variation of the gold leaching
rate and (infinite) recovery as a function of particle size, as
observed in a previous study (Bazin, Egan, & Hodouin,
2009). An assumption is made that gold content in the size
intervals is not affected by the change in ore classification.
The gold leaching simulator from Bazin, Egan, Khalesi,
Hodouin, and Bellec’s (2007) study was run with the size
data from Figure 5 to obtain the impact of the hydrocyclone
malfunction on gold recovery. The estimated loss of Au
recovery was found to be 0.2%, a small and even unde-
tectable decrease from daily balances. However, when
reported over a period of two weeks, this loss represents
about US$15,000 at a gold price of US$1,200 per troy
ounce.
DETECTION METHODS FOR
HYDROCYCLONE MALFUNCTION
Two detection methods are described in this section. The
first method is based on real-time measurements, available
from sensors usually installed on a grinding circuit. This
method is assessed with a dynamic grinding circuit simula-
tor (Bazin et al., 2009), which is used to simulate the effect
of a plugged apex in the CuPb secondary grinding circuit
(shown in Figure 3). The second method uses vibration sen-
sors mounted on the body of the hydrocyclone. This method
has been extensively tested in a pilot plant environment, as
well as in an operating plant. The operating plant results
corroborated the pilot plant results. However, the plant
results are confidential and are the property of COREM’s
members; therefore, only the pilot plant test results are dis-
cussed in this paper.
CIM Journal | Vol. 2, No. 3
147
First method: Detection from sensor
measurements
This method is based on a comparison between the pres-
sure observed at the inlet of a hydrocyclone nest with the
pressure estimated from hydrocyclone feed rate and slurry
solids density measurements from sensors. The detection
algorithm is based on the hypothesis that the inlet pressure
to a nest of hydrocyclones is a function of variable and con-
stant parameters. The variable parameters are:
• The slurry volumetric feed flow rate.
• The number of units in operation in the nest.
• The slurry concentration of solids.
The constant parameters are the geometry (shape, diam-
eter, length, apex, vortex size, etc.) and mechanical condi-
tion (internal liner, plugged apex, etc.) of the nest’s
hydrocyclones. These variable and constant parameters,
excluding the mechanical condition, are included in Plitt’s
model for predicting the pressure to the nest of hydrocy-
clones (Flintoff, Plitt, & Turak, 1987). Therefore, for a
given hydrocyclone number, geometry, and mechanical
condition, the inlet pressure varies only with the volumetric
feed rate and slurry density.
An empirical model is calibrated to relate the inlet pres-
sure to the hydrocyclone nest feed rate and solids concen-
tration using normal (no hydrocyclone malfunction)
operating data. Flow and density meters, as well as a pres-
sure sensor, are usually available on the hydrocyclone nest
feed line (see Figures 3 and 4). The model is used to predict
the pressure drop by following the variations in slurry flow
rate and density that result from changes in circuit through-
put, feed-size distribution, and ore hardness, as well as
water addition into the circuit. The estimated pressure is
then compared to the observed pressure. A systematic devi-
ation between the two values can be attributed to a change
in the geometry or mechanical condition of one or more
hydrocyclones in the nest. The principle of the detection
method is illustrated in Figure 6.
The proposed detection algorithm was tested using a
dynamic grinding simulator calibrated on data collected
from the secondary grinding circuit of the complex sul-
phide plant (shown in Figure 3). Details of the calibration
Figure 6. Detection of hydrocyclone malfunction.
148 C. Bazin, M. Renaud, A. Faucher, and M. Mai Manga
and validation of the simulator can be found elsewhere
(Bazin et al., 2009). A dynamic simulator predicts the time
response of a process following changes of the state of the
input variables.
In this application, the simulator was used to predict the
effect of the disturbances listed in Table 4 when applied to
the grinding circuit of Figure 3. The simulated disturbances
correspond to changes in circuit feed rate and water addition
to the sump, applied in parallel to the plugging and unplug-
ging of one of nine apexes of the operating hydrocyclones.
The simulator generates measurements on a one-second fre-
quency for all instruments in the actual plant. Only data for
the circuit feed rate and the hydrocyclone feed flow, density,
and pressure meters are presented in this analysis. The sim-
ulated trends are shown in Figure 7 and were used to test the
detection algorithm for hydrocyclone malfunction.
The first 55 minutes were used to generate the data
for the calibration of the equation employed to relate the
Table 4. Sequence of simulated disturbances (time in hours)
Event Time Event
A 0.21 Decrease circuit feed rate from 436 to 395 t/h
B 0.32 Decrease circuit % solids from 54 to 51%
C 0.37 Increase circuit feed rate to 460 t/h
D 0.42 Increase circuit feed % solids from 51 to 53%
E 0.49 Decrease circuit feed rate to 436 t/h
F 0.55 One apex plugged
G 1.10 Increase circuit feed rate to 450 t/h
H 1.20 Decrease circuit feed rate to 436 t/h
I 1.35 Close one hydrocyclone
J 1.55 Open the hydrocyclone (apex fixed)
Figure 7. Simulated trends following the disturbances described in Table 4.
CIM Journal | Vol. 2, No. 3
pressure to the hydrocyclones slurry feed rate and density.
The calibration period is free of mechanical disturbances
associated with the hydrocyclones. The calibrated model
for the pressure is:
P̂(t) = -37.81 + 0.062F(t) + 6.58ρ(t) (2)
The estimated pressure at time t is denoted P̂(t), the feed
rate in m3/h is F(t), and ρ(t) is the slurry density in t/m3.
Equation 2 is preferred over the Plitt model because it is lin-
ear and can be readily calibrated using a conventional linear
regression algorithm. A linear relationship is also suffi-
ciently robust when the hydrocyclones operate over a lim-
ited range of conditions, which was the case here.
The detection algorithm is constructed with the model of
Equation 2. Process measurements from the flow and den-
sity sensors are passed through Equation 2 to calculate the
effect of the flow rate and slurry density on the pressure to
the hydrocyclones. This calculated pressure is compared to
the pressure estimated by the dynamic grinding simulator
and the deviation is used to infer a change in the mechanical
condition of one of the hydrocyclones. The deviation
between the two pressures is shown in Figure 8.
Prior to the plugging of one apex (Event F in Figure 8),
the deviation averages zero. Following the plugging, the
deviation becomes systematically larger than zero. This
behaviour is an indication that an event unrelated to a
change of hydrocyclone feed rate or slurry density is
responsible for the deviation, in this case, the plugged apex.
The deviation remains different from zero despite changes
in the circuit feed rate and water addition during the period
of the plugged apex. At Event I in Figure 8, the faulty
 Advantages and methods for the real-time detection of hydrocyclone operating problems
Figure 8. Deviation between the actual pressure and the pressure
predicted by the model of Equation 2.
hydrocyclone is shut off for maintenance. The increased
deviation is due to the fact that the model of Equation 2
uses the flow rate, assuming all hydrocyclones are in oper-
ation, and does not account for the increased feed pressure
with one unit out of service. During the shutdown, the apex
is unplugged and the repaired hydrocyclone is returned to
operation (Event J). Following the repair, the deviation
returns to zero, indicating resumption of normal operation.
The signals used in the previous analysis are free of
measurement errors. In practice, high-frequency noise (due
to electronic sensor sensitivity and rapid process variation)
contaminates the measurements, particularly flow rate
measurements. Measurement noise can strongly hamper the
capability of any fault detection algorithms. To test the
robustness of the algorithm in the presence of process
and instrument noise, the situation described in Table 4 is
Figure 9. Dynamic simulation of the events listed in Table 4 with added measurement noise.
CIM Journal | Vol. 2, No. 3
149
simulated with measurement errors added to the signals.
The revised simulation trends are shown in Figure 9, with
the added noise displaying statistical characteristics (nor-
mal distribution and standard deviation) similar to those
observed in practice.
The presence of noise complicates the calibration of the
model with respect to the pressure to the slurry feed rate
and density because the parameters exhibit more variability
than those estimated from noise-free measurements. In
addition to the difficulty associated with model calibration,
the error on the measurements is amplified by the model
which, in turn, leads to a noisy prediction of the pressure
drop. The deviation between the actual plant pressure drop
and the predicted pressure drop is shown in Figure 10, with
the period of a plugged apex (between Events F and I) iden-
tified as a rectangle. Although the average deviation during
that period is slightly above zero, the deviation is not statis-
tically significant and, therefore, does not trigger an alarm.
The problem is not only related to the model because the
errors added to the pressure measurements (in the range of
±1.4 kPa; 0.2 psi) are of the same order as the effect of a
plugged apex (i.e., +1.4 kPa; 0.2 psi; see Figure 8).
Different types of noise filters are currently being tested
to identify methods for reducing the sensitivity of the detec-
tion method to measurement noise. Techniques such as
principal component analysis can incorporate measure-
ments from the grinding mill power meters, the water flow
meters, the circuit feed rate, and other variables, thereby
enhancing the algorithm. Principal component analysis
compresses a very large amount of data into a two-dimen-
sion map, where abnormal operating conditions become
distinct from normal ones. The use of additional sensors to
150 C. Bazin, M. Renaud, A. Faucher, and M. Mai Manga
Figure 10. Deviation between actual and calculated pressures in the
presence of measurement noise.
complement the detection algorithm, such as vibration
meters on the hydrocyclone, is evaluated in the following
section.
Second method: Detection from vibration
measurements
In parallel to the development of a soft sensor for the
detection of hydrocyclone problems, a test program was ini-
tiated to assess various non-intrusive sensors that could be
used in conjunction with the usual sensors available in a
plant in order to help in the detection of a classifier mal-
function. Various methods, such as tomography to monitor
the shape of the air column inside the hydrocyclone
(Williams et al., 1997; Williams et al., 1995) and electronic
or camera sensors to monitor the shape (spray, roping,
plugged) of the underflow discharge (Olson, 2008), have
previously been tested for that purpose. The approach
investigated here is based on the measurement of vibrations
produced by a hydrocyclone. The idea was borrowed from
one used for predictive maintenance of rotating machinery,
such as motors and pumps.
The sensors used for monitoring vibrations are one-axis
accelerometers, provided by PCB Piezotronics. They are
Figure 11. (a) Vibration sensor; (b) installation on the hydrocyclone; and (c, d) signal processing.
CIM Journal | Vol. 2, No. 3
small, inexpensive, and easily attached by magnets at the
hydrocyclone inlet, vortex finder, and apex. A vibration
sensor is shown in Figure 11a, with the installation posi-
tions indicated in Figure 11b. The sensors receive the
hydrocyclone vibrations and transform them into a high-
frequency (2,000 Hz) electrical signal of acceleration. This
signal is then processed in an analog-to-digital unit and
transferred to an embedded processing unit that incorpo-
rates the software for signal processing and fault detection
(see Figures 11c,d).
The hydrocyclone used to test the potential of using
vibration to monitor the operation of hydrocyclones is
installed in the COREM pilot plant, located in Quebec City,
Quebec. Figure 12 shows the pilot-plant setup, which con-
sists of a 15 cm (6 in.) Krebs hydrocyclone (Figure 11b)
that has feed, apex, and vortex finder diameters of 6.4 cm
(2.5 in.), 3.8 cm (1.5 in.), and 5.1 cm (2 in.), respectively.
The hydrocyclone was operated in closed circuit with a
variable speed pump that has an inlet pressure ranging from
20 to 130 kPa (3 to 18 psi) at a feed flow rate varying from
175 to 500 l/min. Water can easily be added to change the
solids concentration of the hydrocyclone slurry feed. The
pilot plant setup is constructed to allow for easy sampling
of the hydrocyclone feed, overflow, and underflow streams.
Sampling was conducted in parallel to the vibration sensor
testing to establish the hydrocyclone partition curves result-
ing from changes to operating conditions. The ore used for
the test was provided by Agnico Eagle La Ronde division
(near Val d’Or, Quebec) and consisted of approximately
65% sulphide and 35% silica gangue. A typical partition
curve for the hydrocyclone is shown in Figure 12. The cut
size is in the range of 25 to 50 m, which is consistent with
the operation of a 15 cm hydrocyclone (Cilliers, 2007).
The detection algorithm was developed and tested using
the following abnormalities:
• Internal liner damages.
• Partial and complete plugging of the apex.
• Roping of the underflow.
• Cycling to simulate a pump surging effect.
 Advantages and methods for the real-time detection of hydrocyclone operating problems 151

Figure 12. Pilot plant hydrocyclone.

The damages to the

apex are simulated by
the groove and liner
detachment shown in
Figure 13. Partial and
complete apex plug-
ging situations were
created with rubber
plugs and roping of the
underflow was created
by increasing the feed
flow rate with a coarse
feed-size distribution.
Surging was created by
oscillating the pump
speed over a specified
period of time.
The accelerometer
signal is typically sam-
pled at a frequency of
Figure 13. Abnormalities created to test the detection algorithm.
2,000 observations per
second. Such a rate
generates a large amount of data. Three sensors delivering analysis, frequency analysis, and other signal processing
a total of 6,000 data points per second cannot be used techniques, were used to obtain the signature of the vibra-
directly for the detection of operating problems. The sig- tion signals. The use of the signal signature significantly
nals therefore need to be processed into parameters that reduces the mass of data to be processed for the fault
can be used specifically for fault detection purposes. Vari- detection. Moreover, in order to keep track of the variation
ous detection techniques were considered and the solution of the process, the standard deviation over time of the sig-
found was to first extract a synthetic signature of the vibra- nature vector was also considered in the subsequent classi-
tion signals, then classify this signature to assess the fication algorithm.
hydrocyclone operating condition. This principle is illus- The hydrocyclone operating conditions are hierarchi-
trated in Figure 14. Mathematical tools, such as statistical cally classified in three stages to improve the detection

CIM Journal | Vol. 2, No. 3

152 C. Bazin, M. Renaud, A. Faucher, and M. Mai Manga

Figure 14. Block diagram of the detection algorithm of the hydrocyclone operating condition.

sensitivity. The first stage assesses whether or not the
hydrocyclone is in operation. If the hydrocyclone is in oper-
ation, the second stage assesses whether or not the hydrocy-
clone is operating normally. If the hydrocyclone is
operating abnormally, the third stage determines the type of
operating problem. Each stage has its own decision tree
whose inputs are the vibration signature and its standard
variation over time. This classification scheme of the oper-
ating condition is illustrated in Figure 15.
The decision trees are calibrated on demand by a MAT-
LAB™ program running on a computer connected to the
embedded processing unit. The statistical performance of
the decision trees is also calculated against a subset of the
input data. This calibration is a necessary step for the
implementation of the detection algorithm and has to be
adapted for every hydrocyclone individually. In the pilot
plant setup, the result of the calibration process was used to
construct the decision tree (see Figure 15b) for the detec-
tion of abnormal operation. In this setup, note that the cali-
bration process had automatically eliminated the apex
vibration signals and could assess the hydrocyclone operat-
ing condition using only vibrations measured near the inlet
and the vortex finder.
The statistical accuracy of this decision tree on the pilot
plant setup was 97% (based on 2,000 observations made
over 49 test periods); only 3% of all observations were mis-
classified. Results showed that the algorithm was able to
correctly detect, with a reasonable error, the abnormal oper-
ating conditions imposed on the pilot-plant hydrocyclone.
Robustness against false alarms (alarm activated in normal
operating condition) was increased with the addition of a
persistence delay before actually activating the alarm.

Figure 15. Principle of the detection algorithm.

CIM Journal | Vol. 2, No. 3

 Advantages and methods for the real-time detection of hydrocyclone operating problems
The initial objective of the project was to differentiate an
abnormal hydrocyclone situation from a normal operating
condition. However, it soon became clear that the detection
algorithm could be improved upon to further allow specific
identification of the above noted problems and, therefore,
help the operator in pinpointing the problem. The sensors,
embedded processing unit, and computer were tested on an
industrial 25.4 cm (10 in.) hydrocyclone in a nest of 10
units at the LaRonde division of Agnico-Eagle. Results are
consistent with those observed for the pilot plant hydrocy-
clone. However, detailed results must be kept confidential
because they belong to COREM members.
CONCLUSIONS
A grinding simulator is used to demonstrate the poten-
tial savings associated with the development of an algo-
rithm for the detection of hydrocyclone malfunction. The
demonstration was carried out for a CuPb flotation circuit
and a gold leaching plant. Two methods were tested for
the detection of a hydrocyclone malfunction. The first
method used measurements typically available from
grinding circuit instruments, namely the hydrocyclone
feed rate, slurry density, and inlet pressure, to detect a
hydrocyclone malfunction. This method, which uses a
dynamic grinding simulator, works well in the absence of
instrument noise. The use of vibration sensors
(accelerometers) installed on the body of a hydrocyclone
was tested in parallel to the previous algorithm. The sig-
nals of the sensors installed on the hydrocyclone inlet and
vortex finder were processed to assess a signal pattern,
which was then used to identify a hydrocyclone malfunc-
tion. This second method was tested in a pilot plant and
was found to successfully identify an abnormal operating
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Claude Bazin graduated with a bachelor’s degree in metallurgical
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